EmCALAUTH 


OCTOBER. 


A  TREATISE 


','  GF 

-  TfiGp/:TfJrr 


FOOD  AND  DIETETICS 


PHYSIOLOGICALLY  AND   THERAPEUTIC  ALLY 
CONSIDERED 


BY 


F.  W.  PAVY,  M.D.,  F.R.S., 

FELLOW   OF   THE   ROYAL    COLLEGE    OF   PHYSICIANS  ;    PHYSICIAN   TO,    AND 
LECTURER   ON  PHYSIOLOGY   AT,    GUY'S   HOSPITAL. 


SECOND    EDITION 


NEW  YORK 

"WILLIAM    WOOD    &    COMPANY 

27  GREAT  JONES   STKEET 

1881 


10 


TROW'S 

PRINTING  AND  KOOKUINDING  COMPANY 
^     201-213  East  12  (ft  Street 
NEW  YORK 


INSCRIBED 


TO 

THE    BIGHT    HONOKABLE 

LYON    PLAYFAIR,   M.P.,   C.B.,   F.R.S., 

AS  A  MARK  OP 
APPRECIATION    OF  HIS  SCIENTIFIC 

LABORS  IN  RELATION  TO  FOOD, 

AND 
IN  ADMIRATION  OF 

THE    SERVICES    HE    IS    NOW  RENDERING 
IN  HIS  POLITICAL  CAREER. 


PREFACE   TO  THE  SECOND   EDITION. 


A  LARGE  impression  having  become  exhausted  in  less  than  a  year, 
I  feel  myself  warranted  in  concluding  that  I  was  not  mistaken  in  judg- 
ing that  a  work  of  the  kind  produced  was  wanted,  and  at  the  same 
time  am  emboldened  to  cherish  the  idea  that  the  labor  bestowed  has 
not  proved  fruitless  in  usefulness  to  others. 

The  favorable  reception  accorded  to  the  first  edition  has  served 
alike  as  a  source  of  gratification  to  me  and  a  stimulus  to  renewed  exer- 
tions to  render  the  work  worthy  of  approbation.  Without  presuming 
to  think  that  there  does  not  still  exist  much  room  for  improvement, 
I  hope  that  something  in  that  direction  has  been  effected  by  the  re- 
vision which  has  been  carried  out.  Wherever  it  has  appeared  to  be 
required,  the  wording  has  been  altered  to  render  the  meaning  clearer ; 
various  modifications  (in  part  suggested  by  the  valued  hints  of  re- 
viewers) have  been  introduced ;  and  a  considerable  amount  of  new 
matter  added — notably,  attention  may  be  directed  to  the  preliminary 
part  of  the  section  on  Wine  as  having  undergone  extensive  amplifica- 
tion. 

I  am  glad  to  avail  myself  of  the  opportunity  here  afforded  of  ex- 
pressing my  thanks  to  those  who,  since  the  appearance  of  this  work, 
have  supplied  me  with  information  drawn  from  scattered  sources  upon 
the  subject  of  Food. 

35  GROSVENOR  STREET, 

GROSVENOR  SQUARE,  LONDON, 
June  1,  1875. 


PEEFACE   TO   THE   FIRST   EDITION. 


IN  the  Preface  to  the  second  edition  of  my  work  on  "  Digestion  : 
its  Disorders,  and  their  Treatment,"  I  mentioned  that  I  had  originally 
intended  to  add  a  section  on  Food  to  the  contents  of  that  volume, 
but  that  for  the  reasons  given  I  afterward  determined  to  publish  a 
separate  treatise  on  the  subject.  Thus  originated  the  present  work, 
which,  with  the  progress  of  time,  and  a  large  consumption  of  midnight 
oil,  has  grown  to  dimensions  far  exceeding  those  I  had  at  first  contem- 
plated. 

From  the  fact  that  the  subject  of  Food  is  one  of  deep  concern, 
both  to  the  healthy  and  the  sick — that  the  information  which  has 
been  obtained  during  the  last  few  years  has  completely  revolutionized 
some  of  the  cardinal  scientific  notions  formerly  entertained — and  that 
no  modern  systematic  treatise  of  the  kind  here  presented  exists  in  the 
English  language,  I  have  been  encouraged  to  think  that  the  task  I 
have  undertaken  may  not  be  deemed  superfluous.  "Whatever  the  re- 
sults obtained,  I  have  steadily  striven,  sparing  no  pains  for  the  pur- 
pose, to  render  the  work  produced  instructive  and  useful. 

On  account  of  the  change  recently  introduced  in  chemical  notation, 
I  have  given  both  old  and  new  formulae,  placing  the  latter  within 
square  brackets  after  the  former. 

35  GrROSVENOR  STREET, 

GROSVENOR  SQUARE,  LONDON, 
March,  1874. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGK 

INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS  ON  THE  DYNAMIC  RELATIONS  or  FOOD.         1-6 

Matter  and  Force.  1.  Correlation  of  the  Physical  Forces,  1,  2.  Equiva- 
lent of  heat  in  mechanical  motion,  2.  Force  and  energy  distinction  ex- 
plained, 2.  Analogy  between  living  matter  and  a  machine,  3.  Forms 
of  force  derive^  from  the  sun,  3,  4.  Analogy  between  the  animal  system 
and  a  steam-engine,  4,  5.  Life  implies  change,  5.  Dormant  vitality,  5. 


ON  THE  ORIGINATION  or  FOOD 7-13 

Power  possessed  by  animals  of  forming  one  kind  of  organic  compound 
out  of  another,  7,  8.  Influence  of  the  solar  force,  8,  9.  Action  of  vege- 
table life.  9-11.  Formation  of  organic  compounds,  12,  13.  Results  of 
animal  and  vegetable  life,  13. 

THE  CONSTITUENT  ELEMENTS  OF  FOOD,  14. 


ALIMENTARY  PRINCIPLES  :  THEIR  CLASSIFICATION,  CHEMICAL 
RELATIONS,  DIGESTION,  ASSIMILATION,  AND  PHYSIOLOGICAL 
USES 15-88 

Distinction  between  alimentary  principles  and  alimentary  substances, 
15.  Separation  of  food  and  drink  not  physiologically  correct,  15,  16. 
Classification  of  food,  16,  17. 

THE  NITROGENOUS  ALIMENTARY  PRINCIPLES,  17-56. 

Albuminous  or  proteine  compounds — animal-and  vegetable  proteine 
compounds,  17-19.  Gelatinous  principles,  19,  20.  Digestion  of  the  nitro- 
genous principles,  20-22.  Action  of  pancreatic  juice,  22-24.  Production 
of  albuminose,  24,  25.  Uses  of  nitrogenous  matter,  25.  Its  relation  to 
force-production,  26,  27.  Experiments  on  the  elimination  of  nitrogen, 
27-39.  Resume  on  nitrogenous  food  and  muscular  action,  39,  40.  Heat- 
production,  40,  41.  Varied  amounts  of  urea  excreted  on  vegetable  and 
animal  diets,  41.  Metamorphosis  of  nitrogenous  food,  42-49.  Force 
value  of  nitrogenous  food,  49-52.  Nitrogenous  matter  as  a  source  of  fat, 
52-54.  Alimentary  value  of  gelatinous  principles,  54,  55. 


X  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

THE  NON-NITROGENOUS  ALIMENTARY  PRINCIPLES,  56-67. 

Hydrocarbons,  or  fats,  56-58.  Uses  of  fat,  58,  59.  Fat  as  a  heat-pro- 
ducing agent,  00.  Oxidizable  capacity  of  fat,  00,  01.  Fat  in  relation  to 
muscular  force-production,  61-65.  Actual  force-value  of  fat,  65-07. 

THE  CARBOHYDRATES,  67-82. 

Starch,  67-69.  Sugars,  69-71.  Gum,  71,  72.  Dextrine,  72.  Cellu- 
lose, 72.  Lignine,  72.  Lactic  acid,  73.  Assimilation  and  utilization  of 
the  carbohydrates,  73-75.  Their  destination,  75,  76.  Power  of  animals 
to  form  fat,  76.  Production  of  foie  gras,  77,  78.  Conversion  of  the 
carbohydrates  into  fat,  78-80.  Ultimate  use  of  the  carbohydrates,  81, 
82.  Ternary  principles  not  carbohydrates :  Pectine,  vegetable  acids,  al- 
cohol, 82-86. 

THE  INORGANIC  ALIMENTARY  PRINCIPLES,  86-88. 
Water,  86.     Saline  matter,  86-88. 

ALIMENTARY  SUBSTANCES 89-2G9 

ANIMAL  ALIMENTARY  SUBSTANCES,  89-143. 

Their  classification,  89,  90.  Varieties  of  meat,  89-97.  Unwholesome 
meat,  97-103.  Poultry,  game,  and  wild-fowl,  103-105.  Fish,  ]  05-110. 
Shell-fish,  110-113.  Eggs,  113-115.  Milk,  115-126.  Butter,  126-128. 
Cheese,  128-130. 

ANIMAL  FOODS  SOMETIMES  BUT  NOT  ORDINARILY  EATEN,  130-143. 

Cannibalism,  131.  Mammals,  131-136.  (Horse-flesh,  134-136.)  Birds, 
137.  Reptiles,  137-139.  Fish,  139.  Insects,  139,  140.  Earth-eating, 
141,  142.  Table  of  references,  142,  143. 

VEGETABLE  ALIMENTARY  SUBSTANCES,  144-215. 

Farinaceous  seeds,  144-166.  The  cerealia,  144-166.  Wheat  and  flour, 
143-148.  Bread,  148-152.  Miscellaneous  articles  prepared  from  flour, 
153,  154.  Unwholesome  wheaten  products,  155,  156.  Oats,  156-158. 
Barley,  158-160.  Rye,  159,  160.  Indian  corn,  161,  162.  Rice,  162- 
164.  Millet,  164.  Buckwheat,  164,  165.  Quinoa,  165.  Leguminous 
seeds,  or  pulses,  165-168.  Oleaginous  seeds,  169-172.  Tubers  and  roots, 
172-180.  Potatoes,  172-176.  Herbaceous  articles,  180-186.  Products 
of  the  cabbage  tribe,  180-182.  Various  vegetables,  182-186.  Fruity 
products  consumed  as  vegetables,  186.  Esculent  fungi,  187-190.  Varie- 
ties of  fruit,  190-207.  Bark,  207.  Saw-dust  and  woody  fibre,  207. 
Vegetable  butter.  207,  208.  Saccharine  preparations,  208,  209.  Saccha- 
rine products,  209-212.  Farinaceous  preparations,  212-215. 

BEVERAGES,  216-269. 

Water,  216-221.  Non  alcoholic,  exhilarating,  and  restorative  bever- 
ages, 221-236.  Tea,  222-226.  Representatives  of  tea,  226,  227.  Cof- 
fee, 227-231.  Fictitious  coffee,  231.  Chiccory,  231,  232.  Guarana, 
232,  233.  Cocoa,  233.  Fictitious  cocoas,  236.  Coca,  236.  Alcoholic 
beverages,  237-269.  Effect  of  alcohol  on  the  system,  237-241.  Beer, 
241-243.  Cider,  perry,  243,  244.  Wine,  244-265.  French  wines,  259- 
261.  German  wines,  261.  Hungarian  wines,  261,  262.  Greek  wines, 


CONTENTS.  XI 


262.  Italian  wines,  202.  Australian  wines,  2G2.  Port  and  other  wines 
of  Portugal,  2(>2,  263.  Sherry  and  other  Spanish  wines,  263,  264.  Mar- 
sala, 264.  Madeira,  264,  265.  Cape,  or  South  African  wines,  265.  Mis- 
cellaneous fruit  and  other  wines,  265.  Mead  or  naetheglin,  265.  Spirits, 
265-268.  Liqueurs,  268,  269. 

CONDIMENTS,  269 

THE  PRESERVATION  OP  FOOD 270-273 

Modern  processes  of  preservation,  270.  Four  means  of  preserving 
food,  viz.,  by  cold,  drying,  exclusion  of  air,  and  use  of  antiseptics,  270- 
273. 

PRINCIPLES  or  DIETETICS 274-303 

Composition  of  milk  and  the  egg,  274.  Researches  of  the  Paris  Gela- 
tine Commission.  274-277.  Position  held  by  nitrogenous  matter,  277- 
279.  Question  as  to  the  necessity  of  fats  and  carbohydrates,  279.  Ad- 
aptation of  food  to  demand,  280.  Liebig's  estimate  of  the  nutritive  value 
of  food,  281.  Frankland's  estimate  of  the  force-producing  value  of  food, 
282-285.  The  appetite  as  a  measure  of  capacity  for  work,  285,  286. 
Nitrogenous  matter  required  for  physical  development,  286.  Human 
labor  more  expensive  than  steam  work,  287.  Moleschott's  table  of  a 
standard  or  model  diet,  288.  Adjustment  of  food  to  climate  and  work, 
288-290.  Table  showing  percentage  composition  of  various  articles  of 
food,  291.  Playfair's  dietaries,  292-294.  Workhouse  dietaries,  294. 
Prison  dietaries,  294,  295.  Tables  of  hard  and  light  labor  diets,  296. 
Industrial  employment,  penal,  and  punishment  diets,  297,  298.  Instances 
of  limited  diet,  299.  Table  from  Payen  of  percentage  value  of  food  in 
nitrogen  and  carbon,  300,  301.  Out-going  of  nitrogen  and  carbon  as  a 
diet  basis,  302,  303. 

PRACTICAL  DIETETICS 304-343 

Kind  of  food  best  adapted  for  the  support  of  man,  304.  Varieties  of 
diet  consumed  by  different  nations :  Arctic  Regions,  304-306.  North 
American  Indians,  306  ;  Mexico,  306,  307 ;  Pampas  Indians,  307  ;  Guachos, 
307;  Natives  of  Australia,  New  Zealand,  307,  308;  of  the  Friendly  Is- 
lands, 308  ;  Otaheite,  309 ;  Feejee  Islands,  309  ;  Tanna,  New  Caledonia, 
Savu,  309;  Sandwich  Islands,  309,  310;  China,  310;  Japan,  310,  311; 
India,  Ceylon,  311;  Africa,  311-314;  Mixed  food  the  natural  diet  of 
man,  314.  Vegetarianism,  314,  315.  Dietetic  value  of  meat  often  over- 
estimated, 315.  A  certain  amount  of  fresh  food  necessary  to  health, 
316.  Effects  of  animal  and  vegetable  food  compared,  316-320.  Proper 
amount  of  food,  320-323.  Effects  of  excess  and  deficiency  of  food,  323- 
325.  Times  of  eating,  326-331.  Culinary  preparation  of  food,  331-336. 

DIET  OP  INFANTS,  336-339. 

Woman's  milk,  336,  337.  Milk  of  lower  animals,  337-339.  Farina- 
ceous food,  338,  339.  Liebig's  food,  339. 

DIET  FOR  TRAINING,  340-343. 

Object  of  training,  339.  Old  and  new  systems,  340-342.  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  systems,  342,  343. 


Xll  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

THERAPEUTIC  DIETETICS 344-386 

General  considerations,  344-346.  Diet  for  gout,  346,  347.  Influences 
of  food,  347,  348.  Principles  of  dieting  for  thinness  and  stoutness,  348, 
349.  Reduction  of  corpulency,  349-351.  Dietary  for  the  diabetic,  351, 
352.  Ill  effects  of  restriction  to  salted  and  dried  provisions,  352.  Regu- 
lation of  amount  of  fluid,  352,  353.  Effect  of  varieties  of  food  on  the 
urine,  853-355.  Food  for  weak  digestion,  355-357.  Food  for  dyspepsia, 
357,  358.  Food  for  disordered  states  of  the  intestinal  canal,  358,  359. 

DIETETIC  PREPARATIONS  FOR  THE  INVALID,  359-365. 

HOSPITAL  DIETARIES 366-386 

Guy's  Hospital,  366.  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital,  367.  St.  Thomas's 
Hospital,  368.  London  Hospital,  368,  369.  St.  George's  Hospital,  369, 
370.  Middlesex  Hospital,  370-372.  University  College  Hospital,  372. 
King's  College  Hospital,  372,  373.  St.  Mary's  Hospital,  373,  374.  West- 
minster Hospital,  374,  375.  Seamen's  Hospital,  375.  Leeds  General 
Infirmary,  375,  376.  Manchester  Royal  Infirmary  and  Dispensary,  376, 
377.  Birmingham  General  Hospital,  377,  378.  Newcastle-upon-Tj-ne 
Infirmary,  378,  379.  Edinburgh  Royal  Infirmary,  379,  380.  Glasgow 
Royal  Infirmary,  380,  381.  Richmond,  Whitworth,  and  Hardwicke  Hos- 
pitals (Dublin),  381,  382.  Bethlehem  Lunatic  Hospital,  382.  St.  Luke's 
Hospital  for  Lunatics,  383.  Hanwell  Lunatic  Asylum,  384,  385.  Colney 
Hatch  Lunatic  Asylum,  386. 

INDEX  .  .  387-402 


A     TREATISE 


FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 


INTRODUCTORY   REMARKS    ON   THE   DYNAMIC 
RELATIONS  OF  FOOD. 

THE  discoveries  and  inductions  of  the  present  age  have  thrown  a  new 
light  on  the  physiology  of  food. 

Around  us  we  have  to  deal  with  Matter  and  Force — the  one  a  sub- 
stantive entity,  the  other  appreciable  only  as  a  principle  of  action.  It 
has  long  been  known  that  matter  (as  cognizable  in  our  own  era)  can  be 
neither  created  nor  destroyed.  It  may  be  variously  combined  and  modi- 
fied, but  it  remains  the  same  in  essence  and  unaltered  in  amount.  Force, 
also,  has  recently  been  recognized  as  similarly  conditioned;  and  in  order 
that  the  bearings  of  food  in  relation  to  this  principle  may  be  understood, 
some  preliminary  considerations  explanatory  of  the  views  now  entertained 
regarding  it  are  necessary. 

To  start,  then,  we  may  take  it  as  accepted  that,  under  present  condi- 
tions, force,  like  matter,  can  neither  be  created  nor  destroyed.  "  Ex 
nihilo  nihil  fit"  and  "  Nihil  fit  ad  nihilum  "  form  axioms  that  must  be  ad- 
mitted to  be  incontrovertible.  If  we  except  the  inconsiderable  accession 
derived  from  the  occasional  descent  of  a  meteoric  body,  the  earth's  mat- 
ter remains  fixed  in  amount.  It  is  otherwise,  however,  with  respect  to 
force.  Under  the  form  of  heat  and  light,  force  is  constantly  being  trans- 
mitted to  us  from  the  sun;  and  it  is  from  the  force  thus  derived  that,  in 
a  manner  to  be  explained  further  on,  life  on  earth  originates  and  is  sus- 
tained. 

In  enunciating  his  doctrine  on  the  "  Correlation  of  the  Physical 
Forces,"  Grove  demonstrated  that  one  kind  of  force  was  capable  of  pro- 
ducing another.  His  views  were  first  made  known  at  a  lecture  delivered 
at  the  London  Institution  in  1842.  The  word  "  correlation  "  he  employed 
as  meaning  "  reciprocal  production — in  other  words,  that  any  force  capa- 
ble of  producing  another  may  in  its  turn  be  produced  by  it."  The  posi- 
tion sought  to  be  established  was  that  heat,  light,  electricity,  magnetism, 
chemical  affinity,  and  motion,  are  all  correlative,  or  have  a  reciprocal  de- 


2  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

/ 

pendence — that  either  might  produce  the  others,  and  that  neither  could 
originate  otherwise  than  by  production  from  some  antecedent  force  or 
forces. 

Just  at  this  time  the  same  field  of  inquiry  was  being  investigated  by 
other  workers.  While  Grove  was  asserting  that  the  great  problem  await- 
ing solution  in  regard  to  the  correlation  of  physical  forces  was  the  estab- 
lishment of  their  equivalent  of  power,  or  their  measurable  relations  to  a 
given  standard,  Mayer,  Joule,  arid  Helmholtz  were  announcing  the  actual 
equivalents  themselves. 

Mayer,  of  Germany,  had  the  priority  in  the  publication  of  his  re 
searches.  Asa  member  of  the  medical  profession  he  approached  the  sub- 
ject through  its  relation  to  physiology.  In  1842  he  propounded,  in  its 
full  comprehensiveness,  the  doctrine  of  the  "  Conservation  of  Force." 

Nearly  at  the  same  time  Mr.  Joule,  of  Manchester,  discovered  the 
equivalent  of  heat  in  mechanical  motion.  He  had  been  led  to  prosecute 
researches  in  that  direction,  with  the  view  of  ascertaining  the  relative 
value  of  heat  and  motion  for  the  advantage  of  engineering  science.  He 
found  that  what  sufficed  to  raise  the  temperature  of  a  pound  of  water  one 
degree  Fahrenheit  would,  under  another  mode  of  action,  raise  772  pounds 
a  foot  high;  or,  putting  it  conversely,  the  fall  of  772  pounds  of  water 
from  a  height  of  one  foot  would  give  rise  to  an  amount  of  heat  sufficient 
to  elevate  the  temperature  of  one  pound  to  the  extent  of  one  degree 
Fahrenheit.  Thus  the  mechanical  work  corresponding  to  the  elevation 
of  772  pounds  a  foot  high,  or,  what  comes  to  the  same  thing,  one  pound 
772  feet  high,  forms  the  dynamic  equivalent  of  one  degree  of  heat  of 
Fahrenheit's  scale. 

It  is  necessary  to  state  here  that  the  term  "  force,"  when  used  in  a 
strict  sense,  is  employed  under  a  more  limited  acceptation  now  than  for- 
merly. Originally  it  represented  what  is  now  distinguished  as  both 
"force"  and  "energy."  By  "force,"  under  a  rigid  signification,  is  un- 
derstood the  power  of  producing  energy;  by  "energy"  the  power  of 
performing  work.  To  give  an  illustration  :  power  has  force,  the  cannon- 
ball  energy;  but  to  speak  of  the  force  of  the  cannon-ball  is  inexact.  I 
may  also  remark  that  the  words  "  actual "  and  "  potential "  are  in  frequent 
use  to  qualify  the  state  in  which  energy  is  met  with.  By  actual  energy 
is  meant  energy  in  an  active  state — energy  which  is  doing  work.  By 
potential  energy,  energy  at  rest — energy  capable  of  doing  work,  but  not 
doing  it.  In  a  bent  cross-bow  there  is  potential  energy — energy  in  a  state 
of  rest,  but  ready  to  become  actual,  or  to  manifest  itself  when  the  trig- 
ger is  pulled.  Again,  actual  energy  is  evolved  from  the  sun.  By  vegeta- 
ble life  this  is  made  potential  in  the  organic  compounds  formed.  In 
these  organic  compounds  the  energy  is  stored  up  in  a  latent  condition; 
potential  energy  is  reconverted  into  actual  energy  when  they  undergo  ox- 
idation during  combustion  or  in  their  utilization  in  the  animal  economy. 

The  doctrine  of  the  "Conservation  of  Energy"  implies  that  energy 
is  as  indestructible  as  matter,  that  a  fixed  amount  exists  in  the  universe, 
and  that,  however  variously  it  may  be  modified,  transferred,  or  trans- 
formed— in  spite  of  all  the  changes  of  which  it  may  be  the  subject 
throughout  the  realm  of  nature — it  cannot  be  created  or  annihilated,  in- 
creased or  diminished.  The  doctrine  further  implies  that  the  different 
forms  of  energy  have  their  definite  reciprocal  equivalents;  that  so  much 
chemical  energy,  for  instance,  will  produce  so  much  heat,  which  is  the 
representative  of  so  much  motive  power,  and  so  on.  The  ascertained 
equivalents  of  heat  and  motive  power  have  been  already  given. 


DYNAMIC    RELATIONS    OF    FOOD.  3 

Accepted  as  applicable  to  the  physical  forces,  the  doctrine  of  the 
"Conservation  of  Energy  "next  began  to  be  applied  to  living  nature. 
Grove,  in  his  "Correlation  of  Physical  Forces"  (second  edition,  p.  89), 
suggested  that  the  same  principles  and  mode  of  reasoning  adopted  in  his 
essay  might  answer  equally  for  the  organic  as  for  the  inorganic  world, 
and  that  muscular  force,  animal  and  vegetable  heat,  etc.,  might,  and  one 
day  would,  be  shown  to  possess  similar  definite  correlations.  He  pro- 
ceeded no  further,  however,  remarking  that  he  purposely  avoided  enter- 
ing upon  a  subject  not  pertaining  to  his  own  field  of  science. 

At  this  time  the  general  belief  prevailed  that  the  processes  going  on 
in  the  living  body  were  determined  by  "  vitality  "  or  the  "  vital  principle." 
The  physical  forces,  it  was  supposed,  were  overruled  in  the  living  by  the 
vital  principle.  Without  discussing  whether  we  are  to  admit  or  deny  the 
existence  of  this  principle  as  a  distinct  operating  force — a  question  which 
has  been  handled  by  some  of  the  leading  men  of  science  of  the  day — we 
must,  I  think,  concede,  as  a  matter  of  experience,  that  in  the  living  or- 
ganism there  are  influences  at  play  which  have  no  existence  in  the  dead 
matter  around.  Matter  which  has  been  impressed  with  life  can  produce 
effects  which  dead  matter  cannot.  This  does  not  conflict  with  the  exten- 
sion of  the  law  of  the  "  Conservation  of  Energy  "  to  living  nature.  The 
effects  produced  may  have  their  origin  in  the  physical  forces — the  living 
matter  forming  the  medium  through  which  they  operate.  With  artificial 
appliances  force  may  be  made  to  produce  various  effects,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  instrument  employed.  With  the  same  force  in  operation 
different  kinds  of  work  are  performed,  according  to  the  character  of  the 
machine  set  in  motion.  Between  the  two — living  matter  and  a  machine 
— there  exists  an  analogy  which  admits  of  being  followed  still  further. 
It  is  only  when  in  a  certain  state  that  matter  is  capable  of  forming  the 
medium  for  the  exercise  of  force  in  the  production  of  living  operations. 
Modify  this  state,  and  though  there  may  be  the  same  matter  to  deal  with, 
yet  it  is  no  longer  capable  of  fulfilling  the  same  office  it  performed  before. 
So  in  the  case  of  an  ordinary  machine:  it  must  possess  a  particular  con- 
struction before  it  can  form  the  medium  for  the  operation  of  force.  Dis- 
arrange this  construction,  and,  although  the  matter  remains  unchanged, 
the  application  of  force  is  without  its  proper  effect.  Thus  a  disarranged 
machine  may  be  compared  with  living  matter  devitalized.  In  both,  the 
capacity  of  being  set  in  operation  by  force  has  existed,  and  in  both  that 
capacity  has  been  lost.  Further,  it  may  be  said  that  a  machine  in  work- 
ing order,  but  unoperated  on  by  force — that  is,  in  a  state  of  rest — is  like 
matter  possessing  vitality,  but  in  a  dormant  state.  Both  are  ready  to 
move  directly  the  proper  force  is  applied. 

Applying  the  law  of  the  "  Conservation  of  Energy  "  to  living  nature, 
the  forms  of  force  which  we  observe  in  operation  are  all  primarily  de- 
rived from  the  sun.  When  a  weight  is  lifted  by  the  hand  it  certainly 
seems  a  long  way  off  to  go  to  the  sun  for  the  muscular  force  employed 
in  the  act;  yet  the  doctrine  of  the  "  Conservation  of  Energy"  justifies, 
as  I  will  proceed  to  show,  the  conclusion  that  its  origin  is  there. 

To  begin  with,  the  force  evolved  in  muscular  action  has  its  source  in 
the  material  which  has  been  supplied  to  the  body  in  the  form  of  food. 
Now  all  food  comes  primarily  from  the  vegetable  kingdom,  and  vegeta- 
ble products  are  built  up  through  the  agency  of  the  sun's  rays.  It  may 
be  said  that  the  energy  contained  in  these  rays,  which  has  been  employed 
in  producing  the  compound,  is  fixed  or  rendered  latent  within  it.  When 
the  cross-bow  is  bent,  the  force  derived  from  the  muscular  action  em- 


4  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND   DIETETICS. 

ployed  in  bending  it  is  stored  up,  ready  to  be  again  liberated  when  the 
trigger  is  pulled,  no  matter  whether  this  be  at  once  or  a  hundred  years 
hence;  and  the  force  given  to  the  arrow  when  it  is  launched  is  neither 
more  nor  less  than  that  which  has  sprung  from  the  muscular  action  em- 
ployed in  bending  the  bow.  The  same  with  vegetable  products.  Their 
formation  is  coincident  with  the  disengagement  of  oxygen  from  oxidized 
principles  and  the  development  of  combustible  compounds.  To  effect 
this  disengagement  the  operation  of  force  is  required.  Now,  the  force 
so  employed  has  its  source  in  the  heat  and  light  evolved  from  the  sun, 
and  that  which  is  used  for  the  purpose  may  be  said  to  become  fixed  and 
to  exist  in  a  latent  condition — to  exist  stored  up  in  the  product,  ready 
to  be  again  liberated  on  exposure  to  conditions  favorable  to  oxidation. 
Thus  may  these  vegetable  products  be  compared  to  a  bent  cross-bow, 
containing,  as  they  do,  a  store  of  latent  force,  which  may  for  an  indefinite 
period  remain  as  such,  or  may  be  liberated  soon  after  it  has  been  fixed. 
Whenever  liberated,  it  is  no  more  nor  less  than  the  equivalent  of  the 
force  which  has  been  used  in  the  formation  of  the  product.  'Our  coal- 
fields represent  a  vast  magazine  of  force  drawn,  ages  ago,  from  the  sun's 
rays,  and  capable  at  any  moment  of  being  set  free  by  the  occurrence  of 
oxidation. 

Vegetable  products,  then,  may  be  regarded  as  containing  a  store  of 
force  accumulated  from  the  vast  supply  continually  emitted  with  the  sun's 
rays;  and,  upon  the  principle  of  indestructibility  enunciated,  the  force 
which  has  been  employed  in  unlocking  the  elements  in  the  combinations 
from  which  vegetable  products  are  built  up,  and  in  forming  the  new  com- 
pound, is  contained  in  such  compound  in  a  latent  state.  Now,  as  above 
stated,  animals  either  directly  or  indirectly  subsist  upon  these  vegetable 
products,  and  are  thence  supplied  by  them  with  accumulated  force.  By 
oxidation  the  force  is  set  free  in  an  active  state  under  some  form  of  mani- 
festation or  other.  It  matters  not  in  what  way — whether  rapidly  or 
slowly,  or  under  what  circumstances;  whether  inside  or  outside  the  living 
system — the  oxidation  occurs,  the  result  is  the  same,  so  far  as  the  amount 
of  force  liberated  is  concerned,  it  being  implied  in  the  doctrine  of  the 
"  Conservation  of  Energy  "  that  it  should  constitute  the  equivalent  of  the 
solar  force  originally  made  use  of.  This  is  presuming  complete  oxida- 
tion to  occur;  but  in  the  processes  of  animal  life,  although  fully  oxidized 
compounds,  like  carbonic  acid  and  water,  are  formed  and  discharged,  yet 
others,  like  urea,  are  expelled  in  an  imperfectly  oxidized  state,  and  carry 
•with  them  a  certain  amount  of  latent  or  unutilized  force. 

Thus  it  is  that  the  various  forms  of  force  manifested  in  the  actions  of 
animal  life  trace  their  origin  to  that  emitted  from  the  sun.  Plants  are 
media  for  fixing  solar  force — for  converting  actual  into  latent  or  poten- 
tial energy.  Animals  reconvert  latent  into  various  forms  of  actual  force. 
Thus,  in  the  various  forms  of  actual  force  liberated  by  the  actions  of 
animal  life,  we  have  the  equivalent  of  that  which  has  been  fixed  by  plants 
from  the  sun.  As  there  is  a  revolution  of  matter,  so  is  there  a  revolution 
of  force  within  and  around  us. 

In  the  liberation  of  actual  force,  a  complete  analogy  may  be  traced  be- 
tween the  animal  system  and  a  steam-engine.  Both  are  media  for  the 
conversion  of  latent  into  actual  force.  In  the  animal  system,  combus- 
tible material  is  supplied  under  the  form  of  the  various  kinds  of  food,  and 
oxygen  is  taken  in  by  the  process  of  respiration.  From  the  chemical 
energy  due  to  the  combination  of  these,  force  is  liberated  in  an  active 
state;  and,  besides  manifesting  itself  as  heat,  and  in  other  ways  peculiar 


DYNAMIC    RELATIONS    OF    FOOD.  5 

to  the  animal  system,  is  capable  of  performing  mechanical  work.  The 
steam-engine  is  supplied  with  combustible  material  under  the  form  of 
coal,  which  differs  from  our  food  in  representing  the  result  of  the  vege- 
tative activity  of  a  former  instead  of  the  present  epoch.  Air  is  also  sup- 
plied, and  from  the  combination  which  occurs  between  its  oxygen  and  the 
elements  of  the  combustible  material,  heat  is  produced,  which  in  part  is 
dissipated  as  such,  but  in  part  is  applied  to  the  performance  of  mechani- 
cal work.  According  to  Helmholtz,  the  animal  economy,  in  respect  of  its 
capacity  to  turn  force  to  account  in  the  accomplishment  of  mechanical 
work,  is  a  more  perfect  instrument  than  the  steam-engine.  His  calcu- 
lations lead  him  to  conclude  that  whilst  in  the  best  steam-engine  only  one- 
tenth  of  the  force  liberated  by  the  combustion  of  its  fuel  is  realizable  as 
mechanical  work,  the  rest  escaping  as  heat,  the  human  body  is  capable 
of  turning  one-fifth  of  the  power  of  its  food  into  the  equivalent  of  work. 
There  is  this,  however,  to  be  remarked,  that  the  fuel  of  a  steam-engine 
is  a  far  less  expensive  article  than  the  food  of  an  animal  being. 

The  animal  body,  then,  may  be  regarded  as  holding  an  analogous  posi- 
tion to  a  machine,  in  which  a  transmutation  of  chemical  into  other  forms 
of  force  is  taking  place.  Food  on  the  one  hand,  and  air  on  the  other,  are 
the  factors  concerned  in  the  chemical  action  that  occurs.  It  is  through 
the  interplay  of  changes  between  food  and  air  that  the  manifestations  of 
animal  life,  consisting  of  heat-production,  muscular  contraction,  nervous 
(including  mental)  action,  and  nutritive  or  formative,  secretory,  and  as- 
similative action  arise.  The  egesta,  or  substances  dismissed  from  the 
system,  are  metamorphosed  products  of  the  ingesta,  or  substances  entering 
the  system.  The  elements  are  the  same,  in  nature  and  in  quantity,  in  the 
two  cases,  but  their  forms  of  combination,  and,  with  them,  their  force 
accompaniment,  are  different.  The  force  employed  in  building  up  the 
organic  compounds  belonging  to  food  is  again  evolved  as  they  descend 
by  oxidation  into  more  simple  combinations,  and  in  the  force  evolved  we 
have  the  representative  of  the  active  manifestations  of  animal  life.  If 
the  products  discharged  from  the  system  were  fully  oxidized  principles, 
the  force  developed  in  the  body  would  equal  that  contained  in  a  latent 
condition  in  the  food.  Such,  however,  is  not  completely  the  case,  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  latent  force  remaining,  as  has  already  been  remarked,  in 
some  of  the  egesta.  The  position,  therefore,  may  be  formulated  thus: 
The  latent  or  potential  force  of  ingesta  equals  the  force  developed  in  the 
body  plus  the  force  escaping  with  the  egesta.  In  other  words,  the  unex- 
pended force  in  the  egesta  and  the  force  disengaged  by  the  operations  of 
life,  and  manifested  under  the  various  forms  of  vital  activity,  equal  the 
force  contained  in  the  ingesta. 

What  is  required  in  food  is  matter  that  is  susceptible  of  undergoing 
change  in  the  system  under  the  influence  of  the  presence  of  oxygen. 
Life  implies  change,  and  the  manifestations  of  life  are  due  to  the  reaction 
of  food,  with  the  derivatives  from  it,  and  air  upon  each  other.  While  in 
the  inorganic  kingdom  a  tendency  to  a  state  of  rest  prevails — while  the 
closest  affinities  tend  to  become  satisfied,  and  so  establish  equilibrium — in 
a  manifestly  living  body  rest  is  impossible.  It  is  true,  living  organisms 
of  certain  kinds  may  exist  in  a  state  of  rest,  but  then  there  is  a  suspension 
of  vital  manifestations.  The  state  constitutes  that  which  falls  under  the 
denomination  of  "dormant  vitality."  Animal  organisms  may  exist  in  it, 
and  the  seed  of  a  plant  naturally  remains  for  a  while  in  it.  Molecular 
rest,  and,  with  it,  an  absence  of  any  show  of  vital  activity  prevail.  Con- 
currently, however,  with  the  manifestation  of  vital  activity,  molecular 


6  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

change — change  in  a  particular  or  prescribed  direction — occurs.  Organic 
compounds  become  resolved  by  the  agency  of  oxygen  into  more  simple 
combinations,  as  carbonic  acid,  water,  and  urea,  and  cease  to  be  any 
longer  of  service.  To  maintain  a  continuance  of  vital  activity  fresh  or- 
ganic material  is  required:  hence  the  demand  for  food.  But  food  and 
the  other  material  factor  of  life — oxygen — do  not  constitute  all  that  is 
needed.  It  is  further  necessary  that  the  two  should  be  brought  within 
the  sphere  of  influence  of  living  matter,  in  order  that  the  changes  may 
be  made  to  pursue  the  particular  line  of  direction  resulting  in  the  phe- 
nomena of  life. 


ON  THE   ORIGINATION   OF  FOOD. 


OUR  food  is  in  the  first  instance  derived  from  the  vegetable  kingdom. 
Dumas  at  one  time  said,  "  L'auimal  s'assimile  done  ou  detruit  des  matieres 
organiques  toutes  faites;  il  n'en  cree  done  pas."  But,  as  he  afterward 
admitted,  this  is  not  the  case.  The  animal,  it  is  true,  is  constantly  con- 
suming or  destroying  organic  substances,  and  is  incapable  of  forming 
them  from  the  inorganic  principles,  but  supplied  with  organic  matter, 
organic  compounds  of  various  kinds  are  constructed. 

Mulder's  discoveries  in  1838  led  up  to  the  doctrine  that  the  albumin- 
ous compounds  of  plants  and  animals  agree  in  composition  and  properties, 
whence  it  was  inferred  that  the  animal  simply  took  the  compound  pro- 
duced by  the  plant  and  made  it  a  component  part  of  its  own  body.  Lie- 
big  was  the  first  to  maintain  that  animals  possessed  the  power  of  forming 
one  kind  of  organic  compound  out  of  another.  A  warm  controversy  was 
at  one  time  carried  on  upon  this  point,  turning  particularly  upon  the  for- 
mation of  fat.  While,  on  the  one  hand,  it  was  held  by  Liebig  that,  in 
the  animal  system,  fat  could  be  formed  from  sugar,  Dumas  and  Boussin- 
gault  maintained,  on  the  other,  that  whatever  fat  was  found  in  an  animal 
being  was  derived  through  its  food  from  without.  From  the  researches 
initiated  by  this  dispute,  it  became  incontestably  established  that  Liebig 
was  right,  and  the  French  chemists  were  ultimately  compelled,  even  on 
the  evidence  of  the  results  obtained  by  themselves,  to  abandon  the  doc- 
trine they  had  advanced. 

A  moment's  consideration  will,  further,  suffice  to  show  that  one  kind 
of  albuminous  compound  is  capable  of  being  constructed  from  others.  In 
the  young  mammal,  subsisting  solely  on  milk,  it  is  to  the  caseine  that  we 
must  look  for  the  source  of  fibrine  and  albumen;  and  in  the  animal  feeder, 
secreting  milk,  the  caseine  produced  is  derived  from  the  fibrine  and  albu- 
men. Gelatine,  moreover,  has  no  existence  in  vegetable  food.  At  the 
present  day  we  may  waive  the  discussion  of  this  matter,  it  being  now  es- 
tablished that  none  of  these  nitrogenous  principles  enter  the  system 
under  the  form  in  which  they  occur  in  food.  They  are  all  converted, 
during  the  performance  of  digestion,  into  a  certain  principle  (albuminose), 
which  is  the  principle  that  is  absorbed,  and  that  is  subsequently  trans- 
formed by  the  assimilative  power  of  the  animal  into  the  various  com- 
pounds met  with. 

The  position,  then,  is  this:  That  animals  are  not  simply  consumers  of 
organic  compounds,  but  are  capable  of  exerting  a.  constructive  action  as 
well.  They  must,  however,  be  supplied  with  organic  matter  previously 
formed,  and  thus  the  capacity  that  really  exists  is  that  of  transforming 
one  organic  compound  into  another.  All  organic  matter  has  its  primary 
source  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  from  which  kingdom,  it  follows,  all  our 


8  A    TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND   DIETETICS. 

food  must  directly  or  indirectly  be  derived.  The  vegetable  feeder  goes 
directly  for  its  food  to  the  vegetable  kingdom.  The  animal  feeder  is 
equally  dependent  upon  the  products  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  for  its 
pabulum.  But  it  obtains  it  only  at  second-hand,  so  to  speak,  or  in  an 
indirect  manner,  its  food  consisting  of  the  flesh  of  animals  which  have 
themselves  been  nourished  upon  vegetable  products. 

Now,  it  is  only  under  exposure  to  the  action  of  the  sun's  rays  that 
plants  will  grow,  and  hence  it  is  to  the  influence  of  these  rays  that  we 
must  refer  the  production  of  food  in  the  first  instance,  and  the  primary 
source  of  all  life  upon  our  earth. 

It  has  already  been  shown  how  the  energy  emitted  from  the  sun,  under 
the  forms  of  heat  and  light,  is  capable,  through  the  medium  of  the  plant, 
of  disengaging  oxygen  from  its  combination  with  carbon  and  hydrogen 
in  carbonic  acid  and  water,  and  leading  to  the  formation  of  reoxidizable 
compounds;  and  how  the  energy  evolved  from  the  reoxidation  of  these 
compounds,  whether  by  combustion  or  within  the  animal  system,  repre- 
sents or  forms  the  equivalent  of  that  employed  in  effecting  their  con- 
struction. 

What  an  immeasurable  amount  of  force  to  be,  and  to  have  been, 
emitted  from  the  solar  centre!  It  is  true  that  it  must  possess  a  store  of 
heat  altogether  unrealizable  by  comparison  with  anything  cognizable 
around  us;  for  it  has  been  shown,  by  recent  investigations  with  the  spec- 
troscope, that  iron  and  other  metals,  which  cannot  by  any  known  method 
of  heat-application  be  converted  into  the  gaseous  state  upon  our  earth, 
exist  in  that  state  around  the  sun.  It  is  true,  also,  that  the  sun  is  a  body 
of  almost  inconceivable  magnitude.  To  give  the  simile  of  Helmholtz, 
"  its  diameter  is  so  great  that  if  you  suppose  the  earth  to  be  put  into  the 
centre  of  the  sun,  the  sun  itself  being  like  a  hollow  sphere,  and  the  moon 
going  about  the  earth,  there  would  be  a  space  of  more  than  two  hundred 
thousand  miles  around  the  orbit  of  the  moon  lying  all  interior  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  sun."  *  But  when  we  come  to  consider  that,  taking  the  view 
now  held  by  philosophers,  in  that  small  pencil  of  rays  which  has  impinged 
upon  our  earth  at  a  distance  of  nearly  ninety-five  million  miles  from  the 
sun  has  been  contained  all  the  energy  or  source  of  power  which  has  been 
fixed  by  plants,  and  much  besides  which  has  escaped  being  so  utilized, 
we  cannot  help  being  struck  at  the  immensity  of  the  store  of  power  exist- 
ing in  the  sun.  Geology  teaches  us  that  at  an  early  epoch  in  the  history 
of  our  globe,  this  solar  influence  must  have  manifested  itself  to  a  much 
stronger  degree  then  it  does  even  at  the  present  time.  The  vast  coal-beds 
forming  a  portion  of  the  earth's  crust  have  originated  in  vegetable  growth. 
During  the  carboniferous  era,  which  comprised  the  period  of  this  coal- 
formation,  the  atmosphere  was  probably  laden  with  carbonic  acid  and  hu- 
midity to  a  much  greater  extent  than  at  the  present  day.  But  it  is  to  the 
solar  energy  that  we  must  look  for  the  source  of  the  luxuriant  vegetation 
which  evidently  flourished  at  that  time,  and  which  must  have  existed  in 
the  Arctic  Regions  as  well  as  in  the  lower  latitudes,  since  coal-deposits 
are  found  there. 

It  has  been  already  stated  that  it  is  only  under  the  influence  of  the 
force  contained  in  the  sun's  rays  that  organic  compounds  are  built  up  by 
the  agency  of  the  plant;  and  it  is  found  to  be  the  green  parts  only  of 
plants — those  where  chlorophyl  exists — that  effect  the  decomposition  of 

*  Lectures  on  the  Conservation  of  Energy :  Med.  Times  and  Gazette,  vol.  L,  p.  415, 
18C4. 


ON    THE    ORIGINATION    OF   FOOD.  9 

carbonic  acid  and  water — fixing  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  and  liberating 
the  oxygen.  This  operation,  it  is  the  distinctive  function  of  the  plant  to 
perform,  and  it  fails  to  be  carried  on  when  either  the  influence  of  light  is 
absent  or  chlorophyl  is  not  present.  Under  these  conditions — absence 
of  light  and  chlorophyl — oxygen  is  absorbed  and  carbonic  acid  liberated 
instead,  just  as  occurs  in  the  animal.  I  have  been  informed  that  it  is 
known  to  florists,  as  the  result  of  practical  observation,  that  in  the  case 
of  the  variegated-leaved  geranium,  a  slip  that  may  happen  to-be  possessed 
of  white  leaves  only  will  not  grow  alone  like  other  slips.  The  absence  of 
chlorophyl  explains  the  non-capacity  to  effect  the  changes  necessary  for 
growth. 

The  solar  beam  is  composed  of  rays  possessing  different  properties  and 
different  degrees  of  refrangibility,  and  the  question  has  been  raised — 
What  part  of  the  solar  spectrum  exerts  greatest  power  over  vegetable 
growth  ?  The  colored  rays  produced  by  passing  a  pencil  of  light  through 
a  prism  are  arranged  in  the  following  order:  violet,  indigo,  blue,  green, 
yellow,  orange,  red. 

The  greatest  illuminating  power  of  the  spectrum  is  in  the  bright  yel- 
low rays,  and  the  greatest  heating  power  in  rays  below  the  red,  and 
therefore  less  refrangible  than  any  of  the  colored  rays;  whilst  the  great- 
est chemical  power — power  of  effecting  chemical  change — is  in  the  rays 
at  the  other  extremity  of  the  spectrum,  namely,  the  violet,  and  in  the  in- 
visible rays  just  above,  where  the  highest  degree  is  encountered. 

Draper,  from  experiments  conducted  in  1843,  states  that  on  causing 
plants  to  effect  the  decomposition  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  prismatic  spec- 
trum, he  found  the  yellow  rays  by  far  the  most  effective.  The  relative 
power  of  the  various  colored  rays  he  asserts  to  have  been  as  follows: 
yellow,  green,  orange,  red,  blue,  indigo,  violet. 

In  opposition  to  the  conclusion  arrived  at  by  Draper,  it  is  affirmed  by 
others  that  it  is  to  the  blue  and  violet  rays  that  must  be  referred  the  max- 
imum power  of  effecting  the  decomposition  of  carbonic  acid  through  the 
medium  of  the  plant.  Helmholtz  says:  "The  observations  upon  vege- 
table life  have  shown  that  plants  can  grow  only  under  the  influence  of 
solar  light,  and  as  long  as  solar  light,  and  principally  the  more  refrangible 
parts  of  solar  light,  the  blue  and  violet  rays,  fall  upon  the  green  parts  of 
plants,  the  plants  take  in  carbonic  acid  and  exhale  oxygen."*  He  further 
remarks,  that  in  exerting  this  influence  these  rays  are  completely  absorbed; 
for  it  can  be  shown  that  solar  light  which  has  passed  through  green 
leaves  in  full  development  is  no  longer  capable  of  exerting  any  chemical 
influence. 

I  have  spoken  of  light  as  a  factor  in  the  construction  of  organic  com- 
pounds by  the  plant.  The  elements  of  which  these  organic  compounds 
consist  are  drawn  from  the  inorganic  kingdom,  and  chiefly,  as  Liebig 
pointed  out,  from  carbonic  acid,  water,  and  ammonia — principles  which 
all  exist  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  the  atmosphere,  and  from  the  at- 
mosphere are  to  a  large  extent,  if  not  entirely,  derived.  In  the  case  of 
the  low  vegetable  organisms  which  become  developed  in  moist  situations 
as  a  green  layer  on  the  barren  surface  of  rocks  and  stones,  the  elements 
required  for  their  growth  must  have  been  derived  solely  from  the  atmos- 
phere. In  the  case  of  the  higher  organisms,  however,  the  elements  of 
growth  are  drawn  from  the  soil  as  well  as  the  atmosphere.  Humus,  which 
forms  the  constituent  of  the  soil  which  supplies  these  elements,  consists 

*  Ibid.,  p.  473. 


10  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

of  the  decaying  remains  of  organic  products.  But  it  is  not  as  organic 
matter  that  humus  serves  as  food  to  the  plants:  that  is,  it  is  not  the  or- 
ganic matter  itself  that  is  utilized.  It  is,  on  the  other  hand,  as  a  source 
of  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia,  principles  resulting  from  its  decomposi- 
tion, that  it  owes  its  position  in  relation  to  the  alimentation  of  plants. 

The  stages  passed  through  in  the  history  of  vegetable  life  leading  to 
the  provision  of  a  fitting  supply  of  food  for  animal  existence  may  be  thus 
represented  :,  Beginning,  let  us  say,  with  a  barren  surface  of  rock,  which 
may  have  been  freshly  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  from  some  subterra- 
nean, volcanic,  or  other  agency,  the  germs  of  low  vegetable  organisms 
settling  upon  it,  extract  from  the  atmosphere  their  elements  of  growth. 
Passing  through  their  term  of  life  they  die,  and  fresh  ones  spring  up  and 
similarly  live  and  die.  So  the  process  goes  on,  higher  and  higher  forms 
making  their  appearance.  The  decaying  remains  of  this  primitive  growth 
encrust  what  was  a  barren  surface  with  a  layer  of  earth  or  mould,  in  which 
ultimately  the  highest  plants  find  a  suitable  position  for  taking  root  and 
growing.  Thus,  clothed  with  vegetation,  a  fit  locality  is  provided  for  the, 
support  of  animal  life,  animal  beings  finding  in  the  vegetable  products 
now  existing  the  necessary  material  for  their  subsistence. 

It  may  be  mentioned  here  that  there  is  one  class  of  vegetable  organ- 
isms— the  Fungi — which  seems  to  occupy  an  exceptional  position,  and  to 
resemble  animals  in  being  dependent  upon  organic  products  for  their 
growth.  It  is  possible,  however,  that  the  seeming  appropriation  of  organic 
matter  may  be  more  apparent  than  real,  and  that  the  dependence  upon 
organic  matter  may  arise  from  a  specially  large  and  constant  supply  of 
carbonic  acid  and  ammonia  being  required  as  a  condition  of  growth.  Still 
it  must  be  said  that  these  vegetable  organisms  are  not  dependent  for 
growth  upon  light  like  others,  that  they  have  no  green  surfaces  for  de- 
composing carbonic  acid,  and,  in  fact,  that,  instead  of  absorbing  carbonic 
acid  and  setting  free  oxygen,  they  agree  with  animals  in  doing  precisely 
the  reverse.  Such  circumstances,  it  is  true,  are  strongly  suggestive  of 
the  occurrence  of  growth  from  an  appropriation  of  organic  compounds; 
but  there  is  this  to  be  remarked,  that  the  growth  under  consideration  oc- 
curs only  where  decay  is  going  on,  and  there  is  nothing,  at  all  events,  to 
show  that  any  other  than  organic  compounds  in  a  state  of  decomposition 
can  be  made  use  of. 

There  are  other  vegetable  organisms,  such  as  Venus'  fly-trap,  the 
pitcher-plants,  etc.,  which  capture  insects  apparently  with  the  view  of 
deriving  from  their  bodies  organic  matter  for  appropriation  to  the  pur- 
poses of  nutrition.  In  other  respects,  however,  these  plants  agree  in 
their  mode  of  life  with  their  fellow-organisms. 

The  chief  elements  of  the  various  organic  compounds  built  up  by  the 
agency  of  vegetable  life,  are  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  sulphur, 
and  phosphorus;  and  the  following  may  be  regarded  as  the  sources  from 
which  they  are  derived. 

In  the  above  enumeration,  carbon  is  mentioned  first,  as  being  the  ele- 
ment which  occurs  by  far  the  most  extensively  in  organic  nature.  Large 
as  is  the  quantity  of  carbon  entering  into  the  composition  of  organic  sub- 
stances, the  main,  if  not  the  entire,  source  from  which  it  is  derived  is  the 
carbonic  acid  in  the  atmosphere.  According,  however,  to  Saussure,  the 
amount  of  carbonic  acid  contained  in  air  is  not,  as  a  mean,  more  than  one 
part,  by  volume,  in  two  thousand;  but  then  it  must  be  remembered  that 
it  is  constantly  being  generated,  not  only  as  a  product  of  animal  life,  but 
from  various  processes  carried  on  around  us. 


ON   THE    OEIGINATIOtf    OF    FOOD.  11 

Now  it  appears  that  the  leaves  and  other  green  parts  of  plants  are 
continually  absorbing  the  carbonic  acid,  and,  with  the  aid  of  light,  effect- 
ing1 its  decomposition,  the  oxygen  being  exhaled  and  the  carbon  detained 
and  applied  to  the  production  of  organic  substances.  Whilst  it  is  only 
by  the  leaves  and  green  surfaces  that  carbonic  acid  is  decomposed  and 
oxygen  liberated,  it  is  probable  that  its  absorption  is  not  limited  to  those 
parts,  but  that  some  enters  through  the  roots,  this  being  derived  from  the 
process  of  decomposition  going  on  in  the  organic  matter  of  the  soil,  and 
from  the  carbonic  acid  carried  down  from  the  atmosphere  with  the  rain. 

Striking  as  it  may  seem,  there  yet  are  sufficient  grounds  for  believing 
that  the  vast  store  of  carbon  contained  in  forests,  of  whatever  extent  we 
may  encounter,  has  been  derived  in  the  manner  above-mentioned.  Geo- 
logical investigations  render  it  almost  certain  that  at  one  time  the  atmos- 
phere was  far  richer  in  carbonic  acid  than  it  is  now,  and  that  vegetation 
also  was  proportionately  more  luxuriant. 

The  absorption  of  carbonic  acid  and  exhalation  of  oxygen  which  takes 
place  in  plants,  under  the  influence  of  light,  constitutes,  then,  a  process  of 
alimentation.  The  reverse  process — the  absorption  of  oxygen  and  exha- 
lation of  carbonic  acid;  a  process  which  forms  one  of  the  principal  phe- 
nomena of  animal  life — occurs  also  to  some  extent  in  plants,  and  stands 
out  unconcealed  during  the  night,  when,  from  the  absence  of  light,  there 
is  no  decomposition  of  carbonic  acid  and  liberation  of  oxygen  going  on. 
It  also  occurs  as  the  result  of  certain  operations  of  plant  life,  as,  for 
instance,  during  germination,  flowering,  and  fruiting. 

Hydrogen  and  oxygen  are  supplied  to  an  unlimited  extent  to  plants 
under  the  form  of  water.  In  the  production  of  the  carbohydrate  group 
of  organic  compounds;  that  is  compounds  such  as  starch,  sugar,  dextrine, 
gum,  cellulose,  etc.,  in  which  carbon  is  united  with  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
in  the  proportion  to  form  water,  it  is  possible  that  water  is  directly  assimi- 
lated, although  this  is  by  no  means  an  ascertained  fact.  In  a  large  num- 
ber of  other  compounds,  however,  it  is  evident  from  their  composition 
that  for  water  to  serve  for  their  production,  its  elements  must  undergo 
separation.  The  oleaginous  compounds,  for  instance,  chiefly  consist  of 
carbon  and  hydrogen.  The  amount  of  oxygen  present  is  very  much  less 
than  that  required  to  form  water  with  their  hydrogen.  For  this  element 
to  be  appropriated  a  deoxidation  must  occur,  and  it  is  believed  that  some 
of  the  oxygen  exhaled  by  the  plant  under  the  influence  of  light  has  its 
source  not  only  in  carbonic  acid,  but  likewise  in  water. 

Although  plants  are  freely  surrounded  with  nitrogen — this  element 
forming  the  large  constituent  it  does  of  the  atmosphere — yet  it  is  not 
from  the  atmosphere  that  the  nitrogen  of  organic  matter  is  derived.  The 
researches  of  Saussure  and  Boussingault  have  demonstrated  that  plants 
are  incapable  of  appropriating  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  atmosphere  and 
elaborating  it  into  organic  matter.  Liebig's  view,  and  it  is  one  which  is 
by  common  consent  endorsed,  is,  that  the  nitrogen  of  organic  matter  is 
derived  from  ammonia.  This  able  chemist  was  the  first  to  show  that 
ammonia  is  a  constant  constituent  of  the  atmosphere.  It  is  true  that 
the  quantity  in  which  it  is  present  is  so  small  that  it  cannot  be  recognized 
except  by  extraction  from  a  large  volume  of  air.  It  may  be  removed  and 
its  quantity  determined  ("On  the  Estimation  of  Ammonia  in  Atmos- 
pheric Air,"  by  Horace  T.  Brown:  "  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society," 
vol.  xviii.,  p.  286)  by  passing  a  given  volume  of  air  through  water  slight- 
ly acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid.  It  is  also  susceptible  of  recognition  in 
rain-water,  where  it  exists  under  the  form  of  carbonate.  Ammonia,  like 


12  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

carbonic  acid,  forms  a  product  of  the  decomposition  of  organic  matter. 
The  nitrogen  of  organic  matter,  indeed,  is  returned  to  the  inorganic 
kingdom  under  the  form  of  ammonia.  Thus  in  humus  we  have  'a  source 
of  ammonia  which,  doubtless,  combines  with  some  of  the  carbonic  acid 
also  generated,  and  in  this  state  is  in  great  part  dissipated  into  the 
atmosphere.  The  great  volatility  of  the  product  would  lead  to  this  re- 
sult. Diffused  through  the  atmosphere,  it  would  be  abstracted  by  rain 
and  snow,  and  in  this  way  carried  back  to  the  earth,  to  be  brought  in 
contact  with  the  roots  of  plants,  through  which  its  absorption  is  supposed 
to  be  effected.  According  to  Liebig,  ammonia  enters  the  vegetable 
organism  in  combination  with  carbonic  or  sulphuric  acid,  while,  accord- 
ing to  Mulder,  the  combination  is  with  the  acids  he  describes  as  existing 
in  humus. 

Nitrogen  is  an  element  of  the  highest  importance  in  regard  to  vege- 
table as  well  as  to  animal  life.  It  is  not  only  necessary  that  it  should 
enter  into  the  constitution  of  vegetable  substances  so  that  animals  may 
obtain  a  supply  of  it  with  their  food,  but  it  forms  an  indispensable  ele- 
ment in  relation  to  the  molecular  changes  of  the  plant  as  well  as  of  the 
animal.  Wherever  living  changes  are  carried  on,  nitrogenized  matter  is 
present.  The  proclivity  of  this  to  change  forms  one  of  its  most  charac- 
teristic qualities,  and  the  changes  it  undergoes  induce  changes  of  a  defi- 
nite kind  in  other  matter  which  per  se  has  a  tendency  to  remain  at  rest. 
Thus,  in  nitrogenized  matter  we  have,  as  it  were,  the  requisite  starting- 
point  for  the  various  changes  which  result  in  the  phenomena  of  life. 

The  four  elements  which  have  been  referred  to,  viz.,  carbon,  hydrogen, 
oxygen,  and  nitrogen,  form  by  far  the  chief  constituents  of  organic  com- 
pounds, but  sulphur  and  phosphorus  are  also  present,  to  a  small  extent, 
bound  up  with  the  other  elements  in  certain  organic  principles.  Sulphur, 
for  example,  is  met  with  in  caseine,  and  both  sulphur  and  phosphorus  in 
fibrine  and  albumen.  The  probable  sources  of  these  elements  are  sul- 
phates and  phosphates,  the  acids  of  the  salts  undergoing  deoxidation 
through  the  medium  of  the  operations  carried  on  in  the  plant,  in  the 
same  manner  as  occurs  in  the  case  of  carbonic  acid. 

As  yet  I  have  been  referring  merely  to  the  source  of  the  elements 
entering  into  the  constitution  of  the  organic  compounds  produced  by 
plants,  and  upon  this  point  it  may  be  considered  that  our  information  is 
pretty  definite.  The  precise  mode,  however,  in  which  these  elements  are 
combined  or  elaborated  into  the  infinite  variety  of  organic  compounds 
existing  is  quite  another  matter,  and  one  which  (it  must  be  conceded)  be- 
longs as  yet  only  to  the  domain  of  hypothesis.  The  point  has  been  the 
subject  of  many  laborious  researches,  conducted  by  some  of  the  most 
distinguished  observers,  but,  in  spite  of  these  attempts  to  elucidate  it, 
we  have  at  present  little  or  nothing  beyond  conjecture  to  deal  with.  It 
may  be  fairly  surmised,  however,  that  the  production  of  the  higher  com- 
pounds is  effected  step  by  step,  or  by  a  series  of  transition  stages,  and 
not  by  a  direct  or  immediate  union  of  the  elements  entering  into  their 
composition.  Whatever  the  exact  changes  that  ensue,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  they  proceed  in  a  definite  and  precise  order.  In  organic 
nature  we  know  that  change  induces  change,  and  the  change  first  set  in 
motion  in  the  act  of  growth  may  be  regarded  as  starting  the  changes 
which  produce  the  various  organic  compounds  met  with.  Bodies  in  con- 
tact with  changing  matter  are  within  the  sphere  of  influence  of  a  meta- 
bolic or  metamorphosing  force,  and  to  the  operation  of  this  force  is  to 
be  ascribed  much  that  occurs  as  the  result  of  living  action. 


ON   THE    ORIGINATION    OF    FOOD.  13 

It  is  the  formation  of  organic  compounds  which  constitutes  the  special 
province  of  the  plant  to  effect  in  relation  to  the  production  of  food. 
Food,  however,  to  fulfil  the  requirements  of  animal  life  must  contain 
certain  mineral  or  inorganic  as  well  as  organic  principles — a  supply  of 
the  former  being  quite  as  indispensable  as  a  supply  of  the  latter.  But 
we  need  not  concern  ourselves  about  a  separate  supply  of  mineral  mat- 
ter; for,  wisely,  the  productions  of  nature  contain  in  combination  all  that 
is  wanted.  It  happens  that,  besides  being  furnished  with  carbonic  acid, 
water,  and  ammonia  for  the  formation  of  organic  compounds,  plants  re- 
quire for  their  growth  a  supply  of  saline  principles.  These  they  draw 
from  the  surrounding  soil,  and  a  portion  of  the  advantage  accruing  to 
vegetable  growth  from  the  employment  of  manure  is  owing  to  the  mineral 
matter  it  contains,  and  which  is  thereby  given  to  the  soil. 

In  appropriating  mineral  matter  as  an  element  of  nutrition,  the  plant 
exercises  a  selective  action.  It  is  found,  for  instance,  that  some  of  the 
saline  compounds  belonging  to  the  soil,  and  not  others,  are  present, 
that  they  are  present  in  different  proportions  as  regards  each  other, 
and  to  a  different  extent  in  different  parts  of  the  plant.  Mineral  mat- 
ter holds,  in  fact,  a  definite  relation  to  the  component  parts  of  a  plant, 
and  probably  enters  into  some  sort  of  combination  with  the  organic 
constituents. 

Thus,  in  vegetable  products  we  find  not  only  the  organic,  but  like- 
wise the  inorganic  matter  we  require;  and,  in  taking  up  and  apply- 
ing mineral  matter  as  it  does  to  its  own  purposes  of  growth  as  well 
as  forming  organic  compounds,  the  vegetable  organism  contributes  in 
a  complete  manner  toward  the  supply  of  what  is  wanted  for  animal 
nutrition. 

A  reciprocal  relation,  however,  it  must  be  observed,  in  reality  exists 
between  what  is  supplied  and  what  is  wanted.  We  are  as  much  adapted 
to  the  appropriation  of  the  food  supplied  to  us  as  our  food  is  adapted  to 
our  wants.  Were  we  not  so  adapted,  existence  would  be  impossible  for 
us.  In  nature  all  things  are  mutually  adapted  to  each  other. 

In  what  has  been  said  about  the  production  of  food  by  the  vegetable 
kingdom  for  animal  subsistence,  it  is  seen  that  animals  and  plants  stand 
in  direct  antagonism  to  each  other  as  regards  the  results  of  the  main 
operations  of  life.  Plants  draw  their  food  from  the  inorganic  kingdom, 
and  produce  organic  compounds.  Animals  find  their  food  in  these  organic 
compounds,  and,  in  applying  them  to  the  purposes  of  life,  reconvert  them 
into  inorganic  principles.  In  the  appropriation  of  inorganic  matter  as 
food,  plants  absorb  carbonic  acid  and  set  free  oxygen.  Animals,  in  their 
consumption  of  organic  matter,  absorb  oxygen  and  give  out  carbonic 
acid.  Thus  animal  life  and  vegetable  life  stand  in  complemental  relation 
to  each  other,  and  it  is  in  accordance  with  the  requirements  for  the  per- 
sistence of  living  nature  upon  the  surface  of  our  planet  that  it  should  be 
so.  If  the  operations  of  animal  and  vegetable  life  proceeded  in  one  and 
the  same  direction  only,  the  effect  would  be  a  gradual  alteration  of  the 
chemical  arrangement  of  matter,  until  a  state  of  things  was  arrived  at 
unfit  for  the  further  continuance  of  life.  Under  the  existing  order  of 
things,  animals  and  plants  in  such  a  manner  neutralize  each  other's  effects 
upon  surrounding  matter  that  they  balance  each  other's  operations,  and 
thereby  maintain  a  state  of  uniformity. 


14  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 


THE  CONSTITUENT  ELEMENTS  OF  FOOD. 

Of  the  various  elements  known  to  exist  in  nature,  only  a  limited  num- 
ber enter  into  the  constitution  of  living  bodies.  The  following  is  a  list 
of  those  found  as  constituents  of  the  human  body:  Carbon,  hydrogen, 
oxygen,  nitrogen,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  chlorine,  sodium,  potassium,  cal- 
cium, magnesium,  iron,  fluorine,  silicon,  manganese,  aluminium,  copper. 
The  first  four,  namely,  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen,  exist  in 
far  larger  quantity  than  any  of  the  others.  As  for  those  which  occur 
toward  the  end  of  the  list,  they  are  present  only  in  exceedingly  minute 
quantity,  if,  indeed,  they  are  invariably  present — it  is  more  than  doubt- 
ful if  they  are  to  be  regarded  as  essential  constituents. 

The  food  being  the  source  from  which  the  elements  forming  the  con- 
stituents of  the  body  are  derived,  it  follows  that  food  must  contain  all 
the  elements  which  are  met  there  with.  No  article  can,  as  food,  satisfy 
the  requirements  of  life  that  fails  to  comply  with  this  condition. 


ALIMENTARY  PRINCIPLES : 

THEIR  CLASSIFICATION,  CHEMICAL  RELATIONS,  DIGESTION,  ASSIMILA- 
TION, AND  PHYSIOLOGICAL  USES. 


ALTHOUGH  it  is  necessary  that  our  food  should  contain  the  elements 
that  have  been  enumerated — and  contain  them  in  such  proportion  as  to 
furnish  the  requisite  amount  of  each  to  the  system — yet  it  is  not  with 
these  elements  as  such  that,  from  an  alimentary  point  of  view,  we  have 
to  deal.  It  is  only  in  a  state  of  combination  that  the  elements  are  of  any 
service  to  us  as  food;  and,  as  has  been  already  mentioned,  the  combina- 
tion must  have  been  formed  by  the  agency  of  a  living  orgajiism — the 
combination  must,  in  other  words,  constitute  an  organic  product. 

Now,  taking  the  different  organic  products  which  nature  affords  us 
as  food,  we  find  that  they  may,  by  analysis,  be  resolved  into  a  variety  of 
definite  compounds.  These  constitute  what  are  known  as  "alimentary 
principles,"  in  contradistinction  to  "  alimentary  substances,"  or  the  arti- 
cles of  food  as  supplied  to  us  by  nature. 

In  a  scientific  consideration  of  food  it  is  necessary  to  speak  first  of 
the  alimentary  principles.  It  is  only,  indeed,  by  looking  at  it  through 
its  constituent  principles  that  we  are  in  a  position  to  discuss  its  physio- 
logical bearings,  and  I  will  begin  by  pointing  out  the  most  convenient 
division  and  classification  to  be  adopted. 

Popularly,  the  ingesta  are  looked  upon  as  consisting  of  food  and 
drink,  the  one  supplying  us  with  solid,  the  other  with  liquid,  matter. 
Superficially,  this  appears  a  natural  and  convenient  mode  of  primary 
grouping,  but  in  a  physiological  point  of  view  it  is  completely  worthless. 
"Food  "and  "drink"  constitute  terms  referring  only  to  the  particular 
state  in  which  an  article  for  consumption  may  happen  to  exist — viz., 
whether  it  is  in  a  solid  or  liquid  form.  What  is  drunk,  for  instance,  and 
this  holds  good  particularly  in  the  case  of  milk,  may  be  rich  in  food  or 
solid  matter,  and  in  the  food  we  consume  there  is  invariably  a  large  pro- 
portion of  liquid  matter. 

Physiologically,  then,  the  separation  of  the  ingesta  into  "  food  "  and 
"  drink  "  is  unsuitable.  The  two  material  factors  of  life  are  food  and 
air;  and  food  may  be  considered  as  comprising  that  which  contributes  to 
the  growth  and  nutrition  of  the  body,  and,  by  oxidation,  to  force-pro- 
duction. Regarded  in  this  comprehensive  ligljt,  food  embraces  both  solid 
and  liquid  matter;  and  the  primary  natural  division  is  into  organic  and 
inorganic  portions;  that  is,  combinations  of  elements  producible  only 
through  the  agency  of  life,  and  chemical  combinations  drawn  simply  from 
the  mineral  kingdom  and  incorporated  with  the  others. 

The  inorganic  portion  of  food  consists  of  water  and   various  saline 


16  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD   AND    DIETETICS. 

principles.  The  organic  portion  may  be  subdivided  into  compounds  of 
which  nitrogen  forms  a  constituent,  and  compounds  from  which  it  is  ab- 
sent; in  other  words,  into  nitrogenized  and  non-nitrogenized  compounds. 
The  non-nitrogenized  alimentary  principles  are  composed  of  the  three 
elements  —  carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen,  variously  united  together; 
whilst  the  nitrogenized  likewise  contain  these  three  elements,  but,  in  ad- 
dition, nitrogen,  and,  for  the  most  part,  sulphur,  or  sulphur  and  phos- 
phorus, as  well. 

Liebig,  regarding  the  nitrogenized  and  non-nitrogenized  principles  as 
contributing  to  quite  distinct  purposes  in  the  animal  economy,  referred 
to  them  as  forming  the  basis  of  a  physiological  classification.  The  former 
he  looked  upon  as  destined  for  appropriation  toward  the  growth  and 
maintenance  of  the  components  of  the  body,  and  therefore  he  called  them 
"  plastic  elements  of  nutrition."  The  latter  he  regarded  as  simply  de- 
signed for  undergoing  oxidation,  and,  in  this  way,  for  serving  as  a  source 
of  heat.  These  he  termed  "  elements  of  respiration,"  but  the  expression, 
it  must  be  said,  does  not  properly  convey  what  is  meant,  and  Dr.  R. 
Dundas  Thomson  suggested  that  the  term  "  calorifiant  "  should  be  em- 
ployed instead.  "  Calorifacient,"  however,  is  a  more  appropriate  word, 
and  by  general  consent  has  been  adopted. 

It  stands  to  reason,  that  for  the  growth  and  repair  of  the  various  tex- 
tures of  the  body,  as  these  have  nitrogen  forming  an  essential  ingredient 
of  their  constitution,  nitrogenized  compounds  must  be  supplied;  but,  from 
what  is  now  known,  it  must  also  be  said  that  these  compounds  are  like- 
wise susceptible  of  application  to  heat-production.  They  are  truly,  in- 
deed, "  histogenetic,"  or  tissue-forming  materials,  but,  by  the  separation 
of  urea  (which  is  known  to  occur  in  their  metamorphosis  in  the  animal 
system),  a  hydrocarbonaceous  compound  is  left,  which  may  be  appro- 
priated to  heat-production.  It  may  be  asserted,  in  fact,  that  there  is  suf- 
ficient to  show  that  the  nitrogenized  principles  in  reality  subserve  both 
purposes  in  the  animal  economy. 

In  fat,  again,  we  have  a  non-nitrogenous  principle,  and  one  belong- 
ing, therefore,  to  the  calorifacient  group.  There  is  every  reason,  how- 
ever, to  believe  that  fat  is  essential  to  tissue-development.  It  seems  to 
be  intrinsically  mixed  up  with  nitrogenized  matter  in  the  animal  tex- 
tures. Certainly  it  may  be  said  to  be  directly  applied  toward  the  for- 
mation of  adipose  tissue.  Fat,  therefore,  takes  rank  as  a  nutrient  no  less 
than  as  a  calorifacient  principle. 

Hence  Liebig's  definition  is  not  to  be  accepted  in  a  rigid  sense.  Al- 
though nitrogenized  principles  constitute  true  "  elements  of  nutrition," 
yet  it  neither  follows  nor  appears  likely  that  they  are  limited  to  this  pur- 
pose. Fats  are  undoubtedly  important  calorifacient  principles,  and  can- 
not perse  supply  what  is  required  for  tissue-development;  they,  never- 
theless, take  part  in  the  process.  According  to  our  current  views,  which 
will  be  discussed  more  fully  further  on,  fats  are  also  concerned,  in  a 
manner  not  previously  suspected,  in  muscular  force-production.  Taking 
all  these  considerations  into  account,  Liebig's  classification  loses  the  scien- 
tific force  it  was  originally  supposed  to  possess.  The  subdivision  of  the 
organic  portion  of  food,  however,  into  nitrogenized  and  non-nitrogenized 
groups  is  still  practically  and  physiologically  convenient. 

Prout  proposed  a  classification  which  arranged  food  in  four  groups  of 
principles,  viz.:  1st,  the  aqueous;  2d,  the  saccharine;  3d,  the  oleaginous; 
and  4th,  the  albuminous. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  classification  fails  to  include  saline  matter, 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  1 

which,  as  already  stated,  forms  an  element  indispensable  to  nutrition. 
The  saccharine  and  oleaginous  groups  comprise  non-nitrogenized  prin- 
ciples, while  the  albuminous  comprehends  the  nitrogenized. 

The  classification  that  will  be  adopted  in  this  treatise  is  one  which  in- 
volves no  expression  of  physiological  destination,  but  is  based  on  the 
chemical  nature  of  the  principles.  It  is  first  assumed  that  food  falls  natu- 
rally into  organic  and  inorganic  divisions. 

Next,  that  the  organic  is  subdivisible  into  nitrogenous  and  non-nitro- 
genous; and  further,  that  the  non-nitrogenous  is  naturally  and  conveniently 
again  subdivisible  into  fats  and  carbohydrates — the  former  consisting  of 
carbon  and  hydrogen  in  combination  with  only  a  small  amount  of  oxygen; 
the  latter  of  carbon,  with  oxygen  and  hydrogen  always  in  such  relation  to 
each  other  as  to  be  in  the  exact  proportion  to  form  water.  To  this  latter 
group  belong  such  principles  as  starch,  sugar,  gum,  etc. 

It  must  be  observed  that  there  are  a  few  principles  which  do  not 
strictly  fall  within  either  of  the  preceding  groups.  Such,  for  instance, 
as  alcohol,  the  vegetable  acids,  and  pectin  or  vegetable  jelly.  Alcohol  oc- 
cupies an  intermediate  place  between  the  fats  and  carbohydrates,  whilst 
the  others  are  even  more  oxidized  compounds  than  the  carbohydrates — 
in  other  words,  contain  a  larger  amount  of  oxygen  than  is  required  for 
the  conversion  of  their  hydrogen  into  water.  These  principles  are  hardly 
of  sufficient  importance,  in  an  alimentary  point  of  view,  to  call  for  their 
consideration  under  a  distinct  head,  and  they  will  therefore  be  spoken  of 
in  connection  with  the  carbohydrates. 

Having  said  thus  much  upon  the  classification  of  the  alimentary  prin- 
ciples, I  shall  next  speak  of  them  in  relation  to  their  respective  physiolo- 
gical bearings,  taking  the  groups  in  the  following  order:  1st,  nitrogenous 
principles;  2d,  hydrocarbons  or  fats;  3d,  carbohydrates;  4th,  inorganic 
materials. 


THE   NITROGENOUS   ALIMENTARY  PRINCIPLES. 

Nitrogen  enters  largely  into  the  composition  of  the  animal  body.  It 
therefore  requires  to  be  freely  supplied  from  without.  Although  living 
in  an  atmosphere  about  four-fifths  of  which  consists  of  nitrogen,  yet  it  is 
not  from  this  source  (though  the  question  was  formerly  entertained)  that 
our  supply  of  nitrogen  is  drawn.  Nitrogen,  to  be  available  for  us,  must 
be  supplied  in  a  state  of  combination.  It  is  not,  indeed,  with  nitrogen 
in  the  form  of  an  element  that  we  have  anything  to  do  in  the  question  of 
alimentation,  but  only  with  compounds  containing  it;  andsuch  compounds, 
it  may  be  said  (as  regards  animal  alimentation),  that  have  been  produced 
under  the  influence  of  life — that  is,  compounds  which  answer  to  the  name 
"  organic." 

Organic  nitrogenous  matter,  then,  and  not  nitrogen,  is  what  we  re- 
quire to  have  supplied  to  us,  and  what  alone  we  have  to  deal  with  physio- 
logically. Such  nitrogenous  matter  must,  therefore,  constitute  an  essen- 
tial ingredient  of  our  food,  and  we  find  that  it  there  exists  under  various 
chemical  forms. 

Chemists  recognize  several  well-defined  compounds  amongst  the  nitro- 
genous matter  found  in  different  articles  of  food.  Besides  these,  there 
may  be  some  nitrogenous  matter  which  is  still  susceptible  of  being  used, 
but  which  has  not  yet  been  specialized,  and  which  in  an  analvsis  would  fall 
2 


18  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

amongst  the  extractives.  This,  however,  cannot  be  sufficient  in  amount 
to  be  of  much  significance. 

If  we  look  at  the  nitrogenized  alimentary  principles  which  have  been 
made  known,  some  are  characterized  by  yielding  proteine  when  subjected 
to  the  action  of  an  alkali  and  heat,  whilst  from  others  no  proteine  is  simi- 
larly to  be  procured.  The  former  comprise  the  albuminous  group,  and 
are  often  referred  to  as  the  proteine  compounds;  the  latter  constitute  the 
gelatinous  principles. 

When  the  discovery  of  proteine  was  first  of  all  made  by  Mulder,  the 
substaiice  was  regarded  as  forming  the  base  or  radical  of  the  albuminous 
principles.  It  contains  the  four  elements — carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen, 
and  nitrogen;  and  each  of  the  albuminous  principles  was  regarded  as 
simply  resulting  from  the  combination  of  the  supposed  base  with  different 
quantities  of  sulphur  and  phosphorus,  or  sulphur  only.  It  must  be  stated, 
however,  that  there  is  nothing  to  show  that  proteine  really  exists  in  the 
compounds  from  which  it  is  to  be  obtained.  It  can  be  regarded  only  as  a 
product  of  the  chemical  process  to  which  it  is  necessary  to  subject  the 
compounds  in  order  to  obtain  it.  Looked  at  in  this  light,  it  constitutes  a 
chemical  and  not  a  physiological  principle.  It  therefore  has  no  direct 
physiological  bearing,  but  nevertheless  it  serves  to  link  together  certain 
important  physiological  compounds. 

The  albuminous  or  proteine  compounds  comprise  albumen,  fibrine, 
caseine,  and  certain  other  bodies  which  form  modifications  of  these. 

Albumen  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  most  important  representative  of 
the  proteine  group.  It  consists  of  the  four  elements — carbon,  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  and  nitrogen,  with  the  addition  of  some  sulphur  and  phos- 
phorus. As  it  is  met  with  in  animal  productions,  it  is  in  such  intimate 
union  with  fatty,  alkaline,  and  earthy  matter,  that  it  is  with  some  diffi- 
culty separable  from  them.  It  varies  to  some  extent  in  its  behavior,  as  it 
is  obtained  from  different  sources.  The  albumen  of  the  blood,  for  in- 
stance, does  not  agree  in  all  respects  with  the  albumen  of  the  white  of 
egg.  One  of  the  most  striking  properties  of  albumen  is  its  coagulability 
upon  the  application  of  heat.  It  therefore  exists  under  two  states,  viz., 
soluble  and  coagulated  albumen. 

Albumen  may  be  regarded  as  the  pabulum  in  the  blood  from  which 
the  different  animal  tissues  are  evolved.  That  it  can  afford  per  se  the 
nitrogenous  matter  required  for  nutrition  is  proved  by  its  being  the  prin- 
ciple in  the  egg  from  which  are  developed  the  nitrogenous  tissues  of  the 
chick. 

Fibrine  is  characterized  by  its  property  of  undergoing  spontaneous 
coagulation.  It  is  composed  of  the  same  elements  as  albumen,  but  con- 
tains a  larger  proportionate  amount  of  sulphur,  and  also  a  rather  larger 
quantity  of  oxygen. 

Caseine  forms  the  proteine  compound  of  milk.  It  is  distinguishable 
from  fibrine  by  not  undergoing  spontaneous  coagulation,  and  from  albu- 
men by  not  being  coagulable  by  heat,  and  by  being  thrown  down  by  or- 
ganic acids  which  do  not  precipitate  albumen.  Besides  the  four  elements 
— carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen — it  contains  sulphur,  but  no 
phosphorus.  It  is  remarkable  for  the  large  quantity  of  phosphate  of 
lime  which  it  is  capable  of  holding  bound  up  with  it,  and  the  tenacity 
with  which  it  retains  it.  There  is,  it  should  be  stated,  a  little  uncertainty 
regarding  the  chemical  constitution  of  caseine.  By  some  it  is  regarded, 
not  as  a  simple,  but  as  a  compound  body — a  body  composed  (in  reality)  of 
a  combination  of  two  or  more  others. 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  19 

Besides  these  well-known  proteine  compounds  there  are  modifications 
of  them  which  have  been  particularized  by  chemists,  and  the  following 
may  be  referred  to  as  connected  with  the  subject  of  food. 

Vitelline  is  the  name  given  to  the  modified  form  of  albumen  which  ex- 
ists in  the  yolk  of  the  egg.  There  are  certain  points  in  which  this 
substance  comports  itself  differently  with  reagents  from  ordinary  albu- 
men. 

Globuline.  is  the  albuminoid  matter  existing  in  the  fluid  contents  of 
the  blood-corpuscle.  It  is  there  intimately  associated  with,  but  neverthe- 
less quite  distinct  from,  the  coloring  matter.  The  same  principle  is  also 
found  in  the  crystalline  lens  of  the  eye.  Different  opinions  have  been  ex- 
pressed regarding  the  true  position  it  holds.  Lecanu  looked  upon  it  as 
identical  with  albumen,  and  Simon  with  caseine,  whilst  Lehmann  remarks 
that  he  would  be  disposed  to  place  it  by  the  side  of  vitelline,  if  the  ele- 
mentary analyses  were  not  opposed  to  that  view. 

Myositie  constitutes  the  insoluble  principle  of  muscular  substance,  and 
is  obtained  by  subjecting  the  tissue  in  a  finely  divided  state  to  repeated 
washings  with  water.  Another  substance  was  described  by  Liebig  as 
constituting  muscle  fibrine,  and  was  named  by  him  syntonine.  It  forms  the 
principle  dissolved  from  washed  muscle  by  a  weak  solution  of  hydrochloric 
acid,  and  may  be  thrown  down  from  this  solution  by  neutralization  with 
an  alkali.  It  is  present  in  and  thereby  increases  the  nutritive  value  of 
beef  tea  prepared  according  to  Liebig's  special  directions.  This  principle 
has  been  lately  regarded  as  nothing  more  than  acid  albumen ;  and  it  is 
said  that  if  either  albumen,  myosine,  vitelline,  or  fibrine  be  treated  with 
dilute  acids  the  formation  of  acid  albumen  occurs  which  is,  or  appears  to 
be,  identical  with  syntonine. 

The  proteine  compounds  have  as  yet  been  referred  to  only  as  they  oc- 
cur in  animal  productions.  But  vegetable  productions  also  contain  com- 
pounds which,  in  the  language  of  Liebig,  are  not  only  similaj  to,  but  ab- 
solutely identical  with,  the  albumen,  fibrine,  and  caseine  of  the  animal 
kingdom. 

Vegetable  albumen  is  contained  in  wheat  and  the  other  seeds  of  the 
cerealia.  The  juices  of  most  vegetables,  such  as  turnips,  carrots,  cauli- 
flower, cabbage,  etc.,  yield  more  or  less  precipitate  with  heat  by  virtue  of 
its  presence.  It  is  also  found  in  considerable  abundance  in  association 
with  vegetable  caseine  in  the  oily  seeds,  such  as  almonds,  nuts,  etc. 

Vegetable  fibrine,  like  albumen,  is  also  found  in  the  cereal  seeds.  It 
remains  behind  when  flour  is  washed  with  a  stream  of  water  for  the  ex- 
traction of  gluten.  The  albumen,  starch,  etc.,  are  carried  away  with  the 
water,  and  a  tenacious  mass  is  left,  which  is  known  as  crude  gluten.  It 
is  not  this  which  constitutes  vegetable  fibrine,  but  vegetable  fibrine  forms 
a  portion  of  it.  By  means  of  boiling  alcohol  the  crude  material  obtained 
as  above  is  resolved  into  two  portions.  The  one  which  is  dissolved  con- 
sists of  glutin  and  caseine,  whilst  that  which  remains  is  vegetable  fibrine. 
Vegetable  fibrine  also  exists  in  the  juice  of  the  grape  and  most  vegetables. 

Vegetable  caseine  can  be  obtained  from  peas,  beans,  and  other  legu- 
minous seeds,  and  is  sometimes  specially  denominated  legumine.  It  also 
exists,  with  albumen,  in  the  almond  and  such-like  oily  seeds. 

The  gelatinous  principles  constitute  nitrogenous  compounds,  but  do 
not  yield  proteine  like  the  compounds  that  have  just  been  referred  to. 
They  comprise  gelatine  and  chondrine,  and  are  obtainable  only  from  ani- 
mal products:  gelatine  from  bone  and  other  structures  containing  fibrous 
tissue,  and  chondrine  from  cartilage.  The  most  striking  property  they 


20  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AXD    DIETETICS. 

possess  is  that  of  their  aqueous  solution  gelatinizing  upon  cooling1.  It  is 
gelatine  which  forms  the  basis  of  soups.  Besides  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxy- 
gen, and  nitrogen,  as  constituent  elements,  a  small  amount  of  sulphur  ap- 
pears also  to  be  present.  They  contain  no  phosphorus. 

The  question  has  been  raised,  and  largely  discussed,  as  to  whether 
gelatine  and  chondrine  exist  in  the  tissues,  or  are  formed  in  the  process 
of  obtaining  them,  viz.,  the  prolonged  boiling  of  the  tissue  in  water.  On 
looking  at  the  chemical  properties  of  gelatine,  we  notice  that  it  forms 
an  insoluble  compound  with  tannic  acid.  Now,  it  is  well  known  that  u 
structure  which  yields  gelatine,  on  being  soaked  in  a  solution  of  tannic 
acid,  gives  rise  to  the  formation  of  the  compound  mentioned.  It  is  this, 
indeed,  which  forms  the  basis  of  leather,  a  fact  which  is  strongly  in  favor 
of  gelatine  really  existing  as  a  constituent  of  the  animal  body. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  gelatinous  principles  which  have  fallen 
under  consideration  are  to  be  obtained  only  from  animal  products.  No 
nitrogenous  compound  of  the  kind  is  met  with  in  vegetable  materials. 
The  jelly  yielded  by  fruits  and  some  other  vegetable  substances  is  quite 
a  different  article.  It  consists  only  of  the  three  elements — carbon,  hydro- 
gen, and  oxygen,  and  is  known  chemically  as  pectine  and  pectic  acid. 

All  the  nitrogenous  principles  must  undergo  digestion  before  they  can 
enter  the  system.  Digestion,  in  fact,  is  simply  a  process  which  has  for 
its  object  to  fit  substances  for  absorption  into  the  system;  and  the  nitro- 
genous principles  are  in  a  state  to  resist  absorption,  certainly  to  any 
material  extent,  until  they  have  been  liquefied  and  transformed  by  the 
agency  of  digestion. 

Beyond  being  mechanically  comminuted  or  reduced  to  a  more  or  less 
finely  divided  state  in  the  mouth,  our  nitrogenous  food  undergoes  no 
change  until  it  reaches  the  stomach.  In  this  organ  it  is  brought  into 
contact  with  a  secretion,  the  gastric  juice,  which  has  the  effect  of  dissolv- 
ing and  transforming  it  into  a  principle  which  possesses  the  important 
property  of  being  highly  diffusible,  and  thereby  readily  transmissible  from 
the  alimentary  canal  into  the  blood-vessels.  With  all  the  nitrogenous  ali- 
mentary principles  the  result  is  the  same.  They  each,  under  the  influence 
of  the  gastric  juice,  lose  their  characteristic  properties  and  become  con- 
verted into  the  highly  soluble  and  diffusible  product  referred  to. 

Mialhe  was  the  first  to  recognize  this  product  of  the  digestion  of  the 
nitrogenous  principles,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  albuminose.  Peptone  is 
the  name  which  has  since  been  applied  to  it  by  Lehmann.  Mialhe  held 
that  the  substance  obtained  by  the  digestion  of  the  proteine  bodies  was 
identical  with  that  obtained  by  the  gelatinous  principles.  This  would 
bring  the  latter  into  precisely  the  same  position  with  regard  to  nutrition 
as  the  former.  Although  our  knowledge  about  the  precise  extent  of  the 
capacity  of  gelatine  as  an  article  of  nutrition  cannot  be  looked  upon  as  com- 
plete, yet  the  information  before  us  justifies  the  inference  that  it  does 
not  possess  the  same  capabilities  as  an  albuminoid  substance.  If  such  be 
true,  the  products  of  digestion  of  the  two  cannot  be  completely  identical, 
however  much  they  may  resemble  each  other  in  their  general  properties. 

It  has  been  stated  that,  by  the  action  of.  the  stomach,  the  various 
principles  composing  our  nitrogenous  food  lose  their  characteristic 
properties,  and  become  converted  into  a  substance  which  has  received  the 
designation  of  peptone  from  one,  and  albuminose  from  another.  Fibrine 
is  dissolved,  and  is  not  susceptible  of  again  solidifying.  Albumen  in  a 
fluid  form  is  not  precipitated,  as  has  been  asserted,  and  then  redissolved, 
but  simply  transformed.  Albumen  in  the  solid  or  coagulated  state  is 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  21 

dissolved,  and  fails  to  be  again  coagulable.  Caseine  is  first  rendered 
solid,  or  curdled,  and  then  redissolved.  It  is  now  no  longer  susceptible 
of  being  thrown  down.  Gelatine  is  liquefied,  and  cannot  again  be  made 
to  gelatinize. 

No  matter  from  what  principle  a  digestive  product  or  peptone  has  been 
obtained,  the  following  are  the  characters  which  are  found  to  belong  to  it. 
It  is  soluble  to  the  highest  degree  in  water,  and  it  signifies  nothing 
whether  the  liquid  is  in  the  acid,  neutral,  or  alkaline  state.  It  is  not 
precipitable  from  its  aqueous  solution  by  heat.  It  is  soluble  in  dilute 
alcohol,  but  absolute  alcohol  precipitates  it.  It  is  an  uncrystallizable 
substance,  devoid  of  odor  and  almost  of  taste.  In  a  physiological  point 
of  view  its  most  important  property  is  the  high  degree  of  diffusibility  it 
enjoys.  It  is  designed  for  removal  from  the  alimentary  canal  by  absorp- 
tion, and,  by  possessing  the  property  referred  to,  a  physically  favorable 
disposition  exists  for  the  accomplishment  of  what  is  wanted. 

The  nitrogenous  alimentary  principles,  then,  on  reaching  the  stomach, 
are  fitted  for  absorption  by  undergoing  transformation  into  a  highly  solu- 
ble and  diffusible  substance.  The  change,  we  know,  is  wrought  by  the 
secretion  of  the  stomach,  although  the  precise  modus  operandi  cannot  be 
explained.  There  are  two  indispensable  ingredients  of  the  gastric  juice, 
viz.,  pepsine  (a  neutral  nitrogenized  principle)  and  an  acid.  Pepsine  is  a 
secretory  product,  peculiar  to,  and  therefore  obtainable  only  from,  the 
stomach.  About  the  acid  there  is  nothing  peculiar,  and  different  views 
have  been  held  regarding  the  kind  of  acid  that  is  naturally  present.  With 
the  combination  of  pepsine  and  acid,  a  liquid  is  obtained  which  dissolves 
nitrogenous  matter  in  the  same  manner  out  of  as  within  the  stomach. 
According  to  Lehmann,  it  is  only  hydrochloric  and  lactic  acids — and  these, 
the  same  authority  affirms,  give  the  acidity  to  the  natural  secretion — 
which  yield  an  energetic  digestive  fluid  with  pepsine;  but,  according  to 
my  own  experiments  on  artificial  digestion,  other  acids,  such  as  the  phos- 
phoric, sulphuric,  citric,  and  so  on,  will  equally  answer  the  purpose. 

From  the  above  statements  it  follows  that  the  solution  of  nitrogenous 
food  in  the  stomach  is  effected  by  the  action  of  a  liquid  which  owes  its 
virtue  to  the  presence  of  a  couple  of  principles — pepsine  and  an  acid.  The 
action  of  this  liquid  is  favored  by  the  elevated  temperature  belonging  to 
the  body,  and  also  by  the  movement  to  which  the  contents  of  the  stomach 
are  subjected  by  the  action  of  the  muscular  fibres  with  which  the  walls 
of  the  organ  are  provided.  As  it  is  reduced  to  a  fluid  state  the  food  is 
forced  on  into  the  upper  bowel.  Chyme  is  what  this  product  of  gastric 
digestion  is  called.  Besides  the  nitrogenous  matter  in  a  dissolved  state, 
it  contains  a  portion  suspended  in  a  finely  divided  form  which  has  riot  yet 
undergone  solution,  and  likewise,  in  the  same  state,  those  constituents  of 
the  food  which  resist  the  solvent  action  of  the  stomach. 

The  nitrogenous  matter  which  has  escaped  from  the  stomach  in  an  un- 
dissolved  state  is  submitted  to  a  further  digestion  in  the  intestine.  This 
may  be  shown  by  direct  experimental  observation.  And  it  is  not  by  a 
continued  action  of  the  gastric  juice  which  passes  on  with  the  food  in  its 
course,  but  by  an  action  exerted  by  the  secretions  poured  into  the  intes- 
tine itself.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  presence  of  an  acid  forms  an  in- 
dispensable factor  in  gastric  digestion.  The  chyme  as  it  passes  on  from 
the  stomach  is  strongly  acid.  It  contains  nitrogenous  matter  which  has 
not  yet  undergone  solution,  and  also  gastric  juice  whose  power  (it  may  be 
inferred)  has  not  become  exhausted.  So  far,  we  have  conditions  which 
suffice  for  a  continuance  of  the  process  carried  on  in  the  stomach.  It  hap- 


22  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD   AND    DIETETICS. 

pens,  however,  that  on  reaching  the  small  intestine  the  chyme  encounters 
alkaline  secretions.  The  pancreatic  juice  is,  to  a  marked  extent,  alkaline, 
and  so  is  also  the  intestinal  juice.  The  bile  likewise  contains  a  quantity 
of  alkali  in  feeble  combination,  and  easily  taken  by  the  gastric  juice  acid. 
Thus  it  happens  that  the  chyme  becomes  more  or  less  neutralized  as  the 
small  intestine  is  being  traversed.  As  the  result  of  observation,  in  fact, 
I  have  noticed  that  by  the  time  the  lower  part  of  the  ileum  is  reached, 
the  intestinal  contents  may  be  found  to  present  a  neutral  or  even  alkaline 
reaction.  In  this  way,  through  contact  with  the  secretions  poured  into 
the  intestine,  the  energy  of  the  unexhausted  gastric  juice  contained  in  the 
chyme  is  destroyed,  and  whatever  solution  of  nitrogenous  food  now  oc- 
curs must  be  due  to  another  agency. 

Let  us,  therefore,  inquire  into  the  effect  which  the  various  secretions, 
as  they  become  incorporared  with  the  chyme,  are  capable  of  producing. 

First,  as  regards  the  intestinal  juice.  This  fluid,  it  is  evident,  pos- 
sesses some  solvent  influence  upon  nitrogenous  matter.  Bidder  and 
Schmidt  ascertained  by  experiment  that  meat  and  coagulated  albumen, 
contained  in  a  muslin  bag,  undergo,  on  being  placed  in  the  empty  small 
intestine,  in  which  the  bile  and  pancreatic  juice  are  prevented  by  a  liga- 
ture from  descending,  in  from  four  to  six  hours'  time  a  considerable  amount 
of  digestion.  In  an  experiment  performed  by  myself,  in  which  the  hind 
legs  of  a  frog  that  had  been  separated  from  the  body,  were  introduced 
into  the  empty  small  intestine,  secured  by  a  ligature  from  the  descent  of 
secretions  from  above,  I  found,  after  the  lapse  of  six  hours,  the  legs  par- 
tially digested — a  portion  of  the  skin,  for  example,  having  been  dissolved 
away,  the  muscles  underneath  it  separated,  and  some  of  the  bones,  to  a 
slight  extent,  exposed. 

Next,  as  regards  the  pancreatic  juice.  Besides  its  other  offices  in  the 
animal  economy,  this  liquid  acts  upon  and  dissolves  nitrogenous  matters, 
as  appears  from  the  following  considerations. 

In  1836,  Purkinje  and  Pappenheim  asserted  that  the  pancreas  con- 
tained a  principle  capable  of  exerting  a  digestive  action  upon  the  nitro- 
genized  elements  of  food.  This  statement  attracted  little  attention,  and 
soon  dropped  out  of  notice.  More  recently  Lucien  Corvisart,  of  Paris, 
having  reopened  the  subject,  proved,  by  a  series  of  experiments,  that  the 
pancreas,  as  one  of  its  functions,  supplements  the  action  of  the  stomach, 
and,  after  a  copious  meal,  contributes  to  digest  those  nitrogenous  matters 
which  have  escaped  the  stomachic  digestion.  As  far  as  the  result  is  con- 
cerned, the  two  kinds  of  digestion,  he  states,  coincide,  each  leading  to  the 
production  of  albuminose.  While  acidity,  however,  is  a  necessary  condi- 
tion to  digestion  in  the  case  of  the  gastric  juice,  the  pancreatic  secretion, 
it  is  affirmed,  possesses  the  power  of  acting  equally  well,  whatever  the  ex- 
isting reaction — whether  acid,  neutral,  or  alkaline. 

In  support  of  his  doctrine,  Corvisart  has  adduced  three  sets  of  experi- 
mental results. 

In  the  first  pbice:  if  the  pancreas  of  an  animal  be  taken  when  its  active 
principle  is  at  its  maximum  of  quantity  and  quality,  that  is,  from  the 
fourth  to  the  seventh  hour  after  digestion  has  begun,  and  it  be  then 
finely  cut  up  and  infused  for  an  hour  in  twice  its  volume  of  water  at  a 
temperature  of  20°  Cent.  (68°  Fahr.),  and  the  infusion  be  at  once  experi- 
mented with,  it  will  be  found,  he  asserts,  to  possess  a  power  of  dissolving 
the  nitrogenized  alimentary  principles,  and  converting  them  into  albumi- 
nose; and  this  with  no  evidence  of  putrefaction  being  perceptible,  pro- 
vided the  experiment  be  stopped  at  the  end  of  four  or  five  hours,  in  which 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  23 

time,  under  a  temperature  of  about  100°  Fahr.,  the  pancreatic  principle 
will  have  effected  all  that  it  is  capable  of  doing. 

Secondly. — The  pancreatic  juice  obtained  during  life  from  the  duct  of 
the  gland  is  found,  he  affirms,  to  be  capable  of  acting  as  a  powerful  solvent 
on  the  nitrogenized  alimentary  principles,  when  the  requisite  precautions 
are  taken  in  conducting  the  experiment.  The  juice,  that  is  to  say,  must  be 
obtained  from  the  fourth  to  the  seventh  hour  after  the  ingestion  of  food, 
at  which  time  it  is  charged  to  its  maximum  degree  with  the  pancreatic 
principle;  and  must  also  be  experimented  with  immediately  after  its  col- 
lection. It  dissolves,  Corvisart  says,  fibrine  more  quickly  and  more  largely 
than  albumen.  The  heat  being  maintained  between  42°  and  45°  Cent. 
(108°  and  113°  Fahr.),  a  specimen  of  pancreatic  juice  of  ordinary  energy 
dissolves,  it  is  stated,  if  the  mixture  be  agitated  every  quarter  of  an  hour, 
all  that  it  is  capable  of  taking  up  of  fibrine  in  two  or  three  hours  at  the 
most,  and  of  solid  albumen  in  four  or  five  hours,  the  experiment,  up  to 
this  time,  being  attended  with  no  evidence  of  ordinary  decomposition, 
while  at  a  subsequent  period  ordinary  decomposition  is  found  to  set  in. 

Thirdly. — Nitrogenized  substances  introduced  into  the  duodenum  when 
pancreatic  juice  is  flowing  into  it  are  found  to  be  dissolved,  notwithstand- 
ing the  gastric  juice  and  bile  are  precluded  from  entering  by  applying  a 
ligature  to  the  pylorus  and  bile-duct. 

It  is  necessary  to  state  that  the  evidence  derivable  from  the  last  ex- 
periments must  not  be  taken  for  more  than  it  is  really  worth,  viewed  in 
relation  to  pancreatic  juice  per  se.  The  bile  and  the  gastric  juice  may,  it 
is  true,  have  been  prevented  entering  the  duodenum,  and  thereby  pre- 
cluded from  contributing  to  the  effect,  but  it  is  impossible  to  exclude  from 
operation  the  secretions  of  Brunner's  and  the  other  glands  of  the  duode- 
num. 

My  own  experiments  with  the  pancreatic  juice  at  first  inclined  me  to 
think  that  the  effects  producible  on  nitrogenous  matter  through  the  agency 
of  the  pancreas  were  rather  like  those  which  result  from  putrefaction  than 
from  true  digestion. 

On  reperforming  the  experiments,  however,  I  obtained  results  which 
certainly  appeared  to  indicate  that  some  digestive  action  had  been  at  work. 
For  example,  upon  operating  with  the  pancreatic  infusion,  taken  con- 
formably with  the  instructions  of  Corvisart,  I  found  that  frogs'  hind-legs 
(which,  according  to  my  experience,  constitute  one  of  the  most,  if  not  the 
most,  sensitive  and  distinct  tests  of  digestive  action)  were,  upon  some 
/occasions,  softened,  so  that  the  flesh  broke  down  under  very  slight  pres- 
sure, without  any  evidence  of  ordinary  putrefaction  being  apparent.  The 
effect,  however,  was  not  to  be  compared  with  what  is  observed  after  the 
use  of  artificial  gastric  juice,  and  ordinary  decomposition  tends  quickly  to 
occur,  which  is  not  the  case  in  experiments  conducted  with  gastric  juice. 

Whatever  the  power  actually  enjoyed  by  the  pancreatic  juice  in  this 
direction,  the  chief  point  of  interest  to  us,  as  regards  the  subject  of  food, 
is  not  whether  this  or  that  secretion  poured  into  the  intestine  will  dis- 
pose of  nitrogenous  matter,  but  whether  nitrogenous  matter  really  under- 
goes digestion  in  the  intestine;  and,  thus  framed,  it  will  be  presently  seen 
that  the  question  admits  of  being  answered  in  a  very  positive  manner. 

The  bile  forms  another  secretion,  which  becomes  incorporated  with 
the  alimentary  matter  after  its  exit  from  the  stomach.  There  is  nothing, 
however,  to  show  that  this  fluid  possesses  any  solvent  power  over  the  ni- 
trogenized principles  of  food. 

Remarks  have  been  made  upon  the  action  of  the  secretions  taken  in- 


24  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

dividually,  but  as  regards  the  subject  of  food,  the  point  of  greatest  inter- 
est to  us,  as  has  been  already  said,  is  what  occurs  within  the  intestine 
when  all  the  secretions  are  allowed  to  enter.  Experiment  shows  that 
there  is  a  very  powerful  solvent  action  exerted,  and,  as  I  can  state  from 
personal  investigation,  a  few  hours  suffice  for  nitrogenous  matter,  intro- 
duced directly  into  the  upper  part  of  the  small  intestine,  to  be  completely 
digested.  With  reference,  therefore,  to  the  digestion  of  nitrogenous  mat- 
ter, the  intestine  may  undoubtedly  be  regarded  as  performing  a  part  sup- 
plementary to  that  of  the  stomach.  Besides  its  other  functions,  it  serves 
to  complete  the  digestion  of  whatever  nitrogenous  alimentary  matter  may 
have  escaped  the  digestive  action  of  the  stomach,  arid  it  may  be  remarked 
that  the  same  result — namely,  the  production  of  albuminose  or  peptone — 
occurs  as  when  the  solution  has  been  effected  in  the  stomach. 

Reviewing  the  stages  that  are  passed  through  preliminary  to  the  ap- 
propriation of  nitrogenous  matter  within  the  system,  we  have  seen  that, 
through  the  agency  of  the  stomach  and  of  the  intestine,  it  undergoes 
conversion  into  a  principle  which,  from  its  diffusible  nature,  is  readily 
susceptible  of  absorption,  and  it  is  in  this  form,  viz.,  as  albuminose,  that 
the  various  nitrogenous  alimentary  principles  reach  the  circulation. 

The  conversion  of  the  nitrogenous  alimentary  matters  into  albuminose 
is  necessary,  it  is  further  to  be  remarked,  not  only  as  a  process  prepara- 
tory to  absorption,  but  also  as  fitting  them  for  subsequent  application  to 
their  proper  destination.  It  cannot  absolutely  be  affirmed  that  no  ab- 
sorption whatever  occurs  without  previous  conversion  into  albuminose; 
but  this  much  is  certain,  that  the  amount  so  absorbed  must  be  very  tri- 
fling, and  it  can  be  shown  that  if  they  directly  reach  the  circulation  in 
any  quantity,  they  visibly  pass  off  without  being  applied  to  the  purposes 
of  the  economy. 

Bernard  was  the  first  to  demonstrate  that  the  albumen  of  egg,  reach- 
ing the  circulation  without  having  previously  undergone  digestion,  quickly 
passes  from  the  system  into  the  urine.  If  introduced  directly  into  one  of 
the  blood-vessels,  or  even  if  injected  into  the  subcutaneous  tissue,  it  rap- 
idly betrays  its  presence  in  the  urine.  This  I  can  attest  from  my  own 
experience.  Both  after  injection  into  a  vein  and  into  the  subcutaneous 
tissue,  the  albumen  of  egg,  as  I  have  often  seen,  is  soon  recognizable  in 
the  urine. 

It  has  also  been  observed  that  a  meal  consisting  largely  of  eggs,  par- 
ticularly if  taken  after  prolonged  fasting,  has  been  followed  by  the  ap- 
pearance of  albumen  in  the  urine.  Here,  apparently,  it  has  happened 
that  some  albumen  has  reached  the  circulation  without  having  undergone 
the  usual  conversion,  and,  as  when  experimentally  injected,  has  been 
thence  discharged  with  the  urine.  Hence  it  may  be  concluded,  not  only 
that  egg-albumen  and  blood-albumen  differ  strikingly  from  each  other  in 
a  physiological  point  of  view,  but  that  egg-albumen,  as  such,  is  not  fitted 
for  entering  the  circulation. 

The  conversion  of  albumen  into  albuminose,  therefore,  not  only  bears 
on  the  facility  of  absorption,  but  on  the  adaptability  for  subsequent  ap- 
plication in  the  system.  The  process  of  metamorphosis,  in  fact,  is  re- 
quired not  only  with  a  view  to  adaptability  for  absorption,  but  to  subse- 
quent fitness  for  utilization  in  the  system. 

Caseine  and  gelatine  I  have  found  *  comport  themselves  in  the  same 


*  Gulstonian  Lectures  (1862)  on  Assimilatiou  and  the  Influence  of  its  Defects  on. 
the  Urine:  Lancet,  vol.  i.,  p.  574,  1863. 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  20 

manner  as  albumen,  namely,  pass  off  from  the  system  with  the  urine 
when  directly  introduced  into  the  circulation.  The  injection  of  three 
ounces  of  milk  into  a  vein  was  observed  in  an  experiment  to  be  followed 
by  the  appearance  of  caseine  in  the  urine.  The  injection  of  one  hundred 
grains  of  isinglass,  dissolved  in  two  and  a  half  ounces  of  water,  also  so 
charged  the  urine  with  gelatine  as  to  give  rise  to  the  formation  of  a  firm, 
solid  jelly  on  cooling. 

Thrown  off  as  they  thus  are  from  the  system,  albumen,  caseine,  and 
gelatine  are  evidently  not  adapted  for  direct  introduction  into  the  circu- 
lation. Fibrine,  on  account  of  its  solidity,  cannot  be  similarly  experi- 
mented with.  Digestion,  in  its  case  also,  is  an  indispensable  condition 
to  its  introduction  into  the  circulation.  In  respect,  indeed,  of  all  these 
principles,  it  may  be  said  that  their  metamorphosis  in  the  digestive  sys- 
tem is  needed  as  a  preliminary  step  to  their  capability  of  appropriation 
in  the  body,  and  their  application  to  the  purposes  of  life. 

We  have  followed  the  nitrogenous  alimentary  principles  to  the  stage 
of  albuminose.  The  precise  nature  of  what  next  ensues  is  not  yet  known. 
There  can  be  little  or  no  doubt  as  to  the  progress  from  albuminose  to  the 
albumen  of  the  blood,  but  as  to  what  next  occurs  we  have  no  data  to 
show.  With  the  ultimate  products  that  are  formed  we  are  acquainted, 
but  the  steps  of  metamorphosis  are  as  yet  beyond  our  knowledge.  The 
chain  we  have  hitherto  followed  now  wants  one  or  more  links,  which  we 
have  as  yet  no  means  of  discovering.  As  regards  the  seat  of  metamor- 
phosis we  have  also  no  information  of  a  precise  nature  to  deal  with,  but 
we  may,  nevertheless,  hazard  the  surmise  that  the  liver  is  the  viscus  in 
which  albuminose,  like  other  nutritive  matters  absorbed  from  the  ali- 
mentary canal,  mainly,  if  not  entirely,  undergoes  metamorphosis.  The 
various  nitrogenous  principles  of  the  body  must  be  primarily  derived  from 
it  ;  but,  whether  by  direct  transformation  into  them,  or  by  passing  through 
the  stage  of  albumen,  we  have  not  the  means  of  deciding.  That  albumen 
is  susceptible  of  metamorphosis,  however,  into  the  other  principles,  we 
know,  from  its  forming  in  the  egg  the  pabulum  whence  the  various  nitro- 
genous principles  of  the  young  bird  take  their  origin. 

Instead  of  wandering  farther  into  the  domain  of  conjecture  as  to  the 
subject  of  metamorphosis,  let  us  now  turn  our  attention  to  the  purposes 
fulfilled  by  the  nitrogenous  principles  as  alimentary  matter. 

Foremost  in  importance  is  the  supply  of  material  for  the  development 
primarily,  and  for  the  renovation  secondarily,  of  the  tissues.  Wher- 
ever vital  operations  are  going  on,  there  nitrogenous  matter  is  present, 
forming,  so  to  speak,  the  spring  of  vital  action.  Although  non-nitroge- 
nous matter  contributes  in  certain  ways  toward  the  maintenance  of  life, 
yet  it  is  nitrogenous  matter  which  starts  and  keeps  in  motion  the  molec- 
ular changes  which  result  in  the  phenomena  of  life.  Nitrogenous  mat- 
ter, it  may  be  said,  forms  the  basis,  without  which  no  life  manifests  itself. 
Life  is  coincident  with  molecular  change.  In  non-nitrogenous  matter 
the  elements  of  the  molecule  are  not,  of  themselves,  prone  to  change; 
whereas  in  the  molecule  of  nitrogenous  matter  there  exists  a  greater 
complexity  of  grouping  among  the  elements,  and  these  cohere  so  loosely, 
or  are  so  feebly  combined,  as  to  have  a  constant  tendency  to  alter  or  to 
regroup  themselves  into  simpler  combinations.  By  this  change  in  the 
nitrogenous,  change  is  induced  in  the  contiguous  non-nitrogenous  mole- 
cule, and,  occurring  as  the  whole  does  in  a  definite  or  prescribed  order, 
the  phenomena  of  life  are  produced.  Nitrogenous  matter,  in  this  way 
forming  the  instrument  of  living  action,  is  incessantly  being  disintegrated. 


26  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

Becoming  thereby  effete  and  useless,  a  fresh  supply  is  needed  to  replace 
that  which  has  fulfilled  its  office.  The  primary  object  of  nitrogenous  ali- 
mentary matter  may  thereupon  be  said  to  be  the  development  and  reno- 
vation of  the  living  tissues. 

We  have  seen  that  nitrogenous  matter  forms  an  essential  part  of  liv- 
ing structures.  It  holds  the  same  position  in  the  case  of  the  secretions. 
These  owe  the  active  properties  with  which  they  are  endowed,  chiefly,  if 
not  entirely,  to  a  nitrogenous  constituent.  This  is  drawn  from  the  blood 
by  the  glands  just  as  it  is  drawn  by  the  tissues;  and  on  passing  from  the 
blood  it  is  modified  or  converted,  by  the  agency  of  the  gland,  into  the 
special  principle  encountered.  Nitrogenous  matter  is  thus  as  essential  to 
the  constitution  of  the  active  secretions  as  it  is  to  the  tissues;  and,  as  the 
amount  of  the  secretions  required  is  in  relation  to  the  general  vital  activity, 
a  corresponding  demand  for  nitrogenous  matter  is  created. 

I  now  come  to  treat  of  nitrogenous  matter  in  relation  to  force  produc- 
tion. 

The  dependence  of  muscular  and  nervous  action  upon  oxidation  of  the 
respective  tissues  is  one  of  the  many  doctrines  which  have  emanated  from 
the  inventive  intellect  of  Liebig.  According  to  the  view  propounded, 
nitrogenous  matter  alone  constitutes  the  source  of  muscular  and  nervous 
power.  The  tissues  being  consumed  in  the  exercise  of  their  functional 
activity  or  the  manifestation  of  their  dynamic  properties,  fresh  nitro- 
genous matter  is  alleged  to  be  needed  to  replace  that  which  has  served 
for  the  production  of  power.  Thus  viewed,  nitrogenous  matter  has  been 
regarded  as  not  only  applied  to  nutrition  and  to  the  formation  of  the 
nitrogenous  constituents  of  the  active  secretions,  but  also  to  the  restitu- 
tion of  the  loss  incurred  by  the  production  of  power.  What  wonder, 
then,  if,  with  all  these  purposes  to  fulfil,  the  nutritive  value  of  food  should 
have  been  measured,  as  it  latterly  has  been,  by  the  amount  of  nitrogenous 
matter  it  contains  ? 

Liebig's  doctrine  was  at  once  accepted,  and  until  recently  has  been 
looked  upon  as  expressing  a  scientific  truth.  Like  many  other  of  its 
author's  views,  its  plausibility  was  such  that  no  one  ventured  to  question 
its  soundness.  Gradually,  however,  experimental  inquiry  began  to  in- 
validate it,  and  the  reactionary  move  has  advanced  till  Traube  has  been 
led  to  express  himself  in  directly  opposite  terms  regarding  the  source  of 
muscular  and  nervous  power.  According  to  this  authority,  for  instance, 
the  organized  or  nitrogenous  part  of  a  muscle  is  not  destroyed  or  con- 
sumed in  its  action.  The  resulting  force  is  affirmed  to  be  due,  instead, 
to  the  oxidation  of  non-nitrogenous  matter — the  muscle  merely  serving  as 
a  medium  for  the  conversion  of  the  generated  force  into  motor  power. 
The  point  has  attracted  much  attention  of  late,  and  researches  of  an 
elaborate  nature  have  been  conducted  with  regard  to  it.  Let  us  see  the 
position  in  which  these  researches  have  placed  it. 

The  argument  representing  the  question  to  be  solved  may  be  thus  ex- 
pressed: Does  the  force  evolved  by  muscular  action  proceed  from  destruc- 
tion of  muscular  tissue  ?  If  so,  nitrogenous  matter  would  be  needed  to 
replace  the  loss  incurred,  and  the  result  would  be  equivalent  to  nitro- 
genous matter  through  the  medium  of  muscle  being  applied  to  the  pro- 
duction of  motor  power.  Now,  if  muscular  action  is  coincident  with  the 
destruction  of  muscular  tissue,  there  must,  as  a  product  of  the  destruc- 
tion, be  a  nitrogen-containing  principle  eliminated.  The  elements  of  the 
compounds  that  have  served  their  purpose  in  the  economy  do  not  accu- 
mulate, but  are  discharged  from  the  system  under  certain  known  forms 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  27 

of  combination.  The  nitrogen,  therefore,  belonging  to  a  consumed  nitro- 
genous structure  should  be  recognizable  in  the  effete  matters  thrown  off 
from  the  body.  Nay,  more;  as  the  force  developed  by  muscular  action 
cannot  arise  spontaneously — as  it  can  be  produced  only  by  transmutation 
from  another  force — the  destruction  of  muscular  tissue  (which  through 
the  chemical  action  involved  supplies  the  force)  should  be  in  proportion 
to  the  amount  of  muscular  work  performed,  and  the  nitrogen  contained 
in  the  excreta  in  proportion  also  to  the  amount  of  muscular  tissue  de- 
stroyed. 

Now,  in  proceeding  to  measure  the  extent  of  tissue  metamorphosis  by 
the  nitrogen  eliminated,  it  is  necessary,  in  the  first  instance,  to  be  sure 
of  our  data  regarding  the  channels  through  which  nitrogen  finds  its  exit 
from  the  body — it  is  necessary,  that  is  to  say,  to  ascertain  whether  nitro- 
gen escapes  with  the  breath  and  perspiration,  as  was  at  one  time  asserted, 
as  well  as  by  the  alimentary  canal  and  the  kidneys.  We  have  no  acces- 
sible means,  it  must  be  stated,  of  determining  in  a  direct  way  whether 
nitrogen  passes  off  by  the  lungs  and  skin.  Our  conclusions  have  to  be 
based  upon  comparing  the  nitrogen  ingested  with  that  encountered  in 
the  urine  and  alvine  evacuations.  Formerly  it  was  said  that  a  deficiency 
in  the  latter  existed,  and  it  was  put  down  to  loss  by  pulmonary  and  cu- 
taneous elimination.  Barral,  for  instance,  only  detected  half  the  nitro- 
gen of  the  food  in  the  urine  and  faeces,  and  thence  inferred  that  the  re- 
mainder was  discharged  with  the  breath  and  perspiration,  In  opposition 
to  this,  however,  several  trustworthy  observers  (amongst  whom  may  be 
named  Voit,  Ranke,  Haughton,  and  Parkes)  aided  by  the  improved 
methods  of  analysis  introduced  by  modern  experience,  have  recovered 
within  a  very  close  approach  all  the  nitrogen  of  the  food  from  the  urinary 
and  intestinal  excreta.  Dr.  Parkes'  observations  are  especially  worthy  of 
reliance,  and  he  confidently  asserts  that  it  may  be  looked  upon  as  estab- 
lished, that  an  amount  of  nitrogen  is  discharged  by  the  kidney  and  intes- 
tine equivalent  to  that  which  enters  with  the  food.  Admitting  this  to 
be  the  case,  we  have  only  to  look  to  the  products  that  escape  from  these 
two  channels  for  the  information  that  is  wanted  about  the  discharged 
nitrogen  in  relation  to  the  question  before  us. 

Next  comes  the  determination  of  the  relation  respectively  held  by  the 
urinary  and  intestinal  nitrogen  to  the  point  under  consideration. 

It  has  long  been  known  that  the  chief  portion  of  the  escaping  nitro- 
gen is  to  be  met  with  in  the  urine.  Lehmann,  for  instance,  found,  while 
subsisting  on  a  purely  animal  diet  (eggs),  that  a  daily  average  of  30.3 
grammes  (467  grains)  of  nitrogen  entered  his  system,  and  that  a  daily 
average  of  24.4  grammes  (376  grains)  was  discharged  by  the  urine. 
Here,  therefore,  it  was  ascertained  that  an  amount  equal  to  five-sixths  of 
the  ingested  nitrogen  escaped  by  the  kidneys. 

But  more  recent  and  precise  evidence  has  been  afforded  by  a  series  of 
very  carefully  conducted  observations  made  upon  two  soldiers  by  Dr. 
Parkes.*  The  observations  extended  over  sixteen  consecutive  days,  and 
the  results  not  only  bear  on  the  ingestion  and  egestion  of  nitrogen  gen- 
erally, but  likewise  show  that  the  great  bulk  of  outgoing  nitrogen  is  to 
be  met  with  in  the  urine.  The  men  were  both  of  almost  precisely  the 
same  weight  at  the  end  of  the  time  as  at  the  beginning,  so  that  the  in- 
going and  outgoing  matter  must  have  been  closely  balanced.  They  were 
subjected  to  varying  conditions  of  rest  and  exercise,  but  consumed  ex- 

*  Proceeding's  of  the  Royal  Society,  June  20,  1867. 


28  A   TllEATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

actly  the  same  allowance  of  food  every  day.  The  nitrogen  in  the  food 
taken  during  the  sixteen  days  amounted  to  313.76  grammes;  and,  from  the 
urine  of  one  of  the  men  (distinguished  as  S.)  there  were  recovered  303.- 
660  grammes,  and  from  that  of  the  other  (distinguished  as  B.)  307.257 
grammes.  Thus,  the  amount  of  nitrogen  discharged  from  the  kidneys 
was,  in  the  case  of  S.,  only  about  ten  grammes,  and  in  that  of  B.,  six 
grammes  less  than  that  admitted  with  the  food.  The  alvine  evacuations 
•were  collected  and  analyzed  only  upon  three  occasions.  Taking  the 
mean  of  the  results  then  obtained  as  representing  the  daily  average,  and 
calculating  from  this  for  the  sixteen  days,  the  quantity  of  nitrogen  dis- 
charged from  the  bowels  amounted  in  S.  to  25.8  grammes,  and  in  B.  to 
17.2  grammes,  thus  somewhat  exceeding  the  difference  between  the  in- 
gested nitrogen  and  that  excreted  in  the  urine,  or  giving,  in  other  words, 
rather  more  nitrogen  discharged  than  nitrogen  ingested. 

The  nitrogen  discharged  from  the  bowels  may  be  said  to  have  been 
found  to  form,  upon  an  average,  from  about  one-eighth  to  one-twelfth  or 
one-thirteenth  of  the  total  nitrogen  voided.  Owing  its  origin,  as  it  does, 
to  the  nitrogen  belonging  to  the  undigested  food  on  the  one  hand,  and 
that  contained  in  the  unabsorbed  intestinal  secretions  011  the  other,  it  is 
constantly  liable  to  incidental  variation.  There  is  this,  also,  to  be  re- 
marked, that  the  nature  of  its  source  excludes  it  from  possessing  any 
relation  to  the  question  under  consideration.  We  have,  therefore,  only 
the  urinary  excretion  to  look  to  as  forming  the  channel  through  which 
the  exit  of  nitrogen,  resulting  from  the  metamorphosis  of  nitrogenous 
matter  in  the  system,  takes  place;  and  observation  has  shown  that  in 
the  human  subject  it  is  mainly  under  the  shape  of  urea  that  the  escape 
occurs. 

What,  now,  is  the  state  of  the  urine  in  relation  to  rest  and  exercise  ? 
If  muscular  disintegration  forms  the  source  of  muscular  work,  the  quan- 
tity of  urinary  nitrogen  ought  to  increase  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of 
muscular  work  performed. 

Lehmann,  imbued  with  Liebig's  views,  as  his  writings  show,  speaks  of 
there  being  an  actual  increase  in  the  elimination  of  urea  :::  proportion  to 
muscular  exercise,  and  yet  he  gives  it  as  the  result  01  observation  upon 
himself  that,  while  under  ordinary  circumstances  he  passed  about  32 
grammes  (493  grains)  of  urea  in  the  twenty-four  hours,  the  quantity 
passed  after  severe  bodily  exercise  was  upon  one  occasion  36  grammes 
(555  grains),  and  upon  another  37.4  grammes  (577  grains) — only  this  in- 
significant disparity  to  correspond  with  the  difference  in  the  amount  of 
muscular  work  performed. 

Voit  experimented  upon  a  dog,  and  determined  the  amount  of  urea 
voided  during  rest  and  the  performance  of  mechanical  work,  in  association 
with  abstinence  and  a  regulated  diet  of  meat.  The  work  imposed  upon 
the  dog  was  running  in  a  tread-mill.  The  results,  both  during  abstinence 
and  feeding,  exhibited  no  material  excess  in  the  urea  voided  during  work 
over  that  voided  during  rest. 

Dr.  E.  Smith,  also,  in  his  observations  on  the  elimination  of  carbonic 
acid  and  urea  during  rest  and  exercise,  found,  in  the  case  of  the  prisoners 
at  Coldbath  Fields,  that,  in  the  absence  of  food,  the  labor  of  the  tread- 
wheel  did  not,  to  any  material  extent,  increase  the  nitrogen  discharged 
under  the  form  of  urea.  Like  others  have  done,  he  noticed  a  distinct  re- 
lation between  the  urea  discharged  and  the  food  ingested.  At  the  same 
time  he  regarded — and  this  was  several  years  ago,  when  our  knowledge 
stood  in  a  very  different  position  from  what  it  does  now — the  relation 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  291 

between  the  urea  and  muscular  work  as  far  less  established  then  than  it 
had  been  held  to  be  for  some  time  before. 

The  theory  that  muscular  work  is  dependent  on  and  proportioned  to- 
the  destruction  of  muscular  tissue  by  oxidation,  received  its  decisive  blow 
from  the  now  celebrated  observations  of  Drs.  Fick  and  Wislicenus,  pro- 
fessors of  physiology  and  chemistry  respectively  at  Zurich.*  These  ex- 
perimentalists subjected  themselves  to  a  measurable  amount  of  work  by 
ascending  a  mountain  of  an  ascertained  height.  They  argued  that  if  the 
work  performed  be  due  to  destruction  of  muscular  tissue — seeing  that  the 
nitrogenous  product  of  destruction  is  discharged  in  great  part,  if  not  en- 
tirely, with  the  urine — the  collection  of  the  urine,  and  the  determination 
of  its  nitrogenous  contents,  ought  to  show  the  amount  of  nitrogenous 
matter  destroyed.  Again,  as  the  mechanical  work  to  be  performed  must 
be  represented  by  an  equivalent  of  chemical  action  to  produce  it,  the  de- 
struction of  nitrogenous  matter,  as  measured  by  the  nitrogen  appearing 
in  the  urine,  ought  to  accord  with  the  amount  of  work  performed.  To- 
simplify  the  experiment,  the  food  consumed  by  the  experimentalists- 
consisted  solely  of  non-nitrogenous  matter,  so  that  the  nitrogen  appear- 
ing in  the  urine  might  be  derived  exclusively  from  that  belonging  to 
the  system. 

Drs.  Fick  and  Wislicenus  chose  for  ascent  the  Faulhorn,  near  the  Lake 
of  Brienz,  in  the  Bernese  Oberland,  a  steep  mountain  of  about  2,000  metres 
(6,561  feet)  above  the  level  of  the  lake,  and  furnished  with  hotel  accom- 
modation on  the  summit,  enabling  them  to  rest  over-night  and  make  the 
descent  next  day. 

On  the  30th  of  August,  between  ten  minutes  past  five  in  the  morning" 
and  twenty  minutes  past  one  in  the  afternoon,  the  ascent  was  made.  From 
the  noon  of  the  29th  no  nitrogenous  food  had  been  eaten  by  the  experi- 
menters, their  diet  consisting  solely  of  starch  and  fat  (taken  in  the  form 
of  small  cakes),  and  sugar  as  solid  matter,  and  tea,  beer,  and  wine  as- 
drink.  After  ascending  the  mountain,  Drs.  Fick  and  Wislicenus  restedr 
and  took  no  other  kind  of  food  till  seven  in  the  evening,  when  they  par- 
took of  a  plentiful  repast  of  meat  and  its  usual  accompaniments. 

They  began  to  collect  their  urine  for  examination  from  six  P.M.  of  the 
29th;  that  is,  six  hours  after  the  commencement  of  their  non-nitrogenous- 
diet.  The  urine  secreted  from  this  time  till  ten  minutes  past  five  A.M.  of 
the  30th,  when  the  ascent  began,  was  called  the  "  before-work  "  urine.  The 
urine  secreted  during  the  ascent  was  called  the  "work"  urine;  and  that 
from  twenty  minutes  past  one  P.M.  to  seven  P.M.  (from  the  completion  of 
the  ascent  to  the  cessation  of  the  non-nitrogenous  diet)  the  "  after-work" 
urine.  Finally,  the  urine  secreted  during  the  night  spent  on  the  Faulhorn 
up  to  half-past  five  A.M.  was  also  collected,  and  denominated  "  night " 
urine. 

Each  specimen  was  measured,  and  both  the  quantity  of  urea  and  the 
absolute  amount  of  nitrogen  contained  in  it  determined.  For  the  object 
before  us  it  will  suffice  to  confine  our  attention  to  the  nitrogen;  and  the 
quantity  of  this  element  secreted  per  hour  (calculated  from  the  amount 
contained  in  the  respective  specimens  and  the  time  passed  in  secretion),, 
stood  thus  for  the  several  periods: 

*  On  the  Origin  of  Muscular  Power,  by  Drs.  Fick  and  Wislicenus  :  Philosophical 
Magazine  (Supplement),  vol.  xxxi.,  1866. 


30  A   TKEATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 


Quantity  of  Nitrogen  Excreted  per  Hour. 

Pick.  Wislicenus. 

Grammes.  Grammes. 

Before  work, 0.63  O.C1 

During  work,        .         .         .         .         .     0.41  0.39 

After  work, 0.40  0.40 

Night, 0.45  0.51 

A  glance  at  these  figures  shows  the  agreement  that  existed  in  the  two 
cases.  The  result  proved  that,  whilst  the  nitrogenous  excretion  was  re- 
lated to  the  food  ingested,  it  was  not  so  to  muscular  action.  Less  nitro- 
gen, it  is  noticeable,  was  voided  during  the  "  work  "  and  "  after-work  " 
than  during  the  "  before-work  "  period,  and  this  was  plainly  attributable 
to  the  absence  of  nitrogenous  food  from  the  diet.  During  the  night, 
after  the  meal  of  mixed  food,  there  was  an  increase,  greater  in  Wislice- 
nus's  than  in  Kick's  case;  but  the  one  meal  did  not  bring  the  amount  of 
nitrogen  up  to  the  point  at  which  it  stood  shortly  after  the  commence- 
ment of  their  abstinence  from  nitrogenous  food. 

The  conclusion,  then,  that  in  the  first  place  may  be  drawn  from  this 
experiment  is,  that  muscular  work  is  not  accompanied  by  the  increased 
elimination  of  nitrogen  that  might  be  looked  for  if  it  resulted  from  the 
oxidation  of  muscle.  But  let  us  inquire  whether  the  disintegration  of 
nitrogenous  matter  which  actually  occurred  during  the  "  work  "  and 
"  after-work  "  periods,  as  measured  by  the  nitrogen  excreted,  would  ac- 
count for  the  generation  of  an  amount  of  force  equivalent  ty>  that  ex- 
pended in  the  work  performed. 

Knowing  that  the  nitrogenous  matter  of  muscle  contains — say,  in 
round  numbers,  fifteen  per  cent,  of  nitrogen — it  is  easy  to  calculate  to 
how  much  muscular  tissue  the  excreted  nitrogen  was  equivalent;  and 
taking  the  muscular  tissue  thus  represented,  an  approximate,  if  not  an 
absolute,  estimate  can  be  given  of  the  amount  of  mechanical  work  which 
its  oxidation  would  be  capable  of  performing. 

The  height  of  the  ascended  mountain,  likewise,  being  known,  the 
amount  of  muscular  force  actually  employed  in  raising  the  weight  of  the 
body  to  the  summit  can  also  be  definitely  expressed. 

We  have,  therefore,  these  data  supplied: 

First. — From  the  nitrogen  excreted  the  amount  of  nitrogenous  matter 
oxidized; 

Second. — The  amount  of  force  that  this  oxidation  would  generate;  and 

Third. — The  expenditure  of  force  required  to  raise  the  bodies  of  the 
experimenters  to  the  height  they  reached. 

Now  if  the  work  performed  were  due  to  the  oxidation  of  muscle,  the 
second  factor  ought  to  equal  the  third;  that  is,  the  force  producible  from 
the  muscle  oxidized  ought  to  be  equivalent  to  the  force  that  was  expended. 
The  results  of  the  calculation,  however,  show,  as  will  be  presently  seen, 
that  the  force  expended  considerably  exceeded  the  amount  derivable 
from  the  nitrogenous  matter  consumed. 

Nor  is  this  all.  Besides  the  force  expended  in  simply  raising  the 
body- weights  of  the  two  men  to  the  elevation  reached,  there  would  also 
be  occurring,  during  the  performance  of  the  work,  an  expenditure  of 
muscular  power  in  keeping  up  the  circulation,  in  respiratory  action,  and 
the  other  life-processes.  The  calculations  on  these  points  have  been  care- 
fully worked  out  by  Fick  and  Wislicenus;  and  though  the  data  for  the 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  31 

process  are  scarcely  precise  enough  to  warrant  our  regarding  the  results 
as  scientifically  exact,  still  they  may  be  admitted  as  affording  a  basis  for 
a  safe  general  conclusion  to  be  drawn.  We  are  also  told  that  wherever 
a  doubt  existed  about  the  data,  figures  were  taken  as  favorable  as  was 
allowable  to  the  old  hypothesis,  which  referred  the  source  of  power  to 
muscular  oxidation. 

In  giving  the  conclusion  furnished,  it  is  not  necessary  to  introduce 
the  details  of  the  calculation.  It  will  suffice  to  say,  that  summarily  stated, 
the  result  of  the  calculation  showed  that  the  measured  work  performed 
during  the  ascent  exceeded  by  about  one-half  in  Fick's  case,  and  more 
than  three-fourths  in  that  of  Wislicenus,  the  amount  which  it  would  be 
theoretically  possible  to  realize  from  the  amount  of  nitrogenous  matter 
consumed. 

It  has  been  shown  by  Professor  Frankland  *  that  the  results  of  Fick 
and  Wislicenus  in  reality  afford  stronger  evidence  than  they  have  con- 
tended for.  Fick  and  Wislicenus  were  obliged  to  estimate  the  force-value 
of  the  nitrogenous  matter,  shown  by  the  nitrogen  in  the  urine  to  have 
been  destroyed  in  the  system,  from  the  amount  of  force  known  to  be 
producible  by  the  oxidation  of  its  elements,  because  the  actual  deter- 
mination for  the  compound  itself  had  not  been  made.  Professor  Frank- 
land,  however,  has  since  experimentally  ascertained,  with  the  calorimeter, 
the  amount  of  energy  or  force  evolved  under  the  form  of  heat  during  the 
oxidation  of  a  given  quantity  of  nitrogenous  matter,  as  the  oxidation  oc- 
curs within  the  living  system,  in  which  position  a  portion,  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind,  of  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  escapes  being  consumed,  on 
account  of  being  carried  off  by  the  nitrogen  in  the  shape  of  urea.  Frank- 
land's  results  give  as  the  actual  amount  of  energy  producible  from  the 
nitrogenous  matter  consumed  in  the  bodies  of  the  experimentalists,  about 
half  the  quantity  they  had  reckoned  in  their  calculations.  Thus,  the  re- 
sults tell  so  much  the  more  in  Fick  and  Wislicenus'  favor.  Frankland 
considers,  taking  all  points  into  consideration,  that  scarcely  one-fifth  of  the 
actual  energy  required  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  work  performed  in 
the  ascent  of  the  mountain  could  have  been  obtained  from  the  amount  of 
muscle  (nitrogenous  matter)  that  was  consumed.  Assuming,  therefore, 
the  foregoing  conclusions  to  be  entitled  to  credence,  the  doctrine  which 
ascribes  muscular  action  to  oxidation  of  muscular  tissue  becomes  utterly 
untenable.  • 

Dr.  Parkes  has  conducted,  in  a  most  careful  manner,  a  series  of  inves- 
tigations on  the  influence  of  rest  and  exercise,  under  different  diets,  upon 
the  effete  products  of  the  system,  and,  more  particularly,  to  test  the  ac- 
curacy of  the  results  arrived  at  by  Fick  and  Wislicenus.  He  says,  "  Al- 
though these  results  (Fick  and  Wislicenus')  are  supported  by  the  pre- 
vious experiments  of  Dr.  Speck,  who  has  shown  that  if  the  ingress  of 
nitrogen  be  restricted,  bodily  exercise  causes  no  or  a  very  slight  increase 
in  the  elimination  of  nitrogen  by  the  urine,  it  appeared  desirable  to  care- 
fully repeat  the  experiments,  not  only  because  the  question  is  one  of 
great  importance,  but  because  objections  might  be,  and,  indeed,  have 
been,  reasonably  made  to  the  experiments  of  Professors  Fick  and  Wisli- 
cenus, on  the  ground  that  no  sufficient  basis  of  comparison  between  pe- 
riods of  rest  and  exercise  was  given,  that  the  periods  were  altogether  too 
short,  and  that  no  attention  was  paid  to  the  possible  exit  of  nitrogen  by 
the  intestines." 

*  On  the  Origin  of  Muscular  Power:  Philos.  Magazine,  vol.  xxxiL,  1866. 


32  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

Dr.  Parkes'  experiments  were  conducted  upon  perfectly  healthy  sol- 
diers, men  who,  when  steady  and  trustworthy,  as  were  the  soldiers  made 
use  of,  form,  as  Dr.  Parkes  observes,  highly  suitable  subjects  for  experi- 
ments of  the  kind,  their  regularity  in  diet  and  occupation,  and  their 
habits  of  obedience,  affording  a  special  guarantee  for  the  precision  with 
which  they  will  carry  out  the  instructions  given.  There  can,  indeed,  be 
little  or  no  doubt,  from  the  harmony  observable  all  through,  that  the 
results  furnish  as  exact  and  reliable  information  as  can  be  hoped  to  be 
obtained. 

The  total  nitrogen  contained  in  the  urine  was  determined,  as  well  as 
the  urea;  and  by  this  step  more  conclusive  evidence  is  supplied  than  by 
the  simple  determination  of  urea,  as  had  only  been  done  in  the  experi- 
ments of  Fick  and  Wislicenus  and  others;  obviously  so,  because  it  might 
be  said  that  nitrogen  escaped  (as  is  really  to  some  extent  the  case)  in 
other  forms  than  that  of  urea. . 

The  experiments  consisted  of  two  series,  and  extended,  in  each  case, 
over  several  successive  days.  In  the  first  series  *  a  comparison  is  institu- 
ted of  the  products  of  excretion  during  rest  and  exercise  under  a  non- 
nitrogenous  diet.  In  the  second  f  the  same  comparison  is  made  under  a 
fixed  diet,  containing  an  ordinary  admixture  of  nitrogenous  and  non- 
nitrogenous  food. 

In  drawing  conclusions  regarding  the  destruction  of  muscle  from  the 
nitrogen  eliminated,  it  is,  of  course,  of  the  first  importance  that  the  whole 
of  the  voided  nitrogen  should  be  presented  to  our  notice.  Dr.  Parkes  is 
convinced,  from  his  experiments,  that  no  nitrogen  escapes  either  by  the 
breath  or  perspiration,  but  that  it  is  all  to  be  found  in  the  excreta  from 
the  kidneys  and  bowels.  The  nitrogen  discharged  by  the  bowels  forms 
a  comparatively  small  and  varying  proportion,  and  being  derived  from 
the  undigested  food  and  the  unabsorbed  digestive  secretions,  has  no  bear- 
ing in  reference  to  the  point  before  us.  There  remains,  therefore,  only  the 
urinary  nitrogen  to  consider  as  a  measure  of  the  tissue-metamorphosis 
occurring  in  the  system.  Thus  prefaced,  let  us  now  see  what  light  is 
thrown  upon  the  matter  under  consideration  by  Dr.  Parkes'  experiments. 
For  the  sake  of  simplicity,  notice  will  only  be  taken  of  the  total  urinary 
nitrogen  voided,  as  this  gives  in  a  more  reliable  manner  than  the  urea 
the  information  that  is  wanted. 

The  men  forming  the  subjects  of  the  first  series  of  experiments  are 
distinguished  as  S.  and  T.  T.  was  a  much  smaller  man  than  S.  (S.  weighing 
one  hundred  and  fifty  and  T.  one  hundred  and  twelve  pounds),  and  it 
will  be  observed  that  he,  throughout,  passed  a  less  amount  of  urinary  ni- 
trogen. He  did  not  consume  quite  so  much  food;  and  as  it  was  found  that 
he  discharged  rather  more  nitrogen  from  the  intestine,  it  may  be  assumed 
that  he  did  not  so  fully  digest  and  absorb  what  he  ingested. 

For  six  days  the  men  were  kept  upon  an  ordinary  mixed  diet,  and 
pursued  their  customary  occupation.  The  urine  was  collected  and  ex- 
amined during  four  out  of  the  six  days,  and  the  following  is  the  mean 
amount  of  the  total  nitrogen  passed  per  diem  : 

Mean  urinary  nitrogen 
per  diem. — Grammes. 

Mixed  diet,  with  customary  occupation,  .         .         *    '     T   13  409 

*  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society,  No.  89,  vol.  xv.,  January,  1867. 
f  Ibid.,  No.  94,  vol.  xvi.,  June,  1867. 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  33 

During  the  following  two  days  the  diet  was  restricted  to  non-nitro- 
genous food  consisting  of  arrow-root,  sugar,  and  butter.  The  only  nitro- 
gen ingested  —  and  this  may  be  regarded  as  too  insignificant  to  require 
being  taken  into  account  —  was  in  the  tea  the  men  were  allowed  to  drink, 
it  being  thought  desirable  not  to  deprive  them  of  this  beverage.  Through- 
out the  two  days  they  remained  as  much  at  rest  as  was  practicable;  they 
were  allowed  to  get  up,  but  not  to  leave  the  room. 

Mean  urinary  nitrogen 
per  diem.  —  Grammes. 

Non-nitrogenous  diet,  with  rest,         .         .         .         •    1    T*  7*    ' 

The  men  were  now  put  back,  for  four  days,  upon  a  mixed  diet,  with 
customary  occupation,  just  as  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment. 

Mean  urinary  nitrogen 
per  diein.—  Grammes. 

Mixed  diet,  with  customary  occupation,  .         •     )    T*  ll'oQ^ 

Next  they  were  restricted  again  for  two  days  to  the  same  non-nitro- 
genous food  as  before,  but  this  time  it  was  accompanied  with  active  walking 
exercise.  During  the  first  day  the  distance  walked  was  23f  miles,  and 
during  the  second  32f  miles.  The  diet,  it  is  stated,  satisfied  hunger,  and 
there  was  no  sinking  or  craving  for  other  kinds  of  food. 

Mean  urinary  nitrogen 
per  diem.  —  Grammes. 

(    S    8  971 
Non-nitrogenous  diet,  with  active  exercise,       .         •     j    T'  R 


To  complete  the  experiment,  four  more  days  were  passed  under  obser- 
vation with  the  ordinary  mixed  diet,  accompanied  by  ordinary  exercise. 
Rather  more  nitrogenous  food  was  taken  during  these  four  days  succeeding 
the  two  days'  active  exercise  than  during  the  four  days  succeeding  the  two 
days'  rest,  the  men  feeling  more  hungry  after  the  "  work"  period  than  after 
the  period  of  "  rest."  The  mean  for  T.,  it  is  mentioned,  is  for  three  days 
instead  of  four,  one  analysis  having  failed. 

Mean  urinary  nitrogen 
per  diem.  —  Grammes. 

Mixed  diet,  with  customary  occupation,  .         .    j    T+II'CKQ 

From  this  series  of  results  we  find  that  there  was  no  material  variation 
in  the  amount  of  urinary  nitrogen  discharged  during  the  two  days  when 
a  distance  of  56£  miles  was  walked,  as  compared  with  the  two  days  spent 
in  as  complete  a  state  of  rest  as  possible,  on  both  occasions  restriction 
to  non-nitrogenous  food  being  enjoined.  Comparing  both  these  periods, 
however,  with  those  in  which  nitrogenous  food  was  taken,  we  recognize  a 
marked  exemplification  of  the  well-established  fact  that  diet,  on  the  other 
hand,  exerts  a  striking  influence  over  the  amount  of  nitrogen  eliminated 
with  the  urine.  During  each  of  the  non-nitrogenous  diet  periods  the 
quantity  of  nitrogen  eliminated  was  considerably  less  than  during  the 
others;  it  is  also  noticeable  that  the  influence  of  the  non-nitrogenous  food 
was  extended  into  the  subsequent  ordinary  diet  periods,  less  nitrogen. 
being  voided  during  these  than  at  the  commencement  of  the  experiment, 
3 


34  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

before  any  restriction   from   nitrogenous  food  had  been   imposed.     This 
point,  however,  will  be  further  alluded  to  hereafter. 

In  the  second  series  of  experiments,  the  amount  of  nitrogen  elimi- 
nated was  determined  under  the  conditions  of  rest  and  exercise,  combined 
with  a  mixed  diet.  One  of  the  two  men,  S.,  was  the  same  who  had  been 
made  use  of  in  the  former  experiment;  the  other,  B.,  was  a  fresh  man, 
weighing  one  hundred  and  forty  pounds,  and  therefore  nearer  in  size  toS., 
who  weighed  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds,  than  T.,  of  the  former  experi- 
ment, who  weighed  one  hundred  and  twelve  pounds.  During  the  sixteen 
days  over  which  the  observations  extended,  each  man  took  precisely  the 
same  allowance  of  food  in  the  twenty-four  hours:  the  food  consisting  of 
weighed  quantities  of  meat,  bread,  potatoes,  and  the  other  constituents 
of  an  ordinary  mixed  diet.  For  the  first  four  days  the  men  pursued 
their  customary  employment.  The  next  two  days  were  passed  in  rest. 
Then  followed  four  days  of  ordinary  employment;  after  this,  two  days 
of  active  exercise;  and  finally,  four  days  again  of  ordinary  employment. 
The  amount  of  nitrogen  eliminated  by  the  kidneys  during  the  several 
periods  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Urinary  nitrogen 
per  diem.—  Grammes. 

Ordinary  employment  (mean  of  four  days),     .         .          •    1  "R   IS  ^02 

.  ,  .  .        ,      x  (  S.'  19.'l37 

Kest  (mean  of  two  days),         .         .         .         .         .         •    1  R    1  Q  4.71 

n  j-  *  /  tt       j       x  !  S.  17.612 

Ordinary  employment  (mean  of  four  days),     .         .         •    "i  R    i  ft  4.8" 

A   *•  •  11  •  11  j   oj      >i      *L      1  &  19.646 

Active  exercise  —  walking  on  level  ground,  24  miles  the    i  r>    -i  q  QKQ 

first  day,  and  35  the  second  —  (mean  of  two  days),       .     [  q'  91  n'4. 


Ordinary  employment  (mean  of  four  days),     .         .         .       B.  20.092 

In  these  results  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  nothing  to  sanction  the 
doctrine  that  the  source  of  muscular  power  resides  in  the  destruction  of 
muscular  tissue.  In  two  persons  subsisting  on  an  identical  and  unvary- 
ing daily  diet,  and  subjected  to  varying  conditions  of  muscular  exertion, 
we  find  nearly  the  same  quantity  of  nitrogen  eliminated  during  two 
days'  hard  walking  as  during  two  days  of  rest.  It  is  curious,  and  also, 
it  must  be  owned,  does  not  appear  explicable,  that  during  the  periods  of 
both  rest  and  active  exercise  the  daily  amount  of  nitrogen  eliminated 
was  in  excess  of  that  eliminated  during  the  first  two  periods  of  ordinary 
employment,  the  figures  at  the  same  time  for  the  associated  periods  re- 
spectively agreeing  very  closely  with  each  other.  In  the  third  period  of 
ordinary  employment  —  that  is,  after  the  two  days  of  walking  exercise  — 
the  nitrogen  voided  was  greater  in  quantity  than  at  any  other  time. 
Such  excess,  however,  did  not  amount  to  anything  particularly  marked. 

Comparing  in  detail  the  nitrogen  eliminated  during  the  corresponding 
portions  of  the  two  day-periods—  those  of  rest  and  active  exercise  —  Dr. 
Parkes  observes,  with  respect  to  the  results  furnished  :  "  On  the  first 
.  day  of  exercise,  the  nitrogen  in  each  man  fell  below  the  corresponding 
day  of  rest  by  1.626  and  1.131  grammes.  In  the  next  twelve  hours, 
which  were  almost  entirely  occupied  in  exercise  (this  period  extending 
from  8  A.M.  to  8  P.M.),  the  diminution  was  still  greater,  being  2.498  and 
1.225  grammes,  which  would  be  equivalent  to  5  and  2£  grammes  for 
twenty-four  hours.  In  the  last  twelve  hours  (8  P.M.  to  8  A.M.)  of  rest 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  35 

after  work,  the  elimination  increased  greatly,  so  that  5.142  and  3.331 
grammes  more  were  excreted  than  in  the  corresponding  rest  period." 
Seeking  to  reconcile  his  results  in  relation  to  muscular  action,  Dr.  Parkes 
observes:  "  It  appears  to  me  that  we  can  only  express  the  facts  by  saying 
that  a  muscle  during  action  appropriates  more  nitrogen  than  it  gives  off, 
and  during  rest  gives  off  more  than  it  appropriates." 

But  must  we,  I  would  suggest,  look  only  to  the  muscles  for  the  source 
of  the  variation  in  the  amount  of  nitrogen  discharged  in  these  experi- 
ments? The  results,  in  the  first  place,  conclusively  show  that  the  nitro- 
gen eliminated  forms  no  measure  of  muscular  work  performed,  and  hence 
it  rnay  be  inferred  as  a  corollary  that  muscular  work  is  not  a  result  of 
muscular  destruction.  But  taking  the  variation  in  the  voided  nitrogen 
that  was  observable,  independently  of  that  occasioned  by  diet,  why  should 
we  seek  its  source  exclusively  in  the  muscles  ? 

On  looking  at  the  several  daily  amounts  discharged,  I  remark  the  ex- 
istence of  instances  in  which  considerable  variation  occurs  within  the  pe- 
riods themselves.  Thus,  during  the  first  day  of  the  first  period,  when  the 
men  were  engaged  in  ordinary  employment,  B.  discharged  20.417  grammes 
of  nitrogen,  and  during  the  third  day  only  17.090,  a  difference  approach- 
ing to  3£  grammes.  Again,  during  the  last  period,  which  was  also  spent 
in  ordinary  employment  (it  will  be  remembered  that  the  daily  diet  was 
the  same  throughout  the  experiment),  the  urinary  nitrogen  voided  by 
both  men  stood  as  follows: 

S.  B. 

Grammes.  Grammes. 

First  day, 21.25  20.25 

Second  day, 19.942  19.273 

Third  day, 23.488  19.248 

Fourth  day, 19.536  21.597 

On  the  third  day,  it  thus  appears,  S.  discharged  nearly  4  grammes 
of  nitrogen  in  excess  of  that  on  the  fourth,  and  about  3^  in  excess  of  that 
on  the  second.  No  corresponding  fluctuation,  it  will  be  remarked,  was 
observable  in  the  case  of  B.  Here,  then,  are  marked  variations  in  the 
elimination  of  nitrogen  without  a  variation  of  muscular  action 

In  a  more  recently  performed  experiment,*  Dr.  Parkes'  results  show, 
with  a  fixed  daily  ingress  of  nitrogen,  a  variation  in  the  daily  exit  amount- 
ing in  the  extreme  to  seven  and  a  half  grammes. 

Now  we  know  that  the  nitrogen  of  the  urine  is  derivable  from  the 
metamorphosis  of  the  nitrogenous  ingesta  within  the  system.  It  is  true 
the  food  taken  was  every  day  the  same  throughout  the  experiment  that 
has  been  forming  the  subject  of  consideration,  but  it  does  not  follow  that 
the  rate  of  metamorphosis  was  every  day  similarly  identical.  Doubtless, 
like  other  processes  of  life,  it  is  influenced  by  various  internal  conditions. 
We  know  also,  as  the  result  of  observation  in  the  case  of  starvation,  that, 
notwithstanding  an  absence  of  ingoing  nitrogen,  an  elimination  of  this 
element  still  continues,  and  that  the  nitrogen  eliminated  is  drawn  from 
the  nitrogenous  principles  of  the  body,  belonging  alike  to  the  solids  and 
fluids.  There  is  a  general  waste  or  loss  occurring,  and  the  only  differ- 
ence noticeable  is  that  the  loss  goes  on  with  different  degrees  of  rapidity 
in  the  different  parts  of  the  system.  In  the  muscles  it  certainly  occurs 
somewhat  more  rapidly  than  elsewhere,  but  this  is  all.  With  these  con- 

*  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society,  March,  1871. 


36  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

siderations  before  us,  it  appears  to  me  that  we  are  taking  an  unjustifiably 
narrow  view  in  looking1  only  to  the  muscles  to  account  for  the  variation 
in  question  in  the  voided  nitrogen.  Exercise  cannot  fail  to  influence  the 
processes  going  on  in  the  system  generally,  as  well  as  in  the  muscles,  and, 
in  accounting  for  the  results  observed,  instead  of  limiting  ourselves,  with 
Dr.  Parkes,  to  the  assertion  that  "  we  can  only  express  the  fact  by  saying 
that  a  muscle  during  action  appropriates  more  nitrogen  than  it  gives  off, 
and  during  rest  gives  off  more  than  it  appropriates,"  I  think  what  we 
ought  rather  to  say  is,  that  during  exercise  the  system  appropriates  more 
nitrogen  than  it  gives  off,  and  during  rest  gives  off  more  than  it  appro- 
priates. 

Voit,  however,  disputes  the  reality  of  exercise  producing  any  influence 
over  the  elimination  of  nitrogen,  and  has  taken  exception  to  some  of  Dr. 
Parkes'  experiments,  on  the  ground,  more  particularly,  that  the  daily  in- 
gress of  nitrogen  could  not  be  kept  sufficiently  stable.  This  elicited  from 
Dr.  Parkes  his  further  series,  the  results  of  which  are  recorded  in  the 
"  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society  "  for  March,  1871.  In  these  it  appeared 
that  there  was  no  change  induced,  either  at  the  time  or  afterward,  by  a 
moderate  amount  of  additional  exercise  under  a  mixed  regulated  diet; 
but,  under  a  non-nitrogenous  diet,  the  increase  in  the  nitrogen  on  the  fol- 
lowing day  to  the  performance  of  a  hard  day's  march  was  exceedingly 
striking.  The  non-nitrogenous  diet  was  continued  through  five  successive 
days.  During  the  first  three  it  was  associated  with  the  ordinary  work  of 
a  soldier;  on  the  fourth,  with  a  march  of  thirty-two  miles,  performed  with 
a  load  of  43£  Ibs. ;  and  on  the  fifth  with  rest.  As  the  ordinary  result  of 
abstinence  from  nitrogenous  food,  the  eliminated  urinary  nitrogen  under- 
went a  steady  decrease  during  the  first  four  days;  on  the  fifth,  however, 
it  showed  a  marked  ascent,  the  amount  being  then  in  considerable  excess 
of  that  discharged  on  the  first. 

In  the  New  York  Medical  Journal  for  October,  1870,  Dr.  Austin 
Flint,  Jun.,  records  the  result  of  the  examination  of  the  urine  secreted 
during  the  performance  of,  perhaps,  an  unprecedented  amount  of  muscular 
work  within  the  space  of  time  occupied.  A  Mr.  Weston,  aged  thirty-two, 
of  medium  height,  and  weighing  ordinarily  122  Ibs.  without  his  clothes, 
celebrated  as  a  pedestrian  of  the  United  States,  undertook  to  perform 
the  astonishing  feat  of  walking  one  hundred  miles  in  twenty-two  consec- 
utive hours.  The  feat,  it  appears,  was  accomplished  within  the  time — 
namely,  in  twenty-one  hours  and  thirty-nine  minutes.  The  food  con- 
sumed during  the  period  was  taken  in  small  quantities  at  short  intervals, 
and  consisted  of  between  one  and  two  bottles  of  beef-essence,  two  bot- 
tles of  oatmeal-gruel,  and  sixteen  to  twenty  raw  eggs,  with  water.  Mr. 
Weston  drank,  it  is  said,  a  little  lemonade  and  took  water  very  frequently, 
but  only  in  quantity  sufficient  to  rinse  his  mouth.  While  walking  the 
last  ten  miles  he  took,  it  is  further  stated,  two  or  three  mouthfuls  of 
champagne,  amounting  to  about  three  fluid  ounces,  and  about  two  and  a 
half  fluid  ounces  of  brandy  in  ten-drop  doses.  The  head  and  face  were 
sponged  freely  at  short  intervals,  and  the  food  and  drink  were  taken 
mainly  on  the  walk,  which  was  conducted  within  a  covered  enclosure. 

The  urine  passed  during  and  at  the  completion  of  the  walk  measured 
73£  fluid  ounces,  and  presented  the  specific  gravity  of  1011.  According 
to  Dr.  Flint's  analysis  it  contained  424f  grains  of  urea.  Now  500  grains 
form  about  the  average  daily  quantity  of  urea  discharged  under  an  ordi- 
nary mixed  diet;  and  as  the  diet  during  the  performance  of  the  pedestrian 
feat  was  rich,  as  the  account  shows  it  to  have  been,  in  nitrogenous  mat- 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES. 


37 


ter,  the  quantity  of  urea,  apart  from  any  other  consideration,  was  even 
less  than  might  have  been  expected.     And  yet,  on  the  strength  of  a  com- 

E  arisen  with  another  examination  of  the  urine  conducted  three  months 
iter,  when  only  191  grains  of  urea  are  stated  to  have  been  discharged  in 
the  absence  of  exposure  to  muscular  exertion,  Dr.  Flint  argues  that 
muscular  exercise  notably  increases  the  elimination  of  urea.  To  take  a 
solitary  result  of  so  exceptional  a  kind  as  the  discharge  of  only  191  grains 
of  urea  in  the  twenty-four  hours,  and  use  it  as  a  ground  of  comparison  for 
reasoning  upon,  as  Dr.  Flint  has  done,  is  surely  to  violate  all  rules  of 
sound  induction,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  we  shall  not  find  the  observa- 
tion quoted  by  writers  as  bearing  out  what  Dr.  Flint  has  contended 
for. 

During  November,  1870,  Mr.  Weston  undertook  another  pedestrian 
feat,  and  this  time  a  very  elaborate  examination  was  made  of  the  ingesta 
and  egesta,  and  of  various  conditions  of  the  body,  by  Dr.  Flint  and  a 
staff  of  associates.  The  results  are  recorded  in  detail  in  the  New  York 
Medical  Journal  for  June,  1871.  The  feat  proposed  was  to  walk  400 
miles  in  five  consecutive  days,  and  upon  one  of  the  days  112  miles  were 
to  be  walked  in  twenty-four  consecutive  hours.  Mr.  Weston  commenced 
the  undertaking  on  the  21st  of  November.  The  examination  of  the  in- 
gesta, egesta,  etc.,  had  been  conducted  for  five  days  before;  it  was  also 
carried  on  during  the  five  days  of  the  walk,  and  continued  for  five  days 
afterward.  Thus,  the  result  for  three  periods — before,  during,  and 
after  the  walk — were  obtained.  The  subjoined  tabular  representation 
will  give  a  summary  view  of  the  leading  points  noted.  The  walk  was  un- 
dertaken over  a  measured  track,  marked  out  in  the  form  of  a  parallelo- 
gram, within  a  large  covered  space — namely,  the  Empire  Skating  Rink  in 
New  York.  -  It  appears  that  Mr.  Weston  failed  this  time  to  accomplish 
the  feat  he  had  attempted,  the  distance  walked  during  the  five  days 
amounting  to  317£  miles,  and  the  greatest  distance  on  any  one  day  to  92 
miles. 

Notwithstanding  the  figures  to  be  presented,  Dr.  Flint  still  holds  to 
his  former  opinion,  and  lootfs  upon  the  results  as  showing,  to  use  his  own 
words,  that  "  excessive  and  prolonged  muscular  exertion  increases  enor- 
mously the  excretion  of  nitrogen,  and  that  the  excess  of  nitrogen  dis- 
charged is  due  to  an  increased  disassimilation  of  the  muscular  sub- 
stance." 


DB.  FLINT'S    Observations  on  the  Effects  of  the  Five-day  Pedestrian 
Feat  Performed  by  MB.  WESTON. 


BEFORE   TJHK   WALK. 


Weight  of 

Tem- 

Milos 

Nitrogen 

Nitrogen 

Excess  or  deficiency 

body  (nude). 

perature. 

walked. 

in  ingesta. 

in  egesta. 

in  nitrogen  egested. 

Lbs. 

Deg.Fahr. 

Grains. 

Grains. 

Grains. 

First  day,      .      . 

120.5 

99.7 

75 

15 

361.22 

323.26 

-    37.96 

Second  day,  . 

121.25 

98.4 

73 

5 

288.35 

301.18 

+     12.83 

Third   day,    .      . 

120 

98.0 

71 

5 

272.27 

330.36 

+    58.09 

Fourth  day,   . 

118.5 

99.1 

78 

15 

335.01 

300.57 

-    34.44 

Fifth  day,      .     . 

119.2 

99.5 

93 

1 

440.43 

320.06 

-  120.37 

38 


A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 


DURING  THE  WALK. 


Weight  of 
body  (nude). 

Tem- 
perature. 

Pulse. 

Miles 

walked. 

Nitrogen 
in  ingesta. 

Nitrogen 
in  egesta. 

Excess  or  deficiency 
in  nitrogen  egested. 

LbR. 

Dej?.  Fahr. 

Grains. 

Grains. 

Grains. 

First  day, 

116.5 

95.3 

98 

80 

151.55 

357.10 

+  205.55 

Second  dav,   . 

116.25 

94.8 

93 

48 

265.92 

370.64 

+  104.72 

Third  day,    .      . 

115 

96.6 

109 

92 

228.61 

397.58 

+  168.97 

Fourth  day,   . 

114 

96.6 

€8 

57 

144.70 

348.53 

+  203.83 

Fifth  day,      .      . 

115.75 

97.9 

80 

40.5 

383.04 

332.77 

-    50.27 

AFTER   THE   "WALK. 


First  day,      .      . 

118 

98.6 

76 

2 

385.65 

295.70 

-    89.95 

Second  day,   . 

120.25 

98.4 

73 

2 

499.10 

358.81 

-  140.29 

Third   day,    .      . 

120.25 

99.3 

70 

2 

394.83 

409.87 

+     15.04 

Fourth  day,   . 

123.5 

98.8 

78 

2 

641.71 

382.89 

-  258.82 

Fifth  day,      .     . 

120.75 

97.5 

76 

3 

283.35 

418.49 

+  135.14 

Let  us  accept  Dr.  Flint's  estimates  of  the  ingoing  and  outgoing  nitro- 
gen. It  is  true,  during  the  first  four  days  of  the  walking  period  the 
exit  of  nitrogen  was  in  considerable  excess  of  the  entrance;  but  why 
should  this  be  referred  specially  and  exclusively  to  muscular  disintegra- 
tion ?  There  was  during  these  few  days  a  progressive  decline  in  the 
weight  of  the  body,  the  loss  reaching  a  little  over  five  pounds.  From  the 
account  given,  considerably  less  solid  food  was  taken  then  than  before 
and  after.  There  existed  a  state  of  marked  disturbance  of  the  bodily 
functions,  as  shown  by  the  depression  of  temperature  and  elevation  of 
pulse;  but  little  sleep  was  obtained;  and  on  the  third  day,  when  an 
attempt  was  made  to  walk  the  one  hundred  and  twelve  miles  in  twenty- 
four  consecutive  hours,  drowsiness,  it  is  stated,  prevailed  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  it  was  found  impossible  to  make  the  necessary  time  to  accom- 
plish what  had  been  intended.  On  the  fourth  day  Mr.  Weston  actually 
broke  down  for  a  time  altogether,  becoming  dizzy,  staggering,  and  at  last 
failing  to  be  able  to  see  sufficiently  to  turn  the  corners  of  the  track. 

Now,  apart  from  the  fact  that  a  marked  deviation  from  the  physiolog- 
ical state  existed  when  the  results  upon  which  the  conclusions  are  based 
were  yielded,  is  there  anything  in  the  results  to  show  that  in  reality  we 
have  more  to  deal  with  than  simply  a  consumption  of  nitrogenous  material 
within  the  system  beyond  the  supply  for  the  time  from  without  ?  Taking 
the  figures  throughout,  there  is  not  much  more  to  be  seen  than  a  differ- 
ence occasioned  by  a  falling  off  in  the  amount  of  nitrogen  ingested  dur- 
ing the  first  four  days  of  the  walk;  and  it  is  well  known  that  when  the 
ingesta  do  not  furnish  what  is  wanted  for  meeting  the  expenditure  going 
on  (as  during  inanition),  the  resources  of  the  body  are  drawn  upon,  and 
the  nitrogenous  matter  existing  in  the  various  parts — both  solids  and 
fluids — wastes  or  yields  itself  up  as  well  as  the  rest.  On  the  fifth  day, 
after  a  prolonged  sleep,  which  appears  to  have  restored  the  flagging 
powers,  the  previous  relation  was  reversed.  The  food  ingested  afforded 
more  than  enough  to  meet  the  requirements.  There  was  a  gain  of  1| 
pound  in  body-weight,  and,  according  to  the  figures,  the  nitrogen  dis- 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  39 

charged  fell  short  by  50.27  grains  of  that  which  entered,  notwithstanding 
a  walk  of  forty  and  a  half  miles  was  performed. 

The  distance  walked  during  the  five  days  amounted  to  31 7£  miles, 
and  the  excess  of  nitrogen  eliminated  during  the  time,  over  that  ingested, 
appears  to  have  been  633  grains.  Presuming,  for  sake  of  argument,  this 
to  have  represented  the  nitrogen  of  muscle  disintegrated  in  the  accom- 
plishment of  the  work  performed,  we  have  before  us  the  data  for  ascer- 
taining how  far  the  force  producible  in  this  way  would  correspond  with 
the  expenditure  that  must  have  occurred. 

According  to  Mulder's  analysis,  albuminous  matter  contains  15.5  per 
cent,  of  nitrogen.  Reckoning  from  this  proportion,  633  grains  of  nitro- 
gen will  correspond  with  4,083  grains  of  dry  albumen,  and  the  composi- 
tion of  the  nitrogenous  matter  of  muscle  is  closely  analogous.  Now  the 
force  producible  from  the  oxidation  of  albuminous  matter  has  been  experi- 
mentally ascertained  by  Frankland,  and  as  it  occurs  within  the  body,  the 
oxidation  of  4,083  grains  of  dry  albumen  would  give  rise  to  the  evolution 
of  an  amount  of  power  equal  to  lifting  1,540  tons  one  foot  high. 

Here  we  have  one  side  of  the  question — the  amount  of  work  obtain- 
able from  the  nitrogenous  matter  presumed  to  have  undergone  disinte- 
gration as  muscular  tissue;  and  so  far  the  information  in  our  possession 
may  be  regarded  as  sufficiently  authentic  to  enable  us  to  frame  a  reliable 
conclusion.  As  regards  the  work  accomplished,  we  may  assume,  with 
Professor  Haughton,  that  the  force  expended  in  walking  or  progressing 
on  level  ground  is  equal  to  that  required  to  lift  one-twentieth  of  the 
weight  of  the  body  through  the  distance  traversed.  The  distance  walked 
amounted  to  317£  miles,  and  if  we  take  the  weight  of  the  body  and  cloth- 
ing at,  say,  120  pounds,  this  will  give  the  performance  of  an  amount  of 
work  equal  to  lifting  4,490  tons  one  foot  high,  or  about  two-thirds  more 
work  than  the  oxidation  of  the  nitrogenous  matter  representing  the  633 
grains  of  nitrogen  could  accomplish.  And,  in  this  calculation,  only  the 
external  work  has  been  taken  into  consideration.  There  is,  in  reality, 
also  a  considerable  amount  of  internal  work  constantly  being  performed — 
viz.,  that  employed  in  keeping  up  the  circulation,  in  respiration,  and  in 
various  other  essential  actions  of  life. 

I  have  entered  thus  minutely  into  the  question  of  the  elimination  of 
nitrogen  in  relation  to  muscular  work  because  it  bears  in  so  forcible  and 
direct  a  manner  upon  the  question  immediately  before  us,  viz.,  the  uses  to 
which  the  nitrogenous  alimentary  principles  are  applied  in  the  system. 
Briefly  represented,  the  position  of  the  matter  may  be  said  to  be  this: 

Many  years  ago  it  was  asserted  by  Liebig  that  muscular  action  in- 
volved the  destruction  of  muscular  tissue.  The  plausibility  of  the  doc- 
trine, and  the  readiness  with  which  the  views  of  its  author  were  then 
received,  must  be  considered  as  having  led  to  its  being  at  once  generally 
accepted  as  though  it  formed  a  scientific  truth,  although,  in  reality,  only 
constituting  a  speculative  proposition,  unsupported  by  anything  of  the 
nature  of  proof.  It  was  further  argued  that,  if  muscular  action  involved 
the  destruction  of  muscular  tissue,  the  excretion  of  the  nitrogenous  pro- 
duct of  destruction — urea — ought  to  be  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of 
muscular  work  performed.  This  seemed  to  follow  as  a  necessary  se- 
quence, and  the  one  being  accepted,  the  other  was  taken  for  granted  also. 
Thus,  notwithstanding  the  absence  of  anything  in  the  shape  of  proof,  we 
find  physiologists  reasoning  and  writing  as  though  the  doctrine  had  been 
actually  proved. 

If  the  theory  of  Liebig  were  true,  we  should  have  to  look  upon  nitro- 


40  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

genous  alimentary  matter  as  forming,  through  the  medium  of  muscular 
tissue,  the  source,  the  only  source,  of  muscular  power.  The  renewal  of 
muscular  tissue  for  subsequent  oxidation  in  its  turn,  and  evolution  of  mus- 
cular force,  would  thus  constitute  one  of  the  functions  of  nitrogenous 
alimentary  matter;  and  on  its  supply  would,  accordingly,  depend  our 
capacity  for  the  performance  of  muscular  work. 

It  is  only  lately  that  the  doctrine  has  been  submitted  to  the  test  of  ex- 
periment, and  with  what  result  the  foregoing  account  of  the  researches 
of  various  observers  has  shown.  Even  Liebig*was  brought  to  assert 
that  muscular  action  is  not  attended  by  the  production  of  urea.  He  ad- 
mitted that  the  question  as  to  the  source  of  muscular  power  had  been 
complicated  by  an  inference  which  had  proved  erroneous,  and  for  which 
he  acknowledged  himself  as  responsible — the  inference,  namely,  that 
muscular  work  is  represented  by  the  metamorphosis  of  muscular  tissue, 
and  the  formation  of  urea  as  a  final  product.  While  admitting  this  much, 
however,  Liebig  still  looked  to  changes  in  the  nitrogenous  constituents 
of  muscle  as  the  source  of  muscular  power.  He  assumed  the  presence  in 
muscle  of  nitrogenous  substances  in  a  much  higher  state  of  tension  than 
syntonine  and  albumen,  and  to  these  he  referred  the  performance  of 
muscular  work,  taking  shelter  under  the  proposition  that  it  is  due  to  the 
liberation  of  the  tension  thus  presumed  to  have  been  accumulated  in 
them  during  their  formation. 

The  application  of  food  to  the  genesis  of  muscular  power  will  form 
the  subject  of  further  consideration  hereafter,  when  we  reach  the  head  of 
non-nitrogenous  matter.  Suffice  it  here  to  reiterate  that  muscular  action 
is  not  to  be  considered  as  the  result  of  muscle-destruction,  as  was  for- 
merly supposed,  and  hence  that  nitrogenous  matter  is  not  applied  through 
muscle — in  the  manner  hitherto  maintained — to  the  development  of 
muscular  force.  Thus  much,  from  the  evidence  before  us,  may  be  said, 
but,  at  the  same  time,  common  experience  seems  to  show  that  a  plenti- 
ful supply  of  nitrogenous  matter  in  the  food  tends  to  increase  the  capa- 
city for  the  performance  of  muscular  work.  If,  however,  it  does  so  in  any 
other  way  than  by  supplying  material  for  nutrition  and  the  secretions, 
and  so  contributing  to  the  production  of  a  fully  nourished  and  vigorous 
state  of  the  system,  we  have  no  data  before  us  to  indicate  how. 

Let  me  next  draw  attention  to  the  application  of  nitrogenous  matter 
to  force-production  by  the  direct  utilization  of  the  carbon  and  hydrogen 
it  contains.  Liebig's  doctrine,  which,  until  recently,  has  formed  the  ac- 
cepted one  on  this  point,  was  that  nitrogenous  food,  to  be  turned  to 
account  for  force-production,  must  pass  through  the  condition  of  living 
tissue.  This  brings  us  back  to  the  discussion  that  has  preceded,  with  the 
addition  that  our  nitrogenous  food  must  perform  work  as  tissue  to  enable 
it  to  be  susceptible  of  application  to  force,  or — say — heat-production. 
Thus,  in  his  work  on  "  Animal  Chemistry,"  at  page  60,  Liebig  says,  "  the 
flesh  and  blood  consumed  as  food  yield  their  carbon  for  the  support  of  the 
respiratory  process,  whilst  the  nitrogen  appears  as  uric  acid,  ammonia,  or 
urea.  But,  previously  to  these  final  changes,  the  dead  flesh  and  blood 
become  converted  into  living  flesh  and  blood,  and  it  is,  strictly  speaking, 
the  carbon  of  the  compounds  formed  in  the  metamorphosis  of  living  tis- 
sues that  serves  for  the  production  of  animal  heat."  Again,  at  page  77, 
we  find:  "  Man  when  confined  to  animal  food  respires  like  the  carnivora 

*  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Bavarian  Academy  of  Science,  1869  ;  Pharmaceutical 
Journal,  1870. 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  41 

at  the  expense  of  the  matter  produced  by  the  metamorphosis  of  organized 
tissues;  and  just  as  the  lion,  tiger,  and  hyena,  in  the  cages  of  a  menage- 
rie, are  compelled  to  accelerate  the  waste  of  their  organized  tissues  by  in- 
cessant motion,  in  order  to  furnish  the  matter  necessary  for  respiration, 
so  the  savage,  for  the  very  same  object,  is  forced  to  make  the  most  labo- 
rious exertions  and  go  through  a  vast  amount  of  muscular  exercise.  He 
is  compelled  to  consume  force  merely  in  order  to  supply  matter  for  respi- 
ration." Once  more,  in  speaking  of  the  derivation  of  urea  from  the  met- 
amorphosis of  nitrogenous  matter,  he  says,  at  page  144:  "  There  can  be  no 
greater  contradiction  with  regard  to  the  nutritive  process  than  to  suppose 
that  the  nitrogen  of  the  food  can  pass  into  the  urine  as  urea,  without 
having  previously  become  part  of  an  organized  tissue." 

Liebig's  idea,  then,  upon  this  point  is  very  precise.  He  considers  that 
nitrogenous  matter  may  contribute  toward  heat-production,  but  that  it 
must  first  pass  into  the  condition  of  tissue  before  it  can  do  so,  and  that 
it  is  in  the  wear  and  tear  of  tissue  that  occurs  the  splitting  up  of  the 
compound,  so  as  to  lead  to  the  production  of  urea  for  secretion  on  the 
one  hand,  and  the  liberation  of  carbon  and  hydrogen  for  oxidation  on  the 
other. 

The  facts  which  have  been  already  adduced,  suffice  to  refute  this  doc- 
trine. Indeed,  it  may  be  considered  as  now  abundantly  proved  that  food 
does  not  require  to  become  organized  tissue  before  it  can  be  rendered 
available  for  force-production.  But  Liebig  himself,  in  language  not  less 
precise  than  that  which  he  at  first  employed,  has  recently  *  given  utter- 
ance to  words  which  directly  contradict  his  original  view,  inasmuch  as  he 
now  asserts  that  muscular  work  and  the  production  of  urea  bear  no  im- 
mediate relation  to  each  other,  and  that  among  the  products  formed  as  the 
result  of  muscular  action,  urea  certainly  does  not  even  constitute  one. 

If  the  elimination  of  urea,  as  has  been  shown,  is  not  related,  as  was 
formerly  supposed,  to  muscular  action,  it  is,  on  the  other  hand,  in  a  very 
direct  manner  influenced  by  the  food  ingested.  As  far  back  as  1854, 
Messrs.  Lawes  and  Gilbert,  in  opposition  to  the  views  then  prevailing, 
showed  by  the  results  obtained  in  their  observations  on  the  feeding  of 
cattle,  that  the  nitrogen  in  the  urine  is  related  to  that  in  the  food,  and 
not  to  the  muscular  work;  and,  since  then,  the  concurrent  testimony  of 
numerous  observers,  as  has  been  already  pointed  out,  may  be  held  as  com- 
pletely establishing  this  position.  Lehmann's  well-known  experiments 
upon  himself  strikingly  illustrate  the  extent  to  which  this  influence  is 
manifested.  The  results  he  obtained  were  as  follows: 

While  living  on  a  purely  animal  diet,  namely,  almost  exclusively  on 
eggs,  Lehmann  passed  53.2  grammes  (820  grains)  of  urea  in  the  twenty- 
four  hours  as  the  mean  of  twelve  observations. 

Upon  a  mixed  diet,  the  urea  amounted  to  32.5  grammes  (501  grains) 
as  the  mean  of  fifteen  observations. 

Upon  a  vegetable  diet,  the  urea  given  as  the  mean  of  twelve  observa- 
tions was  22.5  grammes  (347  grains). 

And,  lastly,  upon  a  purely  non-nitrogenous  diet  (fat,  sugar  of  milk, 
and  starch)  he  voided,  as  the  mean  of  three  observations,  only  15.4 
grammes  (237  grains)  of  urea. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  upon  an  animal  diet,  which  is  the  richest  in  nitro- 
genous matter,  the  voided  urea  more  than  doubled  that  eliminated  upon 
a  vegetable  diet,  while  the  amount  of  urea  voided  upon  a  mixture  of  the 

*  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Bavarian  Academy  of  Sciences,  1869. 


42  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

two  kinds  of  food  held  an  intermediate  position.  When  no  nitrogenous 
matter  was  ingested,  the  area  was  at  its  minimum.  What  was  then 
passed  would  be  derived  from  the  metamorphosis  of  the  nitrogenous  mat- 
ter belonging  to  the  blood  and  the  other  constituents  of  the  system. 

Some  experiments  of  Schmidt  show,  also,  in  accordance  with  the  re- 
sults obtained  by  Lehmann,  that  the  amount  of  urea  passed  is  related  to 
the  quantity  of  food  ingested,  the  nature  of  it  remaining  the  same. 
Schmidt  found  that  a  cat  excreted  the  following  relative  amounts  of 
urea  to  body-weight  under  the  consumption  of  different  amounts  of  meat: 

Daily  amount  of  Daily  amount  of  urea  excreted 

meat  eaten.  per  kilogramme  body-weight. 

Grammes.  Grammes. 

44.188 2.958 

46.154 3.050 

75.938 5.152 

108.755 7.663 

From  these  results  it  may  be  computed  that  a  cat,  living  on  a  flesh 
diet,  discharges  by  the  kidneys  on  an  average  6.8  parts  of  urea  for  every 
hundred  parts  of  meat  consumed. 

The  great  bulk  of  the  nitrogen  belonging  to  the  food  ingested,  thus 
passes  out  of  the  system  in  the  form  of  urea.  If  all  escaped  in  this  way 
the  quantity  of  urea  discharged  would  amount  to  (say)  7.88  per  cent,  of 
the  weight  of  the  meat:  the  nitrogen  contained  in  100  parts  of  flesh  corres- 
ponding with  that  contained  in  7.88  parts  of  urea.  There  were,  then, 
6.8  parts  of  urea  produced  instead  of  the  7.88  parts,  which  may  be  spoken 
of  as  representing  the  actual  equivalent,  as  far  as  contained  nitrogen  is 
concerned,  of  100  parts  of  flesh. 

Lehmann,  from  his  observations  on  himself,  asserts  that  as  much  as 
five-sixths  of  the  nitrogen  of  the  ingested  food  were  found  in  his  urine 
under  the  form  of  urea.  For  example,  while  living  upon  a  purely  animal 
diet,  consisting  of  thirty-two  eggs  daily,  he  ingested  about  30.16  grammes 
of  nitrogen,  and,  in  the  urea  voided,  discharged  about  25  grammes  of  ni- 
trogen. 

The  discharge  of  urea  being  thus  proportioned  to  the  amount  of  the 
nitrogenous  matter  ingested,  it  follows  that  nitrogenous  matter  must 
undergo  metamorphosis  of  such  a  nature  within  the  system  as  to  lead  to 
the  production  of  urea.  Further,  it  may  be  said  that  this  metamorphosis 
must  take  place  rapidly,  as  it  is  found  that  the  effect  upon  the  excretion 
of  urea  quickly  follows  an  alteration  in  the  food  ingested.  Lehmann,  for 
example,  again  drawing  from  his  observations  on  himself,  noticed  in  the 
morning,  after  he  had  lived  exclusively  on  animal  food,  that  his  urine  was 
so  rich  in  urea  as  to  throw  down  a  copious  precipitate  of  the  nitrate  on 
the  addition  of  nitric  acid.  In  Dr.  Parkes'  observations,  also,  upon  the 
two  soldiers  S.  and  T.,  before  referred  to,  the  alterations  in  the  food  in- 
gested speedily  influenced  the  amount  of  urea  escaping.  These  men  were, 
first  of  all,  kept  for  four  days  upon  a  regulated  mixed  diet;  next,  for  two 
days  upon  a  non-nitrogenous  diet;  then  again'  for  four  days  upon  a  mixed 
diet;  afterward  for  two  days  on  a  non-nitrogenous  diet;  and,  lastly,  for 
four  days  on  a  mixed  diet.  S.  during  the  first  four  days  on  the  mixed  diet 
passed  35  grammes  of  urea  as  the  daily  mean.  During  the  first  day  of  the 
non-nitrogenous  diet  he  passed  20,  and  during  the  second,  13.52  grammes. 
Resuming  the  mixed  diet,  he  passed  on  the  first  day,  20.67;  on  the  second, 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  43 

25.68;  on  the  third,  26.29;  and  on  the  fourth,  29.67  grammes  of  urea. 
Changing  again  to  the  non-nitrogenous  diet,  he  passed  on  the  first  day 
19.12,  and  on  the  second,  15  grammes  of  urea.  On  the  next  four  days, 
the  diet  being  a  mixed  one,  he  passed,  during  the  first  day,  20.8;  the 
second,  26.36;  the  third,  28.32;  and  the  fourth,  30.10  grammes  of  urea. 
With  T.  (a  much  smaller  man  than  S.)  the  mean  for  the  first  four  days 
of  mixed  food  was  25.92  grammes  of  voided  urea.  During  the  next  two 
days,  upon  non-nitrogenous  food,  he  passed  on  the  first  day,  17.3;  and 
on  the  second,  12.65  grammes.  On  the  following  four  days,  upon  a  diet 
of  mixed  food,  he  voided  14.40  the  first  day;  23  the  second;  25.20  the 
third;  and  22. 99  grammes  the  fourth.  During  the  next  two  days,  resuming 
the  non-nitrogenous  diet,  he  voided  16  the  first  day,  and  13.20  grammes 
the  second.  With  a  return  to  a  mixed  diet,  during  the  following  four 
days  the  urea  stood  at  23  on  the  first;  24.36  on  the  second;  24.57  on 
the  third;  and  21.36  grammes  on  the  fourth. 

Although  conducted  for  settling  another  point,  it  will  be  seen  that 
these  observations  very  clearly  and  consistently  throughout  show  that 
the  production  and  elimination  of  urea  are  speedily  affected  by  the  inges- 
tion  of  nitrogenous  matter. 

With  the  view  of  obtaining  more  precise  information  regarding  the 
time  required  for  the  metamorphosis  of  nitrogenous  matter  to  occur  and 
lead  to  an  increased  elimination  of  urea,  Mr.  Mahomed,  whilst  formerly 
assisting  me  in  my  laboratory,  carried  out,  with  laudable  zeal  and  self- 
denial,  two  series  of  experiments  upon  himself,  the  particulars  of  which  I 
will  introduce  here.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  he  was  twenty-two  years 
of  age,  6  feet  in  height,  and  list.  lllb.  in  weight. 

The  method  of  procedure  had  recourse  to  was  to  diminish  the  elimin- 
ation of  urea  by  limiting  in  one  experiment,  and  withholding  in  the  other, 
the  introduction  of  nitrogenous  matter,  and  then  note  within  what  space 
of  time  the  ingestion  of  nitrogenous  matter  showed  its  effects  upon  the 
urine. 

The  first  experiment  was  commenced  on  April  16,  1871.  Mr.  Ma- 
homed had  been  previously  living  upon  an  ordinary  mixed  diet,  and 
took  his  dinner  of  mixed  food,  as  usual,  at  1.30  P.M.  From  this  time  he 
restricted  himself  to  rice,  arrow-root,  butter,  sugar,  and  tea.  Rice  was 
allowed  that  he  might  not  suffer  too  much  privation,  and  as  being  one  of 
the  least  nitrogenous  of  the  natural  food  products.  The  diet  was  contin- 
ued throughout  the  17th,  and  at  8  A.M.  on  the  18th,  four  eggs — purposely 
to  supply  nitrogenous  matter — were  eaten.  This  was  the  only  deviation 
from  the  diet  of  the  preceding  day,  so  that  an  opportunity  was  given  for 
the  urea  to  be  again  at  a  low  point  on  the  following  morning,  when  a 
meal,  consisting  mainly  of  meat,  was  taken.  On  page  44  is  a  represen- 
tation of  the  results  obtained,  arranged  in  a  tabular  form. 

On  looking  at  the  results  obtained,  it  appears  that  under  the  restricted 
diet  the  urea  pretty  steadily  decreased  in  amount  from  21  to  9.05  grains 
per  hour.  The  ingestion  of  four  eggs  caused  an  ascent,  within  the  four 
succeeding  hours,  to  13.82  grains,  and  having  thus  immediately  risen,  the 
rate  of  elimination  only  underwent  a  little  further  increase  through  the 
remainder  of  the  day.  The  urea  having  again  descended  to  10.62  grains 
per  hour  by  the  following  morning,  the  ingestion  of  a  meal  in  which 
steak  was  eaten  plentifully,  led  to  a  rise  for  the  next  four  hours  to  21.16 
grains  per  hour,  and,  with  the  repetition  of  the  nitrogenous  food,  the 
elimination  of  urea  continued  to  increase  throughout  the  day. 


44 


A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 


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46  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

During  the  performance  of  the  experiment  the  accustomed  mental 
and  bodily  work  was  undertaken.  Mr.  Mahomed  did  not  notice  that  the 
2£  days'  dietetic  restriction  produced  any  other  sensation  than  an  in- 
crease of  the  appetite  and  a  slight  feeling  of  faintness  experienced  the 
last  morning  before  breakfast.  The  urine,  before  the  experiment,  had 
been  frequently  noticed  to  be  loaded  with  lithates.  During  the  period  of 
restricted  diet  it  was  perfectly  clear,  and  the  table  shows  that  the  quan- 
tity was  considerably  larger  than  whilst  animal  food  was  being  con- 
sumed. It  is  a  noteworthy  fact,  indeed,  and  one  which  gives  increased 
weight  to  the  results,  that  the  augmented  elimination  of  urea  was  associ- 
ated with  a  fall  in  the  amount  of  urine,  for,  had  the  quantity  of  urine  been 
increased  instead,  it  might  have  been  questioned  whether  the  alterations 
in  the  urea  might  not  have  been  simply  due  to  more  being  carried  off  as 
a  consequence  of  the  greater  urinary  flow. 

In  the  second  experiment  a  complete  restriction  (excepting  the  insig- 
nificant amount  of  nitrogenous  matter  contained  in  the  tea)  from  nitro- 
genous food  was  practised  for  two  days,  and  then  the  diet  suddenly 
changed  to  one  rich  in  nitrogenous  matter.  To  begin  the  experiment, 
an  observation  was  made  for  one  day  upon  ordinary  food.  The  table  on 
page  45  shows  the  results  obtained. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  results  harmonize  with  those  obtained  in  the 
first  experiment,  and  show  that  the  ingestion  of  nitrogenous  matter  is 
followed  by  a  speedy  metamorphosis  and  production  of  urea.  Under  the  two 
days'  restriction  to  non-nitrogenous  food  the  urea  fell  from  a  range  of  21  to 
25  grains  per  hour  to  8.87  grains  per  hour.  Nitrogenous  food  was  now 
taken,  and  the  form. of  egg  and  milk  beaten  together  was  selected,  that,  on 
account  of  its  fluidity,  absorption  might  be  rapid.  Half  an  hour  later  an 
ordinary  breakfast  with  cold  meat  was  eaten.  During  the  three  hours 
succeeding  the  first  ingestion  of  nitrogenous  matter,  the  urea  secreted 
amounted  to  12.43  grains  per  hour  against  8.87  grains  per  hour,  the  mean 
amount  given  for  the  eight  hours  previously.  During  the  next  three 
hours  it  stood  at  14.13  grains  per  hour,  and  afterward  showed  a  steady 
increase  throughout  the  day.  It  is  true  between  8.87  and  12.43  grains 
per  hour  there  is  not  the  difference  that  was  noticeable  on  the  morning 
of  April  19th  in  the  first  experiment;  but  I  think  it  may  be  fairly  as- 
sumed that  evidence  is  afforded  of  the  production  and  elimination  of  urea 
within  the  three  hours  from  the  nitrogenous  matter  ingested  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  time.  Throughout  the  day  the  urea  was  less  in  quan- 
tity than  during  the  corresponding  period  in  the  first  experiment,  which 
may  be  due  to  the  more  complete  restriction  having  led  to  a  greater  ex- 
haustion of  nitrogenous  matter,  and  thereby,  owing  to  the  greater  de- 
mand for  the  requirements  of  the  system,  a  less  surplus  having  existed 
for  metamorphosis  into  urea  and  the  complemental  hydrocarbonaceous 
portion. 

For  supplying  solid  food  during  the  restriction,  the  arrow-root  was 
made  into  biscuits  with  butter,  sugar,  and  water.  Mr.  Mahomed  remarked, 
on  rising  on  the  morning  of  the  7th,  that  he  felt  depressed,  and  experi- 
enced a  general  want  of  tone.  Before  the  meal  in  the  middle  of  the  day 
he  felt  very  hungry  and  thirsty,  but  these  sensations  disappeared  after 
partaking  of  a  basin  of  arrow-root,  two  of  his  arrow-root  biscuits,  and  a 
cup  of  tea.  He  walked  afterward  between  five  and  six  miles  without  any 
distress.  Between  the  5th  and  the  8th  he  lost  one  pound  in  weight.  The 
urine,  it  may  be  observed,  as  in  the  first  experiment,  underwent  a  marked 
diminution  in  quantity  with  the  return  to  nitrogenous  food.  It  is  a  note- 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  47 

worthy  point  that  between  noon  and  midnight  of  the  second  day's  restric- 
tion the  urine  presented  an  alkaline  reaction.  The  same  feeling  of  weak- 
ness was  experienced  upon  rising  on  the  morning  of  the  8th  as  on  that  of 
the  preceding  day. 

Although  it  has  been  clearly  ascertained  that  a  more  or  less  large 
proportion  of  the  nitrogenous  matter  ingested  undergoes  metamorphosis 
attended  with  the  production  of  urea,  yet,  as  to  the  precise  seat  of 
metamorphosis,  our  information  at  present  warrants,  it  must  be  said,  lit- 
tle more  than  a  surmise  being  formed.  According  to  the  old  doctrine  of 
muscular  action,  the  chief  portion  was  thought  to  be  produced  in  the 
muscles;  but  even  Liebig  now  argues  (abstractedly  from  the  doctrine  in 
question)  that  the  absence  of  urea  as  a  constituent  of  muscular  tissue 
may  be  taken  as  affording  presumptive  evidence  of  its  production  occur- 
ring elsewhere.  While  absent  from  flesh,  or  if  present  only  so  to  a 
barely  appreciable  extent,  it  is,  according  to  Meissner  and  others,  to  be 
detected  in  mammals  in  considerable  quantity  in  the  substance  of  the 
liver;  and  in  birds,  where  uric  acid  holds  the  position  of  urea,  this  has 
been  similarly  found  in  the  liver.  Other  considerations  have  been  also 
advanced  in  support  of  the  liver  forming  the  seat  of  metamorphosis  of 
nitrogenous  matter  attended  with  the  production  of  urea,  but  the  point 
is  one  which  requires  to  be  further  investigated. 

Having  brought  the  subject  before  us  to  this  point,  the  next  question 
for  consideration  is,  What  purpose  is  subserved  by  the  metamorphosis  of 
nitrogenous  matter  that  has  been  shown  to  occur  ? 

It  has  been  hitherto  the  custom  to  look  upon  the  nitrogenous  matter 
which  undergoes  this  transformation  as  holding  the  position  of  superflu- 
ous alimentary  material — "  luxus  consumption,"  as  it  has  been  styled. 
Thus,  Lehmann  writes  :  In  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  we  may 
say  that  urea  is  formed  in  the  blood,  and  that  it  is  produced  from  mate- 
rials which  have  become  effete — the  detritus  of  the  tissues — as  well  as 
from  unserviceable  and  superfluous  nitrogenous  substances  in  the  blood." 
As  albumen  fails  under  natural  circumstances  to  pass  off  as  such  from 
the  system,  it  was  thought  that,  when  introduced  in  excess  of  the  require- 
ments of  nutrition,  it  underwent  a  retrograde  metamorphosis  of  such  a 
nature  as  would  admit  of  the  escape  of  its  elements.  It  is  perfectly  true 
that  the  process  which  occurs  does  constitute  a  retrograde  metamorpho- 
sis; but  the  question  presents  itself  whether  it  is  simply  designed  as 
a  means  of  exit  of  surplus  matter,  or  whether  it  is  not  preparatory  to 
some  useful  purpose  being  fulfilled  by  a  part  of  the  nitrogenous  com- 
pound. 

The  fundamental  fact  to  be  dealt  with  is,  that  nitrogenous  matter 
undergoes  a  metamorphosis  in  the  system  attended  with  the  production 
of  urea.  Now  let  us  look  at  the  chemical  constitution  of  these  bodies, 
and  see  what  this  transformation  implies.  The  percentage  composition 
and  chemical  formulae  are  at  our  disposal  to  appeal  to,  but  the  former  is 
the  most  suitable  for  our  purpose;  for  although  the  atomic  constitution 
of  urea  has  been  agreed  upon,  yet,  as  regards  the  albuminous  molecule, 
it  cannot  be  considered  that  we  know  with  any  degree  of  certainty  the 
exact  number  of  atoms  of  the  different  elements  belonging  to  it,  much 
less  the  precise  mode  in  which  these  atoms  are  grouped.  The  formula, 
therefore,  that  can  be  given  for  it  is  only  hypothetical.  The  percentage 
composition,  however,  has  been  ascertained  with  sufficient  precision  to 
serve  as  a  trustworthy  basis  for  the  calculation  about  to  be  made,  and  the 
deduction  to  be  drawn  from  it. 


48  A    TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

Let  us  take,  for  our  calculation,  Mulder's  analysis  of  albumen,  which 
is  as  follows: 

Carbon,     .  .         .         •         .         •         ..       •  '.'      .  53.5 

Hydrogen,  ...  ... 

Nitrogen, 15.5 

Oxygen,    .  .   ' 22.0 

Sulphur,    .  .         ." 1.6 

Phosphorus,  .        '. 0.4 

100.0 

On  looking  at  these  figures,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  nitrogen  belong- 
ing to  albumen  amounts  to  15.5  parts  in  100.  Now,  let  us  suppose,  as  it 
is  not  very  far  from  being  actually  the  case,  that  the  whole  of  the  nitro- 
gen of  the  ingoing  albumen  escapes  from  the  system  under  the  form  of 
urea.  In  thus  escaping  as  urea,  the  nitrogen  carries  with  it  a  certain  por- 
tion of  the  other  constituent  elements  of  albumen,  and  by  ascertaining 
of  what  this  portion  consists,  we  shall  see  what  remains  behind  to  be  dis- 
posed of  in  another  way. 

To  obtain  the  information  required,  we  must  first  be  in  possession  of 
a  knowledge  of  the  relative  proportion  in  which  the  elements  exist  in 
urea.  This  is  supplied  by  its  percentage  composition,  which  stands  as 
follows: 

Carbon,        .     ,  ' .  ',. 20.000 

Hydrogen,        ...   ,               .         ,         .         .         .  6.666 

Nitrogen, 46.667 

Oxygen,       .         .  : 26.667 

100.000 

Now,  to  give  to  15.5  parts  of  nitrogen  (the  quantity  of  nitrogen  existing 
in  one  hundred  parts  of  albumen)  the  due  proportion  of  the  other  elements 
required  to  form  urea,  we  shall  have  to  supply  6.64  parts  of  carbon,  2.21  of 
hydrogen,  and  8.85  of  oxygen.  In  other  words,  the  15.5  parts  of  nitro- 
gen contained  in  100  of  albumen,  in  escaping  as  urea,  will  carry  with  it 
6.64  parts  of  carbon,  2.21  of  hydrogen,  and  8.85  of  oxygen ;  leaving  a  residu- 
ary portion,  consisting,  of  46.86  parts  of  carbon,  4.79  of  hydrogen,  and 
13.15  of  oxygen,  besides  the  sulphur  and  phosphorus,  for  utilization  and 
exit  in  another  way.  Thus  33.20  per  cent,  (or,  as  nearly  as  possible,  one- 
third)  of  the  albumen  will  be  turned  into  urea,  and  66.80  per  cent,  (or,  as 
nearly  as  possible,  two-thirds)  of  complemental  matter  will  be  left. 

Urea  must  be  regarded  as  constituting  the  unutilizable  portion  of  the 
albuminous  principle.  Whether  it  is  formed  as  a  primary  product  of  the 
splitting  up  of  albumen — that  is,  whether  the  elements  at  once  group 
themselves  from  the  albuminous  compound  into  the  combination  repre- 
senting it — or  whether  it  forms  the  final  product  of  a  series  of  changes, 
cannot  be  stated.  From  comparing  the  egesta  with  the  ingesta  we  know 
that  it  is  produced.  But  what  constitute  the  actual  steps  of  metamor- 
phosis within  the  system  remains  for  physiological  chemistry  to  disclose. 

It  may  be  remarked  incidentally  that,  taking  urea  as  an  effete  pro- 
duct of  the  metamorphosis  of  albuminous  matter  within  the  system,  and 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  49 

looking  at  its  composition  under  a  certain  point  of  view,  we  discern  a  re- 
lation to  other  products  of  the  decomposition  of  nitrogenous  matter  that 
does  not  suggest  itself  on  looking  at  its  composition  as  ordinarily  repre- 
sented. Carbonic  acid,  ammonia,  and  water  are  the  final  products  into 
which  all  nitrogenous  matter  of  an  organic  nature  is  constantly  tending 
to  resolve  itself.  Now  the  formula  for  urea  is  C3H4N!1O.1  [CH4NaO],  which 
is  equivalent  to  two  atoms  of  carbonate  of  ammonia  minus  two  atoms  of 
water  (2NH,CO,-2HO  =  C8N,N4OJ  [(H4N9)  CO3-2HaO=CH4NaO]. 
Its  composition  is,  therefore,  not  exactly  that  of  carbonate  of  ammonia, 
but  we  have  only  to  add  the  elements  of  water  to  get  the  formula  for 
carbonic  acid  and  ammonia — two  of  the  products  into  which,  as  we  have 
seen,  the  nitrogenous  matter  tends  by  ordinary  decomposition  to  resolve 
itself.  It  may  further  be  remarked  that  not  only  does  the  above-indi- 
cated relation  exist  as  to  composition,  but  urea  and  carbonate  of  ammo- 
nia are  mutually  convertible,  with  the  greatest  facility,  the  one  into  the 
other.  Urea,  indeed,  is  very  prone,  under  the  influence  of  the  action  of 
heat,  acids,  alkalies,  and  decomposing  organic  matter,  to  pass  into  car- 
bonate of  ammonia,  and,  conversely,  it  has  been  somewhat  recently  dis- 
covered that  carbonate  of  ammonia,  when  subject  to  a  high  tempera- 
ture in  a  closed  receptacle,  is  transformed  into  urea.  It  is,  to  say  the 
least,  a  notable  and  significant  fact  that  the  above-mentioned  relation 
should  exist  between  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia — final  products  of  the 
ordinary  decomposition  of  nitrogenous  matter — and  urea,  a  product  de- 
signed for  excretion  arising  from  the  metamorphosis  of  nitrogenous  mat- 
ter within  the  living  system.  It  is  not  difficult  to  see  why  the  unutiliz- 
able  portion  of  nitrogenous  alimentary  matter  should  pass  off  under  the 
form  of  urea,  and  not  of  carbonate  of  ammonia.  It  would  scarcely  be 
compatible  with  life  that  a  powerful  irritant  like  carbonate  of  ammonia 
should  be  produced  to  any  extent  within  the  animal  system,  while  urea 
presents  itself  as  a  neutral  body,  quite  destitute  of  irritating  properties, 
and,  therefore,  an  eligible  compound  as  a  product  of  metamorphosis  for 
excretion. 

The  residual  portion  of  an  albuminous  compound,  after  the  separation 
of  the  nitrogen  with  the  necessary  quantities  of  the  other  elements  to 
form  urea,  amounts,  as  has  already  been  shown,  to  66.80  per  cent,  of  the 
whole.  This  consists  of  46.86  parts  of  carbon,  4.79  of  hydrogen,  and 
13.15  of  oxygen,  with  small  quantities  of  sulphur  and  phosphorus,  which, 
in  reference  to  the  point  now  about  to  be  discussed,  viz.,  the  application 
of  this  portion  to  force-production,  may  be  left  out  of  the  question.  It 
will  be  seen  that  we  have  here  to  deal  with  a  considerable  surplus  of  car- 
bon and  hydrogen,  which  represents  latent  force. 

The  13.15  parts  of  oxygen  will  appropriate  1.64  parts  of  the  hydrogen 
to  exhaust  its  oxidizing  capacity  in  combination  as  water.  Reckoning 
this  amount  of  hydrogen,  then,  as  appropriated  by  the  oxygen  present, 
we  shall  have  3.15  parts  of  hydrogen  and  46.86  parts  of  carbon  in  a  free 
state  for  undergoing  oxidation. 

It  thus  appears,  if  we  take  away  the  nitrogen  and  the  elements  it 
carries  off  as  urea,  and  also  abstract  from  the  hydrogen  the  amount  which 
the  residual  oxygen  would  oxidize,  that  from  100  parts  of  albumen  there 
remain  46.86  parts  of  carbon  and  3.15  parts  of  hydrogen  free  to  undergo 
chemical  combination  with  oxygen  supplied  from  without.  These  quan- 
tities of  carbon  and  hydrogen  will  require,  for  their  conversion  into  car- 
bonic acid  and  water,  150  parts  of  oxygen,  and  this  is  tantamount  to  say- 
ing, according  to  the  calculation  given,  that  one  hundred  parts  of  albumen 
4 


50  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

will  be  capable  of  consuming  this  quantity  of  oxygen  in  undergoing  oxi- 
dation. As  the  force  produced  is  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  chemical 
action,  we  may  measure  the  value  of  different  articles  for  force-produc- 
tion by  the  amount  of  oxygen  they  will  relatively  consume  in  undergoing 
complete  oxidation.  Regarded  in  this  light,  albumen  stands  in  the  fol- 
lowing position  in  relation  to  grape-sugar  (anhydrous  C^H^O,,  [C6H13 

OJ),  starch,  and  fat: 

Amount  of  oxygen  appropriated 
in  oxidizing  100  parts  as  con- 
sumed within  the  body. 

Grape-sugar  (anhydrous), 106 

Starch,          . 120 

Albumen, 150 

Fat, 293 

Thus,  as  a  force-producing  agent,  if  we  are  right  in  taking  capacity 
for  oxidation  as  a  measure,  albumen  has  about  half  the  value  of  fat,  and 
a  greater  value  than  both  sugar  and  starch. 

It  is  true  Liebig  contends  *  for  the  existence  of  some  hidden  source 
of  power  in  nitrogenous  compounds.  Arguing  from  the  fact  that  alcohol 
in  combustion  gives  off  more  heat  than  its  corresponding  amount  of 
sugar,  although  a  certain  amount  of  heat  has  been  evolved  in  the  act  of 
fermentation  or  conversion  of  the  sugar  into  alcohol,  he  urges  that  force 
may  be  held  stored  up  in  the  nitrogenous  molecule,  and  liberated  when 
the  elements  of  the  molecule  are  split  asunder,  and  that  thus  more  force 
may  manifest  itself  than  that  derivable  from  chemical  action. 

Professor  Frankland,f  however,  has  experimentally  determined  the 
actual  amount  of  force  evolved  during  the  breaking  up  by  oxidation  of 
various  organic  products  (see  table  below);  and  unless  nitrogenous  mat- 
ter is  capable  of  liberating  force  under  oxidation  within  the  system  in  a 
manner  different  from  that  occurring  outside  it,  there  is  no  alternative 
but  to  look  to  chemical  action  as  the  source  of  the  force  produced. 

Frankland's  process  consisted  in  deflagrating  the  substance  with  a 
mixture  of  chlorate  of  potash  and  manganic  peroxide  in  an  apparatus 
specially  devised  for  such  experiments,  and  called  a  calorimeter.  The 
heat  evolved  was  measured  by  ascertaining  the  elevation  of  temperature 
occurring  in  a  known  quantity  of  surrounding  water.  The  results  were 
brought  to  uniformity  by  being  reduced  into  units  of  heat,  the  unit  con- 
stituting the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  one 
gramme  (15.432  grains)  of  water  one  degree  Centigrade  (1.8°  Fahren- 
heit). 

Subjoined  are  Professor  Frankland's  results  for  grape-sugar,  starch, 
albumen,  and  fat.  The  ratio  of  the  figures  does  not  differ  much  from  the 
ratio  of  those  representing  the  amount  of  oxygen  consumed  in  oxidation. 

Units  of  heat  evolved  by  oxidation 
of  one  gramme  (15.432  grains)  as 
consumed  within  the  body. 
Grape-sugar  (commercial),         ....     3277 

Starch  (arrow-root), 3912 

Albumen  (purified), 4263 

Fat  (beef-fat), .     9069 

*  Pharmaceutical  Journal,  September  3,  1870. 
f  Philosophical  Magazine,  vol.  xxxii.,  1866. 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  51 

In  the  case  of  sugar,  starch,  and  fat,  it  has  been  taken  that  the  heat 
evolved  under  oxidation  in  the  calorimeter  represents  the  heat  given  off 
when  consumed  within  the  body,  there  being  every  reason  to  conclude 
that  the  ultimate  products  are,  in  both  instances,  the  same.  With  re- 
gard to  albumen,  however,  it  is  known  that  complete  oxidation  is  not 
undergone  within  the  system.  The  nitrogen,  in  escaping  as  urea,  carries 
off  some  of  the  combustible  portion  of  the  compound  unconsumed.  "  The 
actual  energy,"  remarks  Professor  Frankland,  "developed  by  the  com- 
bustion of  muscle  in  oxygen  represents  more  than  the  amount  of  actual 
energy  produced  by  its  oxidation  within  the  body,  because,  when  muscle 
burns  in  oxygen,  its  carbon  is  converted  into  carbonic  acid,  and  its 
hydrogen  into  water,  the  nitrogen  being  to  a  great  extent  evolved  in  the 
elementary  state;  whereas  when  muscle  is  most  completely  consumed  in 
the  body  the  products  are  carbonic  acid,  water,  and  urea — a  substance 
which  still  retains  a  considerable  amount  of  potential  energy."  The  data 
for  determining  the  force-value  of  albumen,  as  consumed  within  the 
body,  were  furnished  by  experimentally  ascertaining  the  amount  of  heat 
evolved  in  the  oxidation  of  urea,  and  "knowing  that  almost  exactly  one- 
third  of  the  weight  of  dry  albumen  is  yielded  as  urea.  Thence  is  supplied 
the  deduction  that  has  to  be  made  from  the  full  combustion-value  of  al- 
bumen to  give  the  result  required. 

It  appears  that  about  one-seventh  of  the  potential  (latent)  energy — 
capacity  for  force-production — belonging  to  nitrogenous  matter  is  carried 
off  by  urea,  and  thereby  escapes  in  an  unexpended  state  when  nitrogen- 
ous matter  is  consumed  within  the  body. 

Albumen  has  been  selected  for  illustration,  but  what  has  been  said  for 
albumen  applies  also  to  the  other  nitrogenous  alimentary  principles,  with 
the  requisite  variations  for  the  slight  difference  in  elementary  composi- 
tion that  exists. 

I  have  looked  at  the  matter  which  has  just  formed  the  subject  of  consid- 
eration by  the  light  of  percentage  composition,  because,  as  I  have  already 
remarked,  it  supplies  us  with  authentic  data  for  our  calculation,  and  be- 
cause it  cannot  be  said  that  we  know  with  certainty  the  formulae  for 
the  nitrogenous  alimentary  principles.  But  still  we  are  not  precluded 
from  surveying  the  change  under  the  light  of  the  formulae;  and,  if  we  do 
not  know  the  precise  number  of  atoms  of  each  element  entering  into  the 
composition  of  the  proteirie  molecule,  or  the  exact  manner  in  which  they 
are  grouped,  we  do  know  that  in  the  formula  given  a  correct  relative 
proportion  is  expressed.  Now,  taking  the  generally  received  formula  for 
proteine,  and  showing  what  is  left  on  the  removal  of  the  nitrogen  under  the 
form  of  urea,  the  surplus  carbon  and  hydrogen  available  for  force-produc- 
tion is  brought  very  conspicuously  into  view.  Thus  Mulder's  formula  for 
proteine  is  UMH,iN4O18-|-2HO.  Abstract  from  this  2  atoms  of  urea,  viz., 
C4H8N404,  and  8  atoms  of  water,  H8Og,  and  we  get  an  available  residue  of 
32  atoms  of  carbon  and  11  of  hydrogen,  according  to  the  old  notation,  or 
16  of  carbon  and  11  of  hydrogen  according  to  the  new,  thus:  C..H  N  O 
+H,0  (2CH4N,0+4H,0)=C16HU. 

From  the  relation  already  shown  to  exist  between  urea  discharged  and 
nitrogenous  food  ingested,  it  is  not  to  be  inferred  that  the  nitrogenous 
matter  which  constitutes  an  integral  part  of  the  blood  and  other  parts  of 
the  system  is  not  also  susceptible  of  metamorphosis — of  being  similarly 
split  up  into  urea  for  excretion,  and  into  carbon  and  hydrogen  for  force- 
production.  After  prolonged  abstinence  urea  is  still  discoverable  to  some 
extent  in  the  urine,  and  Lehmann  found  the  same  at  the  end  of  three  days' 


52  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

subsistence  upon  a  strictly  non-nitrogenous  diet.  It  may,  therefore,  be 
concluded  that  the  nitrogenous  matter  belonging  to  the  system  may  be 
utilized  for  force-production  after  the  same  manner  as  has  been  set  forth 
for  the  nitrogenous  matter  of  food. 

Seeing  that  nitrogenous  matter  is  broken  up,  1st,  into  a  nitrogenous 
portion — urea — which  is  eliminated  as  useless,  and,  2d,  a  hydrocarbona- 
ceous  residue  which  represents  capacity  for  force-production,  the  question 
next  confronts  us,  whether  this  hydrocarbonaceous  residue,  instead  of 
being  oxidized  and  applied  at  the  moment  of  its  production,  presents  itself 
under  a  form  (that  of  fat,  for  example)  for  retention  in  the  system,  and 
for  application  as  necessity  may  demand. 

Without  any  actual  proof  being  available,  there  has  long  been  a  pre- 
vailing disposition  to  infer  that  fat  may  be  formed  as  a  product  of  the 
metamorphosis  of  proteine  compounds  within  the  animal  economy.  All 
attempts,  it  is  true,  have  heretofore  failed  to  produce  fat  by  chemical 
means  from  proteine  compounds;  but  there  is  nothing  in  a  chemical  point 
of  view  to  render  the  possibility  of  such  production  unlikely.  Indeed 
Liebig  has  argued  on  chemical  grounds  in  favor  of  its  occurrence.  There 
are  these  considerations,  also,  bearing  on  the  question: 

It  is  well  known  that,  under  certain  conditions,  the  organs  and  tissues 
of  the  animal  body  are  prone  to  undergo  deviation  from  the  natural  state, 
and  to  become  the  seat  of  a  deposit  of  fat  in  place  of  the  natural  histolo- 
gical  element,  such  deviation  constituting  what  is  termed  "  fatty  degen- 
eration." Now  this  change  is  susceptible  of  two  explanations:  it  may 
be  due  to  a  deposition  of  fat  during  the  performance  of  the  nutritive  pro- 
cess, in  lieu  of  the  material  that  has  been  removed;  or,  on  the  other  hand, 
may  proceed  from  a  chemical  transformation — a  downward  metamorphosis 
of  the  nitrogenous  substance — the  nitrogen  disappearing  under  the  form 
of  an  ammoniacal  salt,  urea,  or  some  other  simple  combination,  and  a  fatty 
compound  being  left  to  occupy  the  site. 

Virchow,  who  has  closely  studied  the  process  of  fatty  degeneration,  and 
whose  opinion  is  entitled  to  weight  on  the  subject,  is  strongly  in  favor  of 
the  latter  hypothesis,  viz.,  that  the  fat  accumulated  is  a  product  of  the 
metamorphosis  of  the  nitrogenous  portion  of  the  affected  tissue. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  find  whether  the  transformation  of  nitro- 
genous matter  into  fat  could  be  demonstrated  by  experiment.  Excised 
animal  structures  were  introduced  into  the  peritoneal  cavity  of  birds,  and 
allowed  to  remain  for  some  time,  and  were  then  examined  in  relation  to 
the  amount  of  fat  discoverable.  At  first  it  was  thought  that  evidence  was 
afforded  of  a  fatty  metamorphosis  of  nitrogenous  matter  occurring,  but 
on  further  investigation  the  evidence  was  found  to  be  inconclusive. 

Thus  much  it  can  be  considered  may  be  said:  that  what  is  observed 
in  the  mode  of  the  occurrence  of  fatty  degeneration  is  strongly  suggestive 
of  the  doctrine  that  fat  is  producible  by  the  metamorphosis  of  nitrogen- 
ous matter  in  the  living  economy,  although  nothing  absolutely  demon- 
strative can  be  adduced  in  support  of  it. 

In  the  production  of  adipocere  it  has  also  been  contended  that  evi- 
dence is  afforded  in  favor  of  the  origin  of  fat  from  nitrogenous  matter. 
Adipocere  is  a  peculiar  substance,  somewhat  spermaceti-like,  into  which 
the  animal  solids  are  sometimes  found  to  be  converted  when  exposed  in 
a  humid  situation  to  putrefaction.  Fourcroy  first  described  it  in  1789, 
in  a  communication  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris,  having  noticed 
its  existence  in  certain  bodies  which  had  been  interred  in  one  of  the 
Parisian  cemeteries.  The  bodies  appeared  shrunk  and  flattened,  and  the 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  53 

soft  solids,  instead  of  having  undergone  the  ordinary  putrefactive  change, 
were  found  to  be  converted  into  a  brittle,  cheesy  matter,  which  softened 
and  felt  greasy  when  rubbed  between  the  fingers.  This  material  has 
since  been  recognized  by  other  observers  in  dead  bodies,  and  likewise  in 
refuse-heaps  of  animal  matter.  It  is  also  said  to  be  obtainable  by  im- 
mersing flesh  in  a  stream  of  water.  It  has  been  regarded  as  a  product 
of  the  metamorphosis  of  nitrogenous  matter;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  some 
chemists  of  authority,  as  Gay-Lussac,  Chevreul,  and  Berzelius,  have  con- 
tended that  it  simply  represents  the  fat  which  has  originally  existed  in 
the  animal  substance,  the  nitrogenous  matter  having  undergone  putre- 
faction and  been  removed.  Here,  again,  therefore,  it  forms  a  debatable 
point  whether  or  no  the  fat  encountered  is  a  product  of  the  metamor- 
phosis of  nitrogenous  matter. 

It  must,  in  fact,  be  said,  with  regard  to  the  evidence  as  to  the  pro- 
duction of  fat  as  a  result  of  the  splitting  up  of  nitrogenous  matter,  that 
we  have  nothing  of  the  nature  of  proof  to  deal  with,  but  that  it  is  highly 
probable  that  such  production  takes  place,  not,  perhaps,  as  an  immediate 
result,  but  as  the  last  link  in  a  chain  of  metamorphoses  passed  through  by 
the  hydrocarbonaceous  portion  which  stands  in  complemental  relation  to 
the  urea. 

Before  bringing  this  subject  to  a  close,  it  may  be  stated  that  Messrs. 
Lawes  and  Gilbert,*  in  a  series  of  experiments  on  the  feeding  of  animals, 
and  the  subsequent  determination  of  the  respective  increase  occurring  in 
the  component  matters  of  the  body,  have  adduced,  if  not  actual  proof,  at 
least  strong  evidence  in  favor  of  fat  being  formed  from  the  nitrogenous 
portion  of  food.  They  first  of  all  show  that,  for  various  reasons,  the  pig 
is  the  most  appropriate  animal  for  yielding  information  upon  the  point 
in  question,  and  hence  its  selection  as  the  subject  of  their  experiments. 
Their  results,  they  say,  demonstrate  that  when  pigs  are  fed  on  good  ordi- 
nary food  for  periods  of  not  less  than  eight  or  ten  weeks,  the  amounts  of 
total  increase  and  of  fat  stored  up  are  so  great  in  proportion  both  to  the 
original  weight  of  the  animal  and  the  food  ingested,  that  the  data  given 
may  be  safely  relied  on  for  furnishing  a  means  of  estimating  from  what 
constituent  or  constituents  of  the  food  the  fat  of  the  animal  has  been  de- 
rived. In  their  experiments,  the  increase  in  body-weight  ranged  between 
51.3  and  68.9  per  cent,  when  the  feeding  was  conducted  eight  weeks,  and 
between  85.4  and  106.8  per  cent,  when  conducted  ten  weeks.  From  59.9 
to  79  per  cent,  of  this  total  increase  was  reckoned  to  consist  of  fat. 
From  the  nature  of  the  food,  the  proportion  of  the  stored-up  fat  that 
could  possibly  have  been  derived  from  the  ready-formed  fat  ingested, 
even  supposing  the  whole  of  what  was  supplied  had  been  assimilated, 
was  so  small  as  to  leave  no  doubt  that  a  very  large  proportion  must  have 
originated  from  some  other  source.  According  to  the  figures  given,  the 
proportion  of  fat  which  must  have  so  originated  ranged  from  about  two- 
thirds  to  eight-ninths  of  the  total  amount  stored  up. 

Thus,  then,  it  was  shown  that  fat  must  have  been  formed  from  the 
food  ingested.  The  next  question  for  solution  was  whether  the  fat  pro- 
duced originated  from  the  nitrogenous  or  non-nitrogenous  elements  of 
the  food,  or  from  both. 

That  fat  must  have  been  produced  from  the  non-nitrogenous  matters 
— the  carbohydrates — was  easily  susceptible  of  proof,  for  in  some  of  the 
experiments  the  nature  of  the  food  was  such  that  the  carbon  contained 

*  On  the  Sources  of  Fat  of  the  Animal  Body:  Philosoph.  Mag  ,  vol.  xxxii.    1866. 


54  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

in  the  fat  that  was  formed  amounted  to  more  than  could  have  been  de- 
rived from  the  nitrogenous  matter  ingested. 

As  regards  the  origin  of  fat  from  nitrogenous  matter,  the  question  is 
not  to  be  disposed  of  in  so  simple  a  manner,  but  Messrs.  Lawes  and  Gil- 
bert conclude  that  its  production  from  this  source  may  be  looked  upon, 
as  shown  by  the  following  train  of  reasoning,  to  occur.  In  their  experi- 
ments they  purposely  varied  the  relative  proportion  of  the  nitrogenous 
and  non-nitrogenous  parts  of  the  food  given  to  the  several  pigs.  In  some 
they  were  in  the  proportion  existing  in  what  may  be  considered  the  staple 
fattening  food  of  the  animal.  In  others  the  proportion  of  nitrogenous 
matter  was  raised  considerably  in  excess  of  this  standard.  Now,  from 
the  results  obtained,  it  appeared  that  there  was  no  material  difference  in 
the  amount  of  fat  produced;  although  if  fat  were  capable  of  originating 
only  from  the  carbohydrates  it  would  be  reasonable  to  expect  that,  on 
diminishing  their  supply,  as  in  replacing  a  portion  of  them  by  nitrogen- 
ous matters — in  other  words,  by  increasing  the  proportionate  amount  of 
nitrogenous  matter  in  the  food — the  amount  of  fat  developed  would  have 
been  less.  Looking  at  the  evidence  furnished,  it  seems  only  rational  to 
infer  that,  under  the  diminution  in  the  proportion  of  the  carbohydrates, 
the  nitrogenous  matter,  through  the  hydrocarbonaceous  portion  which 
remains  after  the  separation  of  urea,  took  their  place  in  supplying  mate- 
rial for  fat  production,  and  thus  led  to  there  being  no  falling  off  observ- 
able in  the  quantity  of  fat  produced. 

The  precise  position  held  by  the  gelatinous  principles  as  alimentary 
matter  must  be  considered,  in  spite  of  the  numerous  investigations  that 
have  been  specially  conducted  on  the  subject,  as  involved  in  some  degree 
of  uncertainty.  These  principles,  while  forming  highly  nitrogenized 
compounds,  stand  apart  from  the  albuminous  group  in  not  yielding  pro- 
teine.  Hence  they  are  classed  as  the  non-proteine  compounds.  Whilst 
the  albuminous  or  proteine  compounds  exist  in  both  animal  and  vegeta- 
ble kinds  of  food,  these,  the  non-proteine,  are  encountered  only  in  sub- 
stances derived  from  the  animal  kingdom.  They  consist  of  gelatine  and 
chondrine — the  former  obtainable  from  bones,  ligaments,  tendons,  skin, 
mucous  and  serous  membranes,  in  fact  wherever  fibrous  tissue  exists; 
and  the  latter  from  cartilage. 

By  subjecting  these  tissues  to  the  action  of  boiling  water  the  respec- 
tive principles  are  obtained;  but  whether  they  have  been  formed  during 
the  process  or  existed  preformed  in  the  tissues  has  been  a  disputed 
point,  although  the  weight  of  evidence  is  in  favor  of  the  latter  view. 
The  chief  characteristic,  which  they  possess  in  common,  is  the  property 
belonging  to  the  hot  aqueous  solution  of  solidifying  into  a  jelly  on  cool- 
ing. To  some  extent,  in  elementary  composition  and  also  in  some  minor 
chemical  points,  these  principles  differ  from  each  other. 

With  reference  to  the  alimentary  power  of  gelatinous  matter,  the 
great  point  of  uncertainty  is  as  to  whether  it  is  applicable  to  histoge- 
netic  or  tissue-forming  purposes.  It  may  be  concluded  that  gelatinous 
matter  is  producible  from  albuminous  substances,  because  the  food  of  the 
herbivorous  animal  is  entirely  devoid  of  anything  of  the  nature  of  gela- 
tine, and  because,  while  gelatinous  matter  is  obtainable  in  abundance 
from  the  body  of  the  chick,  none  can  be  produced  from  the  original  con- 
stituents of  the  egg.  The  proteine  compounds,  therefore,  appear  to  be 
evidently  capable  of  becoming  the  source  of  gelatinous  matter,  but  the 
point  to  be  determined  is,  how  far  gelatinous  matter  is  capable  of  con- 
tributing to  the  production  of  the  nitrogenous  compounds  met  with  in 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  55 

the  body.  It  has  been  contended  that  it  certainly  is  unsusceptible  of 
application  toward  the  formation  of  muscle  and  the  other  tissues  having 
as  their  basis  an  albuminous  compound;  and  it  is  doubtful  if  it  is  even, 
capable  of  contributing  to  the  formation  of  the  tissues,  such  as  skin, 
bone,  tendon,  etc.,  whose  basis  consists  of  gelatinous  matter,  and  which 
are  hence  styled  the  gelatinous  tissues. 

The  fact  of  its  not  being  recognizable  in  the  blood,  while  the  blood 
constitutes  the  source  from  which  all  the  tissues  draw  their  nutrient  sup- 
ply, has  been  adduced  as  an  argument  against  its  having  any  histoge- 
netic  capacity.  But  this,  in  reality,  tells  for  nothing,  because  under  any 
circumstances  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  the  gelatine  should  be  recog- 
nizable in  the  blood,  as  it  is  converted  by  digestion  into  albuminose  be- 
fore its  absorption  occurs. 

The  nutritive  value  of  gelatine  was  made  the  subject  of  special  inquiry 
several  years  back,  by  a  committee  appointed  by  the  French  Academy  of 
Sciences,  to  ascertain  if  bones  could  be  turned  to  account  for  yielding  an 
article  of  food  for  human  consumption.  The  results  arrived  at  by  this 
committee,  which  passes  under  the  designation  of  the  Gelatine  Commis- 
sion, have  attained  a  widely  spread  notoriety.  Among  the  conclusions 
drawn  up  by  Magendie  in  the  name  of  the  commission,  it  is  stated  that 
by  no  known  method  of  procedure  could  there  be  extracted  from  bones 
an  aliment  which  either  alone  or  mixed  with  other  substances  could  be 
substituted  for  meat.  It  was  found  that  dogs  fed  solely  on  raw  bones 
and  "water  for  three  months  continued  in  perfect  health,  and  maintained 
their  original  weight.  Fed  on  the  same  kind  of  bones  which  had  been 
previously  subjected  to  the  change  induced  by  boiling  with  water,  the 
dogs  died  at  the  end  of  two  months  with  all  the  signs  of  inanition.  The 
general  issue  of  the  inquiry  was  to  throw  doubt  upon  the  nutritive  ca- 
pacity of  gelatine  as  an  individual  organic  principle.  Before  accepting 
such  a  conclusion,  however,  it  is  necessary  that  we  should  take  a  more 
comprehensive  survey  of  the  matter,  and  look  to  the  weight  to  be  at- 
tached to  investigations  conducted  upon  the  nutritive  value  of  an  iso- 
lated organic  principle,  and  in  doing  so  it  is  found  that  in  no  case  will  it 
supply  what  is  requisite  for  supporting  life.  Neither  this  nor  that 
chemical  principle  will  suffice.  There  must  be  a  combination  of  princi- 
ples furnished;  such,  indeed,  as  exists  in  the  objects  of  nature  around 
us,  which  we  instinctively  consume  as  food. 

In  opposition  to  the  inference  to  which  the  conclusions  arrived  at 
by  the  Gelatine  Commission  pointed,  Bischoff  and  Voit,  from  their  re- 
searches on  nutrition,  are  of  opinion  that  gelatine  possesses  real  nutri- 
tive value;  that  to  some  extent  it  forms  a  substitute  for  other  plastic 
matter,  and  that,  therefore,  by  its  admixture  with  the  food,  the  quan- 
tity of  the  other  nitrogenous  matter  may,  without  disadvantage,  be 
diminished. 

If  uncertainty  prevails  as  to  the  precise  capacity  of  gelatine  as  an 
agent  of  nutrition,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  behaves  like  a  proteine 
compound  in  relation  to  force-production.  It  has  been  ascertained  that 
the  elimination  of  urea  is  augmented  by  the  copious  ingestion  of  gel- 
atine, just  as  happens  in  the  case  of  the  proteine  compounds.  It  is 
evident,  therefore,  that  the  same  kind  of  splitting  up  occurs  in  the  two 
cases;  and,  with  the  separation  of  urea  from  the  gelatine  molecule,  a 
residue  of  available  carbon  and  hydrogen  will  be  left,  in  accordance 
with  what  has  been  before  explained,  for  application  toward  force- 
production.  There  is  this  further  analogy  between  these  compounds,  as 


56  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND   DIETETICS. 

regards   the    phenomena  of  metamorphosis,  that  leucine    is   yielded    by 
both  under  the  influence  of  boiling  with  a  solution  of  potash. 


THE  NON-NITROGENOUS  ALIMENTARY  PRINCIPLES. 

While  nitrogenous  matter  may  be  regarded  as  forming  the  essential 
basis  of  structures  possessing  active  or  living  properties,  the  non-nitro- 
genous principles  m&y  be  looked  upon  as  supplying  the  source  of  power. 
The  one  may  be  spoken  of  as  holding  the  position  of  the  instrument  of 
action,  while  the  other  supplies  the  motive  power.  Nitrogenous  alimen- 
tary matter  may,  it  is  true,  by  oxidation  contribute  to  the  generation  of 
the  moving  force,  but,  as  has  been  explained,  in  fulfilling  this  office  there 
is  evidence  before  us  to  show  that  it  is  split  up  into  two  distinct  portions, 
one  containing  the  nitrogen,  which  is  eliminated  as  useless,  and  a  residuary 
non-nitrogenous  portion  which  is  retained  and  utilized  in  force-production. 
It  is  true  also,  as  will  be  shown  hereafter,  that  non-nitrogenous  matter 
may  be  applied  to  tissue  formation,  but  it  is  probable  that,  in  doing  so,  it 
is  simply  for  the  purpose  of  being  stored  up  for  subsequent  appropriation 
to  force-production,  according  as  circumstances  may  require. 

The  non-nitrogenous  alimentary  principles  comprise — 
First. — The  hydrocarbons  or  fats, 
Second. — The  carbohydrates,  starch,  sugar,  etc. ;  and 
Third. — Principles  such  as  alcohol  and  the  vegetable  acids,  which  do 
not  strictly  fall  within  either  of  the  preceding  groups. 

Hydrocarbons  or  Fats. — These  principles  constitute  compounds  con- 
sisting of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  combined  with  only  a  small  proportion  of 
oxygen.  Represented  in  round  numbers,  the  following  may  be  given  as 
the  percentage  composition  of  the  chief  fatty  principles: — 

Carbon, 79 

Hydrogen,  .         . 11 

Oxygen, 10 

100 

The  formula  answering  to  the  above  composition  that  has  been  framed 
consists  of  C10H,0  [0IOH18OJ. 

This,  it  will  be  seen,  might  be  considered  as  representing  a  pure 
hydrocarbon,  in  which  every  tenth  atom  of  hydrogen  is  replaced  by  an 
atom  of  oxygen. 

Fats  are  supplied  to  us  in  both  animal  and  vegetable  articles  of  food. 
Chemically,  they  consist  of  a  principle  possessing  acid  properties — a  fatty 
acid — in  combination  with  a  radical.  When  acted  upon  by  alkalies,  and 
also  by  contact  with  bodies  of  the  nature  of  ferments,  and  by  decomposing 
animal  substances,  the  fatty  acid  is  separated,  and  a  sweet  principle  known 
as  glycerine  makes  its  appearance.  Glycerine,  however,  it  would  seem, 
has  not  pre-existed  in  the  fat.  It  is  found  that  the  united  weight  of  the 
glycerine  and  fatty  acid  produced  exceeds  that  of  the  fat  originally  em- 
ployed. The  elements  of  water  are  appropriated,  and  glycerine  is  there- 


ALIMENTARY   PRINCIPLES.  57 

upon  formed  by  an  addition  to  the  hypothetical  radical  in  combination 
•with  the  fatty  acid  in  the  neutral  fat. 

There  are  three  compounds — stearine,  palmitine,  and  oleine — which 
make  up  the  great  bulk  of  the  fatty  matter  met  with. 

Stearine  is  the  most  solid  fat  of  the  three.  It  exists  largely  in  mut- 
ton suet,  and  gives  rise  to  the  firmness  by  which  this  kind  of  fat  is 
characterized.  Requiring  a  temperature  of  about  145°  Fahrenheit  to 
melt  it,  at  ordinary  temperatures  it  is  always  solid.  It  occurs  to  a  larger 
or  smaller  extent  in  most  animal  fats;  but  still  there  are  some  in  which  it 
has  not  been  recognized.  It  is  never  found  in  vegetable  fat. 

Palmitine  holds  an  intermediate  place  between  stearine  and  oleine  as 
regards  consistence.  It  is  the  chief  component  of  most  animal  fats,  and 
occurs  largely  in  vegetable  fats.  What  was  formerly  described  as  mar- 
garine proves  to  be  a  mixture  of  palmitine  and  stearine. 

Oleine  is  always  met  with  in  a  fluid  state,  unless  the  temperature  is 
very  low.  It  occurs  in  both  vegetable  and  animal  fats,  but  vegetable  fats 
are  richer  in  it  than  animal. 

The  digestion  of  fat  takes  place  in  the  small  intestine.  It  traverses 
the  mouth  without  undergoing  any  change  beyond  that  induced  by  the 
mechanical  action  of  mastication. 

In  the  stomach  the  nitrogenous  matter  which  may  be  incorporated 
with  and  invest  the  fatty,  as  occurs  in  the  natural  alimentary  product,  is 
dissolved,  and  the  latter  set  free.  Passing  from  the  stomach,  it  is  pre- 
pared for  absorption  in  the  small  intestine  by  emulsification  or  reduction 
to  a  minute  state  of  subdivision.  As  regards  animal  and  vegetable  fats, 
it  appears  that  the  former  are  easier  of  digestion  and  absorption  than  the 
latter. 

The  emulsification  of  fat  is  effected  by  the  pancreatic  juice,  and  proba- 
bly also  by  the  secretion  of  Brunner's  glands.  The  bile  has  no  influence 
over  neutral  fats,  i.e..  fats  in  the  state  in  which  we  consume  them;  but 
according  to  Dr.  Marcet  it  possesses  the  power  of  emulsifying  the  fatty 
acids,  and  he  says  there  is  some  liberation  of  fatty  acid  effected  while  the 
fat  is  contained  in  the  stomach.  The  process  of  emulsification  is  one  of  a 
purely  physical  nature.  The  fat  is  separated  into  very  minute  globules, 
just  as  it  exists  in  milk,  and  in  this  state  it  is  taken  up  by  the  special  ab- 
sorbing organs  of  the  small  intestine,  viz.,  the  villi. 

It  was  noticed  by  Bernard  that  when  fat  is  delayed  for  some  hours  in 
contact  with  pancreatic  juice,  an  acidification  of  it,  or  chemical  conver- 
sion into  fatty  acid  and  glycerine,  is  found  to  have  taken  place.  The  de- 
lay, however,  in  the  intestine  is  not  long  enough  for  this  chemical  change 
to  occur  as  a  physiological  phenomenon.  Bernard  thought  originally 
that  it  did — that  the  digestion  of  fat  was  attended  with  acidification; 
but  fat  contained  in  the  lacteals — the  absorbed  fat,  that  is  to  say — has 
been  found  to  be  in  precisely  the  same  chemical  condition  as  that  con- 
tained in  the  intestine.  It  is  thus  evident  that  digestion  and  absorption 
of  fat  do  not  involve  its  chemical  change. 

The  villi — little  projecting  bodies  limited  in  situation  to  the  small  in- 
testine— are  the  organs  through  the  agency  of  which  the  fat  is  absorbed. 
While  absorption  is  going  on  they  are  to  be  seen  in  a  densely  white 
state,  from  the  quantity  of  fatty  particles  with  which  they  are  charged. 
It  is  not  precisely  understood  how  the  fatty  matter  passes  from  the  intes- 
tine and  reaches  their  centre.  From  what  is  to  be  seen  on  microscopic 
examination,  conducted  immediately  after  death,  it  would  seem  that  it  is 
by  cell-agency  that  the  fatty  matter  is  picked  out  from  the  intestinal 


58  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

contents.  During  fasting  the  epithelial  cells  investing  the  villi  are  club- 
shaped  and  devoid  of  fat-globules.  During  absorption,  on  the  other  hand, 
they  are  charged  with  fat-globules,  and  many  are  found  of  a  spheroidal, 
instead  of  a  columnar  form.  The  process  of  absorption  may  be  thus  far 
likened  to  that  of  secretion.  As  the  secreting  cells  of  the  glands  separate 
from  the  blood  the  particular  materials  required  for  each  individual  secre- 
tion, so  these  cells  of  the  villi  pick  out  or  separate  from  the  chyme  or  in- 
testinal contents  the  fatty  matter  which  is  subsequently  found  in  the 
lacteals.  A  branch  of  the  lacteal  system  existing  in  the  centre  of  the 
villus  receives  the  product  of  absorption.  Thus  much  is  certain — what 
remains  to  be  made  clear  is  the  manner  in  which  the  transmission  to  the 
lacteal  is  effected.  By  the  lacteal  system  the  absorbed  fat  is  conducted 
to  and  poured  into  the  circulation.  Mixing  with  the  alkaline  blood,  the  fat 
becomes  saponified  and  dissolved,  and  in  this  state  it  is  mostly  met  with 
in  the  circulation.  Should  a  rapid  entrance,  however,  have  been  effected, 
as  happens  for  a  while  after  the  ingestion  of  food  rich  in  fatty  matter, 
free  fat  exists  in  the  blood;  and  a  specimen  withdrawn  under  these  cir- 
cumstances, and  afterward  allowed  to  remain  at  rest,  presents,  after  a 
short  time,  a  distinct  cream-like  layer  upon  the  surface. 

Having  pointed  out  how  the  fat  belonging  to  the  food  reaches  the 
circulation,  we  have  next  to  consider  the  purposes  to  which  it  is  applied 
in  the  system. 

I  will  first  speak  of  it  as  contributing  to  the  construction  of  one  of  the 
anatomical  elements  of  the  body.  The  adipose  tissue  consists  of  nucleated 
vesicles  filled  with  fatty  matter.  These  vesicles  are  closely  packed  to- 
gether and  surrounded  by  capillary  blood-vessels.  The  fat  contained  in 
them  is  evidently  drawn,  as  in  nutrition  generally,  from  the  blood  circu- 
lating around,  and,  when  so  separated,  a  tissue  is  formed  which  is  turned 
to  account  for  mechanical,  physical,  and  chemico-physiological  purposes. 

For  instance,  it  fills  up  interstices  between  muscles,  bones,  vessels,  and 
the  other  anatomical  structures,  and  by  its  accumulation  under  the  skin, 
it  gives  a  regular  and  rounded  form  to  the  outer  surface  of  the  body. 

As  a  bad  conductor  of  heat,  the  layer  of  adipose  tissue  beneath  the 
skin  contributes  toward  retaining  the  animal  warmth.  This  function  it 
most  conspicuously  fulfils  in  the  aquatic  warm-blooded  animals,  such  as 
the  seal,  porpoise,  whale,  etc.,  in  which  a  coat  of  hair  would  prove  of  no 
service  from  the  nature  of  the  circumstances  that  exist.  The  very  great 
thickness  of  the  subcutaneous  layer  of  adipose  tissue  met  with  in  these 
animals  is  evidently  designed  to  meet  the  demand  occasioned  by  the  un- 
suitableness,  in  this  particular  instance,  of  the  ordinary  provision. 

Accumulated  within  the  vesicles  and  susceptible  of  reabsorption  into 
the  blood,  the  fat  forms  a  store  of  force-producing  material  to  be  drawn 
upon  as  circumstances  may  require.  Hence  it  is  that  life  is  sustained 
longer  in  a  fat  animal  under  abstinence  from  food  and  with  a  supply  of 
water  than  in  a  thin  one. 

In  vol.  xi.  of  the  "  Transactions  of  the  Linnaean  Society,"  an  account 
is  given  by  Mr.  Mantell  (afterward  Dr.  Mantell,  the  celebrated  geologist), 
a  Fellow  of  the  Society,  under  the  form  of  a  letter  to  the  secretary,  of 
an  instance  of  extraordinary  prolongation  of  life  in  a  fat  animal  under  ab- 
sence of  food.  So  extraordinary,  indeed,  is  the  account,  that  I  should 
scarcely  feel  disposed  to  allude  to  it  here  did  not  the  source  from  which 
it  is  derived  entitle  it  to  credit.  It  appears  that  on  December  14,  1810, 
a  pig  was  buried  in  its  sty  by  the  fall  of  part  of  the  chalk  cliff  under 
Dover  Castle.  On  May  23d— 160  days  afterward— Mr.  Mantell  was  told 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  59 

by  some  workmen  employed  in  removing  the  fallen  chalk  that  they  had 
heard  the  whining  of  the  pig,  and  although  he  had  great  doubt  of  the 
fact,  he  urged  them  to  proceed  in  clearing  away  the  chalk  from  the  sty, 
and  was  soon  afterward  surprised  to  see  the  pig  extricated  from  its  con- 
finement alive.  At  the  time  of  the  accident  the  pig  was  in  a  fat  condi- 
tion, and  supposed  to  have  weighed  about  160  Ibs.  When  extricated  it 
presented  an  extremely  emaciated  appearance,  and  weighed  no  more  than 
40  Ibs.  The  sty  consisted  of  a  cave  about  six  feet  square,  dug  in  the 
rock,  and  boarded  in  front.  There  was  neither  food  nor  water  in  it,  it 
was  asserted,  when  the  fall  of  the  cliff  took  place.  The  door  and  other 
wood  in  front  of  the  sty  was  much  nibbled,  and  the  sides  of  the  cave 
looked  very  smooth,  as  though  the  animal  had  been  constantly  licking 
them  to  obtain  the  moisture  exuding  through  the  rock. 

In  the  hibernating  animal,  a  great  accumulation  of  fat  takes  place 
during  the  autumn,  which  is  favored  by  the  oily  nature  of  the  nuts,  seeds, 
etc.,  then  obtainable  as  food.  At  the  end  of  the  winter  sleep,  the  animal 
is  reduced  to  a  comparatively  emaciated  condition.  The  fat  accumulated 
may  be  looked  upon  as  designed  to  form  an  internal  store  for  consumption 
when  the  supply  from  without  is  suspended. 

In  an  emaciated  animal,  the  fat  vesicles,  under  the  microscope,  betray 
the  process  of  absorption  that  has  been  going  on.  They  are  shrunken  in 
appearance,  and  the  fatty  contents  of  the  vesicle,  receding  from  the  en- 
velope, leave  a  space  which  is  filled  with  watery  fluid. 

Besides  forming  the  basis  of  a  tissue  fulfilling  the  functions  referred 
to,  fatty  matter  occurs  in  intimate  incorporation  with  the  nitrogenous 
elements  of  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  various  anatomical  structures.  Leh- 
inann  remarks  that  no  animal  cell  or  fibre  can  be  formed  without  the  co- 
operation of  fat,  and  insists  strongly  on  the  fat  constituting  an  active 
agent  in  exciting  the  metamorphosis  of  nitrogenous  matter.  Lehmann, 
however,  wrote  under  the  influence  of  the  formerly  prevailing  notion  that 
the  manifestation  of  vital  energy,  as  under  muscular  and  nervous  action, 
was  due  to  a  destructive  metamorphosis  of  the  nitrogenous  constituents 
of  the  tissues.  This,  as  has  already  been  pointed  out,  stands  opposed  to 
the  results  of  modern  research;  and  instead  of  (as  suggested  by  Lehmann) 
the  fatty  matter  operating  by  inducing  a  metamorphosis  of  the  nitrogen- 
ous, it  may  now  be  considered  that,  in  undergoing  oxidation,  it  consti- 
tutes, itself,  the  source  of  the  power  manifested.  But  this  is  a  point 
that  will  be  more  particularly  adverted  to  hereafter. 

Lehmann  has  also  asserted  that  fat  assists  the  action  of  the  digestive 
fluid.  He  goes  so  far  as  to  say  that  he  has  ascertained  that  a  certain, 
though  small,  amount  of  fat  is  indispensable  to  the  metamorphosis  and  so- 
lution of  nitrogenous  articles  of  food  during  the  process  of  gastric  diges- 
tion. I  do  not  think  that  experiment  is  found  to  bear  out  this  statement 
of  Lehmann;  at  all  events  I  have  seen  nothing  from  my  own  experiments 
on  artificial  digestion  to  warrant  the  belief  that  the  action  of  the  gastric 
juice  is  even  influenced,  much  less  determined  by,  the  presence  of  fat. 

We  now  come  to  the  consideration  of  fat  with  reference  to  the  func- 
tions fulfilled  by  its  oxidation  within  the  system,  and  here  we  have  to 
deal  with  functions  associated  with  its  final  destination.  It  is  the  fatty 
matter  existing  in  the  blood  that  may  be  looked  upon  as  being  thus  ap- 
plied, and  when  this  fails  to  be  adequately  replenished  by  a  supply  from 
the  food,  then  absorption  occurs  from  the  store  which  the  adipose  tissue 
of  the  body  represents. 

Under  Liebig's  classification,  fat  is  held  to  be  a  so-called  "  element  of 


60  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

respiration,"  or,  to  speak  more  correctly,  a  calorifacient  or  heat-produ- 
cing agent.  An  exalted  temperature  is  required  for  a  high  manifestation 
of  vitality,  and  amongst  the  higher  members  of  the  animal  kingdom,  in 
which  the  processes  of  life  are  carried  on  with  much  greater  activity  than 
amongst  the  lower,  provision  is  made  for  the  generation  of  heat  within 
the  body.  Notwithstanding  exposure  to  great  external  cold,  so  long  as  a 
healthy  condition  prevails,  a  certain  uniform  temperature  is  maintained; 
and  for  this  end  the  oxidation  of  combustible  material  is  constantly 
going  on.  Hence  arises  a  demand  for  food  capable  of  undergoing  the 
process  of  oxidation.  Liebig  holds  the  non-nitrogenous  alimentary  prin- 
ciples to  be  specially  devoted  to  this  purpose.  That  they  do  contribute 
to  it  there  can  be  no  doubt;  but  it  will  be  for  us  presently  to  consider 
whether  they  do  not  also  contribute  to  the  production  of  other  manifesta- 
tions of  energy  besides  heat. 

The  capacity  of  a  material  for  heat-production  depends  upon  the 
amount  of  unoxidized  carbon  and  hydrogen  it  contains;  and  of  all  elemen- 
tary materials  the  fats  hold  the  highest  place  in  this  respect.  While  in 
starchy,  saccharine,  and  such-like  matters,  a  sufficient  amount  of  oxygen 
exists  in  the  compound  to  oxidize  all  the  hydrogen  present,  leaving  only 
the  carbon  in  an  oxidizable  condition;  in  the  fats  not  only  is  the  carbon, 
but  also  the  chief  portion  of  the  hydrogen  in  an  unoxidized  state. 

To  illustrate  the  difference  existing,  it  may  be  stated  that  starch  con- 
tains, in  round  numbers,  45  per  cent,  of  carbon  and  6  per  cent,  of  hydro- 
gen, making  51  per  cent,  of  carbon  and  hydrogen  together.  The  re- 
mainder consists  of  oxygen,  amounting  to  as  much  as  49  per  cent,  of  the 
whole.  Sugar,  and  gum  likewise,  in  round  numbers,  contain  43  per  cent, 
of  carbon  and  6  per  cent,  of  hydrogen,  making  49  per  cent,  of  carbon  and 
hydrogen  together,  and  leaving  51  per  cent,  to  be  made  up  by  oxygen. 
Fat,  on  the  other  hand,  contains  about  90  per  cent,  of  carbon  and  hydro- 
gen— 79  per  cent,  of  carbon  and  11  per  cent,  of  hydrogen.  Only  10  per 
cent.,  therefore,  remains  to  consist  of  oxygen. 

The  respective  values  of  these  compounds,  as  regards  capacity  for  oxi- 
dation, may  also  be  displayed  by  reference  to  their  chemical  formula?. 
The  formula  for  starch,  for  instance,  consists  of  C]2H10010  [C6H]0OJ,  and 
in  all  the  other  allied  compounds  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  exist  similarly 
in  the  proportion  to  form  water.  Fat  may  be  represented  by  the  formula 
C10H90  [CJOH18O].  Here  only  one  atom  of  hydrogen  has  its  combining 
equivalent  of  oxygen  contained  in  the  compound.  The  remaining  eight 
atoms,  as  well  as  the  carbon,  are  in  a  free  state  for  oxidation. 

The  amount  of  oxygen  consumed  in  oxidizing  a  given  quantity  of  an 
alimentary  principle  will  necessarily  vary  with  the  amount  of  surplus  or 
uncombined  carbon  and  hydrogen  it  contains.  Hence  the  relative  value 
of  these  principles  as  heat-producing  agents  (it  being  upon  the  amount  of 
chemical  action  that  the  quantity  of  heat  produced  depends)  may  be 
further  represented  through  the  medium  of  the  oxygen  for  which  there  is 
the  capacity  for  appropriating;  and,  looked  at  in  this  light,  fat,  starch, 
and  sugar  hold  the  following  positions  with  regard  to  each  other.  The 
figures  show  the  amount  of  oxygen  required  to  oxidize  fully  100  parts : 

Fat, 293 

Starch, 120 

Sugar  (C.^OJ  [C6HiaO.],       ...  .106 

According  to  what  is  here  shown,  a  given  quantity  of  fat  will  have  the 
power  of  appropriating  about  2.4  times  as  much  oxygen  as  the  same 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  61 

quantity  of  starch;  or,  stated  in  other  words,  -will  develop  about  2.4  times 
as  much  heat  in  the  process  of  oxidation,  and  hence  has  about  2.4  times  as 
much  value  as  a  heat-producing  agent. 

The  conclusions  which  have  up  to  this  point  been  set  forth  are  based 
on  calculation.  But  the  actual  value  in  respect  of  capacity  for  heat-pro- 
duction has  been  determined  experimentally  by  means  of  the  calorimeter, 
and  the  following  are  the  figures  obtained  by  Professor  Frankland.  It 
will  be  seen  that  they  accord  with  the  conclusions  otherwise  arrived  at: 

Actual  Seat,  Expressed  in  Units  [the  unit  representing  the  heat  required 
to  raise  1  gramme  (15.432  grains)  of  water  1°  Cent,  or  1.8°  Fahr.], 
Developed  by  1  Gramme  when  JJurnt  in  Oxgyen. 

Heat  units. 

Beef-fat, 9069 

Starch  (arrow-root),  .......     3912 

Cane-  (lump)  sugar,  ......     3348 

Commercial  grape-sugar,   ......     3277 

Such  is  equivalent  to  saying  that  1  Ib.  of  beef-fat  by  oxidation  will 
generate  heat  sufficient  to  raise  the  temperature  of  9,069  Ibs.  (about  4 
tons  weight)  of  water  by  1.8°  Fahr.  (1°  Cent.);  that  the  oxidation  of  the 
same  quantity  of  arrow-root  will  similarly  raise  the  temperature  of  only 
3,912  Ibs.  of  water;  cane-sugar,  3,348  Ibs.;  and  commercial  grape-sugar, 
3,277  Ibs. 

Looking  at  this  difference  in  the  relative  value  of  fatty,  starchy,  and 
saccharine  matters  as  heat-producers,  we  see  the  wisdom  of  the  instinc- 
tive consumption  of  food  abounding  in  fatty  matter  by  the  inhabitants 
of  the  arctic  regions.  The  Esquimaux  and  other  dwellers  in  the  frigid 
zone  devour  with  avidity  the  fat  of  whales,  seals,  etc.,  and  find  in  this 
the  most  efficient  kind  of  combustible  material.  In  the  tropics,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  food  consumed  by  the  native  inhabitants  consists  mainly 
of  farinaceous  and  succulent  vegetable  matter.  On  account  of  the  ele- 
vated temperature  of  the  surrounding  air,  less  heat  is  required  to  be  pro- 
duced within  the  body,  and  a  less  efficient  combustible  material  is  able 
to  supply  what  is  needed  for  the  maintenance  of  the  ordinary  temperature. 

1  now  arrive  at  the  appropriate  place  for  discussing  the  question  of 
the  application  of  fat  to  the  production  of  muscular  and  nervous  force, 
and  what  I  have  to  say  upon  the  point  will  apply,  not  to  fat  merely,  but 
to  other  forms  of  non-nitrogenous  alimentary  matter. 

Until  of  late  years,  Liebig's  doctrines  have  been  very  generally  re- 
ceived. These,  as  is  well  known,  assign  to  non-nitrogenous  matters,  in 
respect  of  their  cAe?ruc0-physiological  office,  the  part  simply  of  heat-pro- 
ducers. Believing  that  muscular  and  nervous  action  involved  a  destruc- 
tion of  the  respective  tissues,  and  that  in  this  destruction  was  to  be 
sought  the  development  of  the  power  manifested,  Liebig  maintained  that 
the  nitrogenous  alimentary  matters  constitute  the  primary  source  of  the 
power,  these  being  the  principles  out  of  which  the  tissues  are  in  the  first 
instance  formed  and  subsequently  renewed. 

Under  such  a  view,  the  nitrogenous  matters  eliminated  as  products  of 
disintegration  should  vary  according  to  the  amount  of  work  performed, 
and  this  was  at  one  time  believed  to  be  the  case.  Even  as  recently  as 
1865,  Dr.  Lyon  Playfair  (on  "The  Food  of  Man  in  Relation  to  his  Useful 
Work")  writes  in  support  of  Liebig's  doctrine,  and  reasons  on  the  assump- 
tion that  the  work  is  expressed  by  the  elimination  of  urea.  "  The  nor- 


C2  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

rnal  function,"  he  says,  "of  nutrition  is  to  build  up  plastic  food  into 
tissues,  to  be  transformed  by  internal  and  external  dynamical  work  into 
carbonic  acid,  water,  and  urea."  He  elsewhere  asserts  that  he  considers 
Liebig  as  amply  justified  in  viewing  the  non-nitrogenous  portions  of  food 
as  mere  heat-givers;  and,  with  reference  to  the  oxidation  of  fat  forming 
the  source  of  muscular  action,  the  conception,  he  says,  "  can  only  have 
arisen  from  the  false  analogy  of  the  animal  body  to  a  steam-engine.  But 
incessant  transformation  of  the  acting  parts  of  the  animal  machine  forms 
the  condition  for  its  action,  while  in  the  case  of  the  steam-engine  it  is 
the  transformation  of  fuel  external  to  the  machine  which  causes  it  to 
move."  Dr.  Playfair  even  furthermore  reproduces  and  endorses  Liebig's 
representation  of  the  wild  beast  in  confinement  being  obliged  to  consume 
its  tissues  by  incessantly  pacing  backward  and  forward  in  its  den,  in 
order  that  the  opportunity  may  be  afforded  for  its  food,  which  abounds 
in  nitrogenous  matter,  to  be  turned  to  account. 

These  assertions,  it  must  be  said,  are  not  in  accord  with  the  results  of 
recent  investigations.  It  has  been  amply  shown  (vide  p.  26  et  seq.}  that 
the  elimination  of  urea,  or  to  speak  more  generally — nitrogen,  does  not 
bear  the  relation  which  it  was  formerly  supposed  to  do  to  muscular  work; 
and,  as  a  corollary,  it  may  be  taken  that  muscular  action  is  not  the  result 
of  and  is  not  to  be  measured  by  muscular  destruction.  If  not,  then,  to 
an  oxidation  or  consumption  of  muscular  tissue,  to  what  is  the  energy 
manifested  to  be  ascribed  ?  The  known  laws  about  force,  lead  us  to  look 
to  chemical  action  of  some  kind  as  the  source  of  the  manifestation  in  ques- 
tion. 

An  examination  of  the  outgoings  from  the  system  may,  therefore,  be 
rationally  appealed  to  for  information  regarding  the  nature  of  the  mate- 
rials that  are  consumed  in  the  production  of  the  energy  that  is  manifested. 
Now,  if  urea  is  not  a  measure  of  muscular  work,  it  is  noticeable  that  car- 
bonic acid  is;  and  it  is  upon  this  fact  that  is  founded  the  doctrine  of  the 
present  day,  which  refers  the  source  of  muscular  power  to  the  oxidation 
of  non-nitrogenous  matter.  So  thorough  has  been  the  modification  of 
views  upon  this  point,  that  Traube,  as  mentioned  on  a  former  page,  has 
gone  as  far  as  directly  to  invert  the  doctrine  of  Liebig.  While  Liebig 
considered  that  mechanical  work  could  only  be  produced  from  the  oxida- 
tion of  nitrogenous  matter,  Traube  has  asserted  that,  in  such  work,  non- 
nitrogenous  substances  exclusively  are  consumed,  and  that  the  metamor- 
phosis of  the  organized  nitrogenous  part  of  a  muscle  is  neither  involved  in 
nor  increased  by  its  action. 

It  has,  for  some  time  past,  been  generally  believed  that  the  elimina- 
tion of  carbonic  acid  is  increased  by  muscular  work.  Thus  Lehmann  says 
that  bodily  exercise  increases  the  exhalation  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  same 
manner  as  a  state  of  rest  diminishes  it.  Vierordt,  he  states,  convinced 
himself  that  the  absolute  as  well  as  the  relative  quantity  of  carbonic  acid 
was  increased  after  moderate  exercise,  and  this  result,  he  says,  is  in  per- 
fect conformity  with  the  experiments  of  Scharling.  H.  Hoffmann,  he  con- 
tinues, found  that  the  sum  of  the  products  of  exhalation  of  the  skin  and 
lungs  was  much  more  considerable  after  prolonged  motion  than  after  pro- 
longed rest;  and  every  one,  he  further  says,  who  has  instituted  experi- 
ments on  the  respiration  of  animals,  must  be  aware  that  they  exhale  far 
more  carbonic  acid  when  they  are  lively  and  active  than  during  a  state  of 
repose. 

The  older  observations  upon  this  point,  however,  were  attended  with 
some  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  results,  and  it  has  been  reserved  for  more 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  63 

recent  inquiry,  with  improved  means  and  modes  of  investigation,  to  put 
the  matter  in  a  thoroughly  satisfactory  position,  and  to  show  that  the  ex- 
halation of  carbonic  acid  holds  a  direct  relation  to  the  amount  of  work 
performed. 

Dr.  Edward  Smith,  in  the  "Philosophical  Transactions"  for  1859,  has 
given  the  results  of  an  extensive  series  of  experiments  upon  the  elimina- 
tion of  carbonic  acid  under  various  conditions.  They  were  mostly  prac- 
tised upon  himself,  and  carried  out  with  zealous  self-denial.  A  mask  was 
closely  fitted  to  the  face,  and  a  tube  passing  off  from  it  conducted  the  ex- 
pired air  to  an  apparatus  in  which  the  carbonic  acid  was  abstracted  and 
absorbed  by  means  of  potash,  and  afterward  estimated  by  weighing.  The 
amounts  of  carbonic  acid  exhaled  by  Dr.  Smith,  under  varying  conditions 
of  exertion,  stood  as  follows: 

Carbonic  acid 

ezhaled  per  minute, 

in  grains. 

During  sleep,  .  4.99 

Lying  down  and  almost  asleep  (average  of  three  observations),        .         .         5.91 
Walking  at  the  rate  of  two  miles  per  hour,      .         .         .         .         .         .18.10 

Walking  at  the  rate  of  three  miles  per  hour, 25.83 

Working  at  the  treadmill,  ascending  at  the  rate  of  28.65  feet  per  minute 

(average  of  three  observations), 44.97 

Dr.  Smith's  results  are  drawn  from  the  carbonic  acid  exhaled  during 
limifed  periods  of  time.  Pettenkofer,  assisted  by  Voit,  has  instituted  ex- 
periments whereby  the  observation  extended  through  a  period  consisting 
of  many  hours.  An  air-tight  chamber,  sufficiently  large  to  enable  a  man 
to  live,  move  about,  and  sleep  in,  was  provided.  To  this  was  adapted  an 
arrangement  for  maintaining  an  ingress  and  egress  of  air,  and.  for  divert- 
ing a  definite  proportion  of  the  latter  for  the  purpose  of  analysis,  in  order 
that  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  escaping  might  be  determined.  In  this 
chamber,  upon  one  occasion,  July  31,  1866,*  a  watchmaker  remained  for 
twenty-four  hours,  passing  a  day  of  rest;  that  is,  he  occupied  himself  only 
so  far  as  not  to  feel  dull,  reading  newspapers  and  a  novel,  and  repairing 
and  cleaning  a  watch  which  he  had  taken  with  him  into  the  chamber.  He 
went  to  bed  at  eight  P.M.,  and  slept  well  till  five  A.M.,  when  he  was  aroused 
by  some  one  on  the  outside.  Three  days  later  the  same  man  entered  the 
chamber,  and  passed  a  day  of  work;  the  work  consisting  of  turning  a  wheel 
with  a  weight  attached  to  it.  Rest  and  meals  were  taken  at  the  periods 
usual  with  workmen,  and  work  was  stopped  at  half-past  five  P.M.  The 
food  taken  was  exactly  the  same  as  on  the  day  of  rest;  but  600  grammes 
more  water,  which  had  been  allowed  ad  libitum  on  both  days,  were  con- 
sumed. The  quantities  of  carbonic  acid  and  urea  eliminated  are  shown  by 
the  subjoined  figures: 

Day  of  Rest. 

Carbonic  acid.  Urea. 

Grammes.  Grammes. 

6  A.M.  to  6  P.M.,         .         .         532.9  21.7 

6  P.M.  to  6  A.M.,         .         .         378.6  15.5 


Total,  .          .          911.5  37.2 


*  Medical  Times  and  Gazette,  vol.  ii.,  p.  680.     1866. 


64  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

Day  of  Work. 

Carbonic  acid.  Urea. 

Grammes.  Grammes. 

6  A.M.  to  6  P.M.,         ,         .         884.6  20.1 

6  P.M.  to  6  A.M.,         .         .         399.6  16.9 


Total,  .          .       1,184.2  37.0 

It  will  be  noticed  from  the  above  results  that  no  effect  was  produced 
upon  the  elimination  of  urea.  The  food  consumed  was,  as  mentioned, 
similar  on  the  two  days,  and,  in  accordance  with  this  fact,  there  was  a 
close  agreement  in  the  respective  amounts  of  urea  voided.  The  carbonic 
acid  discharged  during  the  actual  period  of  work  greatly  exceeded  that 
discharged  during  the  corresponding  period  of  rest.  During  the  two 
night-periods  when  similar  conditions  prevailed,  no  material  difference  in 
the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  was  perceptible.  The  quantities,  of  course, 
represented  the  exhalation  from  both  the  lungs  and  the  cutaneous  surface. 

It  is  impossible  by  experiment  to  ascertain  anything  about  the  oxida- 
tion of  hydrogen  and  production  of  water  in  relation  to  muscular  work. 
It  having  been  shown,  however,  that  work  is  associated  with  an  oxidation 
of  carbon,  it  may  be  assumed  that  it  is  similarly  associated  with,  and  produ- 
cible from,  an  oxidation  of  hydrogen. 

To  this  point,  then,  are  we  brought  by  the  progress  of  experimental 
research.  The  facts  connected  with  the  elimination  of  nitrogen  show 
that  muscular  work  is  not  to  be  referred — as  taught  by  Liebig,  and  till 
lately  generally  believed — to  an  oxidation  of  the  nitrogenous  basis  of 
muscular  tissue;  and  if  this  holds  good  for  muscular,  it  may  be  assumed 
also  to  do  so  for  nervous  tissue.  The  relation,  on  the  other  hand,  which 
has  been  shown  to  exist  between  the  elimination  of  carbonic  acid  arid  the 
performance  of  work  entitles  us  to  consider  that  to  the  oxidation  of  hydro- 
carbonaceous  matter  may  be  referred  the  production  of  power. 

Just  as  matter  is  indestructible  and  cannot  be  created,  so,  it  is  now 
understood,  is  force.  Force  may  be  transmuted  from  one  form  into  an- 
other— from  chemical  energy  into  heat,  mechanical  power,  and  so  on;  but 
this,  it  is  considered,  is  all  that  occurs;  and  what  holds  good  for  the  world 
around  us  is  considered  also  to  apply  within  the  living  organism.  Physi- 
ologists refer  the  chief  source  of  heat  to  the  oxidation  of  carbon  and 
hydrogen,  and  to  the  same  source  is  now  ascribed  the  production  of  me- 
chanical power.  The  energy  set  free  by  chemical  action  manifests  itself 
under  the  form  of  mechanical  work.  The  following  simile  has  been  sug- 
gested by  Fick  and  Wislicenus:  * 

"A  bundle  of  muscle-fibres  is  a  kind  of  machine,  consisting  of  albu- 
minous material,  just  as  a  steam-engine  is  made  of  steel,  iron,  brass,  etc. 
Now,  as  in  the  steam-engine  coal  is  burnt  in  order  to  produce  force,  so 
in  the  muscular  machine  fats,  or  hydrates  of  carbon,  are  burnt  for  the 
same  purpose.  And,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  constructive  material  of 
the  steam-engine  (iron,  etc.)  is  worn  away  and  oxidized,  the  constructive 
material  of  the  muscle  is  worn  away,  and  this  wearing  away  is  the  source 
of  the  nitrogenous  constituents  of  the  urine.  This  theory  explains  why, 
during  muscular  exertion,  the  excretion  of  the  nitrogenous  constituents 
of  the  urine  is  little  or  not  at  all  increased,  while  that  of  carbonic  acid  is 
enormously  augmented;  for,  in  a  steam-engine  moderately  fired,  and  ready 

*  On  the  Origin  of  Muscular  Power,  Philosophical  Mag.,  vol.  xxxL,  p.  501. 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES,  65 

for  use,  the  oxidation  of  iron,  etc.,  would  go  on  tolerably  equably,  and 
would  not  be  much  increased  by  the  more  rapid  firing  necessary  for  work- 
ing, but  much  more  coal  would  be  burnt  when  it  was  at  work  than  when 
it  was  standing  idle." 

Looking,  then,  at  the  evidence  adduced,  the  result  of  modern  research 
goes  to  show  that  the  non-nitrogenous  alimentary  principles  are  applied 
nqt  only  to  the  production  of  heat,  but  likewise  to  other  forms  of  force. 
It  may  be  considered  that  nitrogenous  matter,  which  constitutes  the  basis 
of  the  various  organs  and  textures,  forms  the  instrument  of  action,  whilst 
the  oxidation  of  non-nitrogenous  matter  supplies  the  motive  power. 

Fick  and  Wislicenus,  in  their  celebrated  mountain  ascent,  ascertained 
that  severe  labor  might  be  performed  for  a  while  without  the  use  of  ni- 
trogenous food.  As  a  result  of  their  experience  they  remark:  "  We  can 
assert  from  our  own  experience  in  the  ascent  of  the  Faulhorn,  that,  in 
spite  of  the  amount  of  work,  and  the  abstinence  for  thirty-one  hours  from 
albuminous  food,  we  neither  of  u£  felt  in  the  least  exhausted.  This  could 
hardly  have  been  the  case,"  they  proceed  to  say,  "  if  our  muscular  force 
had  not  been  sustained  by  the  non-nitrogenous  food  of  which  we  partook." 

The  two  soldiers,  in  one  of  Dr.  Parkes'  experiments,*  who  were  sub- 
jected to  a  couple  of  days'  pretty  severe  walking  exercise  on  a  non-nitro- 
genous diet,  were  questioned  as  to  how  they  felt  in  performing  it.  The 
distance  traversed  amounted  to  23f  miles  on  the  first  day,  and  32f  miles 
on  the  second,  on  level  ground.  The  diet  satisfied  hunger.  There  was 
no  sinking  nor  craving  for  other  kinds  of  food,  but  it  was  monotonous, 
and  neither  man  wished  to  continue  it.  The  first  day's  walking  was  borne 
pretty  well.  On  the  second  day,  both  men  accomplished  the  first  twenty 
miles  well,  but  felt  very  much  fatigued  during  the  last  thirteen.  They 
could  have  both  marched  on  the  following  day,  had  it  been  necessary. 
One  man  would  give  no  opinion  as  to  the  amount  of  fatigue  experienced 
in  comparison  with  walking  on  other  occasions,  as  he  had  no  fair  basis, 
he  said,  to  go  by.  The  other,  however,  was  decidedly  of  opinion  that  he 
sustained  much  more  fatigue  than  when  walking  upon  other  food. 

In  a  previous  part  of  this  work  (vide  p.  40  et  seq.),  it  has  been  fully 
pointed  out  how,  without  coinciding  with  the  doctrine  formerly  enter- 
tained, the  nitrogenous  alimentary  principles  are,  like  the  non-nitrogen- 
ous, rendered  applicable  to  force-production.  Instead  of  passing  into> 
the  state  of  tissue,  and  thence  by  oxidation  giving  rise  to  the  evolution 
of  force,  they  undergo  (probably  by  the  action  of  the  liver)  a  splitting  up 
into  urea  for  the  one  part,  which  carries  off  the  nitrogen  as  an  unavail- 
able element,  and  into  a  slightly  oxygenated  hydrocarbonaceous  residue 
for  the  other,  which  may  be  looked  upon  as  applicable  in  the  same  way  as 
primarily  ingested  non-nitrogenous  matter  to  force-production. 

That  energy  capable  of  resulting  in  the  performance  of  mechanical 
work  is  produced  in  the  animal  system  by  the  oxidation  of  carbonaceous 
matter  may  be  considered  as  an  established  fact.  Whether,  however, 
this  energy  arises  from  the  occurrence  of  oxidation  in  the  blood  as  it  is 
circulating  through  the  capillary  vessels  of  the  muscle,  or  whether  from 
the  oxidation  of  hydrocarbonaceous  matter  existing  in  the  muscular  tis- 
sue, is  a  point  which  it  is  not  easy  to  see  the  way  to  settle;  but  the  latter 
proposition,  it  may  be  said,  appears  the  more  probable  of  the  two. 

As  is  the  case  with  reference  to  heat,  the  amount  of  mechanical  energy 
producible  is  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  chemical  action  occurring. 


*  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society,  vol.  xv.,  p.  346.    1867. 
5 


66  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

A  given  amount  of  an  organic  compound,  for  example,  will,  as  is  well 
known,  by  oxidation  give  rise  to  the  generation  of  a  definite  and  ascer- 
tainable  amount  of  heat.  In  the  same  manner,  when  the  energy  set  free 
is  manifested  under  the  form  of  mechanical  power  instead  of  heat,  a  fixed 
amount  of  work  is  capable  of  being  performed.  The  energy  produced 
may  present  itself  under  the  form  of  a  certain  amount  of  heat,  or,  on  the 
other  hand,  may  lead  to  the  accomplishment  of  a  certain  amount  of  work; 
not  only  so,  but  heat  and  mechanical  power  are  known  to  be  mutually 
convertible,  and  a  definite  expression  can  be  given  of  their  relative  value 
in  representative  equivalents. 

According  to  the  English  system,  work  is  measured  by  pounds  or  tons 
lifted  a  foot,  and  the  measurement  is  expressed  as  foot-pounds  or  foot-tons. 

Now,  Mr.  Joule,  of  Manchester,  has  ascertained,  and  his  conclusions 
are  very  generally  acquiesced  in,  that  the  amount  of  energy  which  under 
the  form  of  heat  will  raise  the  temperature  of  a  pound  of  water  1°  Fahr. 
will,  if  manifested  as  mechanical  force,  raise  772  pounds  a  foot  high,  or 
what,  of  course,  amounts  to  the  same,  1  pound  772  feet  high.  Thus  the 
dynamic  equivalent  of  1°  Fahr.  of  heat  is  said  to  be  772  foot-pounds. 
Adopting  the  Centigrade  scale  of  thermal  measurement,  the  mechanical 
equivalent  of  1°  (1.8°  Fahr.)  will  be  1,389  foot-pounds;  that  is,  the  energy 
which,  as  calorific  power,  will  raise  the  temperature  of  a  pound  of  water 
1°  Cent.  (1.8°  Fahr.)  will  be  capable,  as  motive  power,  of  raising  a  pound 
weight  1,389  feet  high. 

Under  the  Continental  system  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat  is 
expressed  in  kilogrammetres — a  kilogrammetre  constituting  one  kilo- 
gramme (2.2046  pounds  avoirdupois)  raised  to  the  height  of  a  metre 
(3.2808  feet).  Thus  represented,  and  following  Mr.  Joule's  formula,  1° 
Cent,  of  heat  may  be  said  to  be  equivalent  to  423^  kilogrammetres,  which 
means  that  the  heat  which  will  raise  the  temperature  of  a  kilogramme  of 
water  1°  Cent,  will  be  equivalent  to  the  mechanical  power  required  to 
raise  a  kilogramme  weight  423£  metres  high. 

Applying  this  to  the  utilization  of  food,  the  value  of  the  various  prin- 
ciples as  mechanical-power-producers  will  correspond  with  their  value  as 
heat-producers.  As  heat-production  is  related  to  the  amount  of  chemical 
action  ensuing,  so  likewise  is  mechanical  power-production.  Such  ali- 
mentary principle  as  will  by  oxidation  give  rise  to  the  greatest  amount  of 
heat  will  have  the  greatest  capacity  for  the  production  of  working  power. 

At  p.  61  the  calorific  value  of  fat,  starch,  cane-sugar,  and  grape-sugar 
is  to  be  found  according  to  the  actual  determinations  of  Professor  Frank- 
land.  Looked  at  in  relation  to  the  performance  of  work,  and  taking  Mr. 
Joule's  estimate  of  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat  as  the  basis  of  calcu- 
lation, the  capacity  of  these  articles  will  stand  thus: 

Amount  of  Mechanical   Work  obtainable  from  the   Oxidation  of   One 
Gramme  (15.432)  grains. 

(Frankland.) 

In  kilogrammetres  In  foot-pounds  * 

(kilogrammes  lifted  a  metre).  (pounds  lifted  a  foot). 

Beef  fat,        .         .         .     3,841  27,778 

Starch  (arrow-root),      .     1,657  11,983 

Lump  sugar,          .         .     1,418  10,254 

Grape  sugar,          .         .     1,388  10,038 


*  Kilogrammetres  are  convertible  into  foot-pounds  by  multiplying  by  7. 232  :  one 
kilogrammetre  being  equal  to  7.232  foot-pounds. 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  67 

Nitrogenous  matters,  as  has  been  previously  explained,  do  not  undergo 
complete  oxidation  within  the  body,  a  portion  of  the  compound  being  sep- 
arated and  eliminated  under  the  form  of  urea  in  an  unoxidized  condition. 

Taking  lean  beef,  and  viewing  it  as  oxidized  to  the  extent  which  occurs 
in  the  animal  system,  one  gramme  (15.432  grains)  in  a  dried  state  will 
develop  energy  capable  of  raising  2,047  kilogrammes  a  metre  high,  or 
14,803  pounds  a  foot  high. 

Such  is  the  modern  way  of  regarding  food  in  reference  to  its  applica- 
tion to  force-production.. 


THE  CARBO-HYDRATES, 

Forming  a  second  systematic  group  of  non-nitrogenous  alimentary  prin- 
ciples, are  compounds  in  which  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  exist  in  the  pro- 
portion to  form  water.  Hence,  these  compounds  have  been  designated 
hydrates  of  carbon  or  carbo-hydrates.  It  must  not,  however,  be  inferred 
that  the  elements  are  in  reality  grouped  as  the  name  would  imply.  There 
is  no  ground  for  such  a  conclusion.  All  that  can  be  said  is  that  the  re- 
spective quantities  of  the  elements  are  such  as  would  form  water.  But 
from  this  it  does  not  follow  that  they  exist  in  combination  as  water,  to  be 
then  linked  as  such  to  the  carbon.  Comprised  in  the  group  of  compounds 
we  have  starch,  cane-sugar,  grape-sugar,  lactine  (sugar  of  milk),  inosite 
(muscle-sugar),  amyloid  substance,  gum,  dextrine,  cellulose,  woody  fibre, 
lactic  acid,  acetic  acid. 

Starch  (C12H10O10)  [C6H10OJ. — Starch  may  be  regarded  as  the  most 
important  alimentary  principle  of  the  group,  on  account  of  its  entering  so 
largely  as  it  does  into  some  of  our  staple  articles  of  food.  It  is  met 
with  only  in  vegetable  products,  and  is  found  stored  up  in  the  form  of 
little  granules,  or  solid  particles,  in  many  seeds,  roots,  stems,  and  some 
fruits.  Each  granule  is  made  up  of  a  series  of  concentric  layers,  the  ex- 
ternal being  of  a  firmer  or  more  indurated  nature  than  the  rest.  In  cold 
water  the  granules  remain  unaltered,  but  when  subjected  to  the  influ- 
ence of  boiling  water  they  swell  up,  burst,  and  form  a  mucilage  which 
assumes  a  gelatinous  nature  on  being  allowed  to  cool. 

Starch  constitutes  a  principle  which,  as  long  as  it  remains  as  such,  re- 
sists absorption  from  the  alimentary  canal.  At  least,  all  that  can  be  said 
is  that  a  few  particles,  like  finely  divided  particles  of  other  kinds,  as  of 
charcoal  and  sulphur,  have  been  known  to  find  their  way,  in  some  manner 
or  other,  through  the  walls  of  the  alimentary  canal  into  the  blood-vessels. 
To  serve,  therefore,  as  an  alimentary  article,  it  must  undergo  a  prelimi- 
nary metamorphosis  to  fit  it  for  absorption,  and  this  is  effected  by  the 
process  of  digestion. 

The  influence  exerted  upon  starch  in  the  digestive  system  leads  to  its 
conversion,  in  the  first  instance,  into  dextrine,  which  has  only  a  very 
transitory  existence,  and  then  into  sugar — an  agent  which  possesses  the 
property  of  being  easily  susceptible  of  absorption.  Thus  it  is  that  starch 
is  prepared  by  the  digestive  apparatus  for  undergoing  absorption. 

There  are  various  secretions  that  are  endowed  with  the  power  of  trans- 
forming starch  into  sugar.  I  will  speak,  in  the  first  place,  of  the  action 
of  the  saliva  in  this  respect. 

When  starch  has  been  brought  into  the  most  favorable  condition  for 
metamorphosis,  as  by  subjection  to  the  influence  of  boiling  water,  it  is 


68  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

very  speedily  converted  into  sugar  upon  being  brought  into  contact  with 
human  saliva.  In  the  solid  form,  however,  or  whilst  the  granules  remain 
in  an  unruptured  state,  the  transformation  is  much  less  speedily  effected. 
Now,  it  happens  that  our  food  is  not  long  delayed  in  the  mouth,  and  that 
the  starch,  as  we  usually  consume  it,  is  not  in  the  most  favorable  con- 
dition for  metamorphosis.  It  may,  therefore,  be  considered  that  during 
the  accomplishment  of  the  first  step  of  the  digestive  process,  viz.,  the  ac- 
tion which  is  exerted  while  the  food  is  in  the  mouth,  little,  if  any,  con- 
version of  starch  into  sugar  takes  place.  Moreover,  although  the  human 
saliva  enjoys  the  property  above  mentioned,  yet  the  saliva  of  many  of 
the  lower  animals  fails,  it  has  been  found,  to  possess  a  similar  capacity. 

The  transformative  power  of  saliva  is  also  checked  by  the  presence  of 
an  acid.  Hence,  when  the  stomach  is  reached,  and  the  food  arrives  in 
contact  with  its  acid  secretion,  any  change  that  might  occur  from  the  pro- 
longed admixture  of  starch  and  saliva  is  prevented.  In  the  ruminant 
animal,  however,  the  food,  after  being  a  first  time  swallowed,  is  retained 
for  a  while  in  a  simple  receptacle,  a  favorable  condition  being  here  pre- 
sented for  the  exercise  of  the  transformative  action  of  the  saliva.  The 
same  likewise  holds  good  in  the  case  of  the  crop  of  the  bird. 

It  has  been  suggested  by  Dr.  Bence  Jones  that  the  secretion  of  the 
stomach,  by  virtue  of  the  acid  belonging  to  it,  is  capable  of  effecting 
some  conversion  of  starch  into  sugar.  The  amount  of  change,  however, 
that  can  be  thus  exerted  is  probably  not  sufficient  to  warrant  our  looking 
upon  it  as  possessing  any  material  extent  of  physiological  significance. 

Passing  from  the  stomach,  the  food  reaches  the  small  intestine — the 
part  of  the  alimentary  canal  which  may  be  regarded  as  forming  the  main 
seat  of  the  digestion  of  starch.  The  secretion  both  of  the  pancreas  and 
of  the  glands  of  the  intestinal  walls  possesses  the  power  of  acting  ener- 
getically upon  starch,  and  within  the  intestinal  canal  there  exist  the  most 
favorable  conditions  for  the  exercise  of  the  transformative  power  enjoyed 
by  these  fluids.  The  food,  for  instance,  has  been  reduced  to  a  semifluid 
state  before  reaching  the  intestine,  where  its  admixture  with  the  secre- 
tions in  question  takes  place.  The  two  are  then  urged  slowly  along  by 
the  peristaltic  movement  of  the  intestinal  canal,  and  thus  cannot  fail  to 
become  thoroughly  incorporated  together.  Subjected  in  this  way  to 
prolonged  contact  with  each  other,  and  at  the  same  time  exposed  to  the 
equable  and  elevated  temperature  which  belongs  to  the  locality,  nothing 
could  be  more  favorable  for  the  occurrence  of  the  metamorphosis.  As 
the  transformation  of  the  starch  is  accomplished,  the  resulting  sugar  is 
removed  by  absorption,  passing,  simply  by  virtue  of  its  diffusibility,  into 
the  circulating  current  within  the  blood-vessels. 

Microscopic  examination  shows  that  in  this  conversion  of  starch  into 
dextrine,  in  the  first  place,  and  afterward  into  sugar,  the  granules  be- 
come softened  and  gradually  broken  up.  Individual  lamellae  have  been 
seen  to  become  detached  and  subsequently  to  undergo  disintegration — 
isolated  shreds  having  been  brought  into  view  with  the  aid  of  the  iodine 
test.  The  farther  the  starch  is  traced  onward  in  the  intestinal  canal 
the  smaller  do  the  granules  become,  in  consequence  of  the  gradually  ad- 
vancing disintegration  and  solution  which  they  undergo  from  the  surface 
inward. 

The  power  of  digesting  starch  is  not  by  any  means  such  as  to  secure 
the  digestion  of  all  that  enters  the  alimentary  canal  as  food.  Starch- 
granules,  especially  when  the  starch  has  been  ingested  in  the  raw  state, 
have  been  frequently  shown  to  pass  off  from  the  alimentary  canal  in  con- 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  69 

siderable  numbers  with  the  evacuations,  both  in  man  and  in  the  lower 
animals. 

Cane-sugar  (C12HuOn)  [C^H^O,,].  —  There  are  various  kinds  of 
sugar,  and  this  is  the  crystallizable  variety,  which  is  so  extensively  em- 
ployed as  an  article  of  food.  It  is  produced  only  by  the  vegetable  king- 
dom, and  is  contained  in  the  juice  of  the  stems,  roots,  and  other  parts  of 
various  plants.  It  is  present  in  a  dissolved  state  in  these  juices  instead 
of  existing  in  a  solid  form,  as  is  the  case  with  starch. 

The  properties  of  solubility  and  diffusibility  which  cane-sugar  pos- 
sesses dispense  with  the  necessity  of  any  aid  to  absorption  being  afforded 
by  the  digestive  process.  All  that  is  required  is  that  it  should  be  either 
dissolved  or  that  there  should  be  liquid  to  dissolve  it,  and  its  diffusibility 
will  enable  it,  without  any  preparatory  process,  to  pass  by  absorption 
from  the  alimentary  canal  into  the  current  of  fluid  contained  in  the  blood- 
vessels. 

Although  cane-sugar,  however,  requires  no  digestion  to  fit  it  for 
absorption,  it  may  be  considered  probable  that  it  undergoes  conversion 
into  grape-sugar,  certainly  in  part,  if  not  wholly,  before  leaving  the  ali- 
mentary canal.  If  cane-sugar  be  introduced  into  one  of  the  vessels  of 
the  general  circulation,  it  passes  off  from  the  system  without  being1 
utilized,  and  escapes,  still  in  the  form  of  cane-sugar,  with  the  urine.  If, 
however,  cane-sugar  be  introduced  into  the  alimentary  canal  beyond  the 
capacity,  say,  for  subsequent  assimilation,  sugar  similarly  passes  off  with 
the  urine,  but  now  in  the  form  of  grape-sugar  instead  of  cane-sugar;  and 
if  this  conversion  is  not  effected  in  the  alimentary  canal,  the  liver  must 
be  the  organ  in  which  it  occurs.  Lehmann  asserts  that  he  has  ascer- 
tained, as  the  result  of  repeated  experiments,  that  when  rabbits  are  fed 
with  beet-root,  which  contains  cane-  and  not  grape-sugar,  grape-sugar  is 
to  be  found  in  the  stomach  and  intestine,  and  no  cane-sugar.  Even 
when  large  quantities  of  cane-sugar  were  dissolved  in  water  and  injected 
into  the  stomach  of  rabbits,  grape-sugar  was  the  only  kind  of  sugar  which 
he  could  detect  in  the  stomach  and  intestine.  Similar  results,  Lehmann 
adds,  were  obtained  in  numerous  experiments  of  a  like  nature,  conducted 
by  Von  Becker,  and  it  was  only  rarely  that  cane-sugar  could  be  traced  as 
far  as  the  middle  of  the  small  intestine,  even  in  those  cases  in  which  large 
quantities  had  been  introduced'  into  the  stomachs  of  cats  and  rabbits. 
Since  neither  the  saliva  nor  the  gastric  juice,  he  continues,  is  able  to  ef- 
fect an  immediate  conversion  of  cane-sugar  into  grape-sugar,  it  only  re- 
mains-to  be  assumed,  as  suggested  by  Von  Becker,  that  the  transforma- 
tion is  produced  by  the  action  of  the  substances  in  a  state  of  change 
which  are  always  present  in  the  alimentary  canal. 

There  is  nothing  surprising  in  the  convertibility,  under  these  circum- 
stances, of  cane-sugar  into  grape-sugar,  seeing  with  what  facility  the 
change  is  effected  by  chemical  and  other  agencies.  Boiling,  for  instance, 
with  a  little  sulphuric  acid,  causes  an  immediate  metamorphosis.  Cane- 
sugar  in  the  form  of  syrup,  maintained  long  near  the  boiling-point,  and 
without  the  aid  of  any  chemical  agent,  undergoes  partial  conversion  into 
grape-sugar.  In  the  case  of  beet-root,  also,  I  have  noticed  that  grape- 
sugar  has  made  its  appearance  simply  as  a  result  of  keeping,  and  more 
strikingly  so  when  it  has  been  reduced  to  a  pulp  and  mixed  with  a  de- 
composable liquid  like  saliva,  or  even  with  water. 

Grape-sugar  (C^H^O^+SHO)  [C6H12O6,H2O].— Grape-sugar  is  met 
with  extensively  as  a  vegetable  product  in  the  juices  of  many  fruits  and 
other  parts  of  plants,  and  is  also  readily  obtainable  from  other  carbohy- 


70  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

drates  by  chemical  means,  and  likewise  by  the  metamorphosic  influence 
of  organic  bodies  in  a  state  of  change.  It  may,  perhaps,  be  set  down  as 
representing  the  lowest,  in  a  chemico-physiological  point  of  view,  of  the 
neutral  compounds  of  the  carbohydrate  group,  as  it  constitutes  that  form 
into  which  they  are  all  easily  convertible,  and  into  which  they  appear  to 
have  a  tendency  to  descend.  It  may  also  be  considered  as  having  its  ele- 
ments in  looser  combination,  as  it  yields  to  oxidizing  influences  which 
the  others  resist.  Upon  this  depends  the  reaction  which  specially  occurs 
in  this  form  of  sugar  when  in  contact  with  the  oxide  of  copper  and  some 
other  metallic  oxides,  at  a  temperature  of  ebullition — a  reaction  which  is 
turned  to  account  for  analytical  purposes. 

Grape-sugar  may  constitute  a  product  arising  in  the  animal  system 
from  the  transformation  of  another  form  of  carbohydrate — amyloid  sub- 
stance— to  be  presently  referred  to,  which  exists  as  a  deposit  in  the  liver 
and  some  other  structures  of  the  body. 

It  is  a  substance  which  requires  no  preliminary  process  of  digestion  to 
fit  it  for  absorption,  and  it  may  be  considered  that  the  main  part  of  that 
which  is  received  into  the  alimentary  canal  passes  without  modification 
into  the  blood-vessels,  by  virtue  of  the  physical  property  of  diffusibility 
which  it  enjoys. 

Grape-sugar,  however,  is  readily  convertible,  by  organic  bodies  in  a 
state  of  change,  into  lactic  acid,  a  principle  in  which  the  elements  are 
combined  in  precisely  the  same  relative  proportion  as  in  anhydrous  grape- 
sugar,  one  atom  of  sugar  corresponding  with  two  atoms  of  the  acid.  Now, 
such  bodies  freely  exist  within  the  alimentary  canal,  and  probably  occa- 
sion a  transformation  of  some  of  the  ingested  sugar  into  lactic  acid — 
through  what  is  styled,  in  fact,  the  lactic-acid  fermentation.  Lehmann 
comments  upon  the  exceptionally  acid  condition  of  the  contents  of  the 
stomach,  and  likewise  of  the  intestine,  after  the  introduction  of  sugar  or 
starch  in  quantity  into  the  alimentary  canal.  In  the  case  of  some  experi- 
ments of  my  own  on  rabbits  which  had  been  fed  exclusively  on  starch 
and  sugar  for  a  few  days  previous  to  being  killed,  I  was  struck  with  the 
remarkably  acid  state  of  the  contents  of  the  stomach.  In  some  experi- 
ments, also,  upon  rats  which  had  been  for  some  days  kept  upon  sugar 
only,  I  noticed  a  strongly  sour  smell  on  laying  open  the  abdominal  cavity 
directly  after  death. 

It  is  known  that  in  some  cases  of  dyspepsia  there  is  an  undue  pres- 
ence of  acid  in  the  stomach.  The  secretion  of  the  organ  being  of  an  acid 
nature,  the  condition  in  question  might  be  ascribable  to  an  inordinate 
discharge  by  the  secreting  structures,  and  such,  it  may  be  considered,  is 
not  unfrequently  the  case.  There  are  grounds,  however,  for  believing 
that  the  undue  acidity  is  sometimes  attributable  to  a  development  of  acid 
from  the  contents  of  the  stomach.  When  digestion  is  carried  out  in  a 
natural  way  the  tendency  to  ordinary  decomposition  and  fermentation  is 
held  in  check;  but  when  the  process  is  defectively  performed,  changes  of 
an  ordinary  nature  are  allowed,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  to  proceed. 
Now,  saccharine  material  in  this  way  undergoing  the  lactic-acid  fermenta- 
tion, would  suffice  to  account  for  the  unnatural  condition  in  question  ; 
and,  in  accordance  with  the  view  expressed,  it  is  noticeable  that  articles 
of  food  impregnated  with  sugar  are  particularly  apt  to  give  rise  to  acidity 
where  a  disposition  to  the  derangement  exists. 

When  saccharine  matter  is  metamorphosed  into  lactic  acid  in  the  man- 
ner above  referred  to,  the  latter  (it  may  be  assumed)  becomes  absorbed, 
and  subsequently  undergoes,  in  the  system,  more  or  less  complete  oxida- 


ALIMENTARY    PKINCIPLES.  l 

tion,  in  the  manner  that  will  be  pointed  out  as  occurring  with  organic 
acids  in  general. 

The  sugar  which  is  absorbed  from  the  alimentary  canal  will  be  subse- 
quently traced  on  in  the  system  when  I  have  gone  through  the  list  of  car- 
bohydrates. The  fitting  time  will  then  have  arrived  for  speaking  of  the 
assimilation  and  destination  of  the  group  taken  altogether. 

Lactine,  or  sugar  of  milk  (019HISOia)  [  CJ2H24O12,  or  C1?H22On, 
H2O]. — This  variety  of  sugar  constitutes  an  animal  product,  and  its  only 
source  is  the  milk  of  mammals.  Very  closely  allied  in  its  properties  to 
grape-sugar,  it  appears  to  comport  itself  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as 
this  principle  in  the  alimentary  canal.  Nothing,  therefore,  requires  to  be 
further  said  about  it. 

Inosite,  or  muscle-sugar  (C12H12012  +  4HO)  [C6H12Oe,  2H2O].— This  is 
another  animal  carbo-hydrate.  It  was  not  long  since  discovered  by  Scherer 
amongst  the  constituents  of  the  juice  of  flesh.  According  to  Lehmann,  it 
has  hitherto  been  obtained  from  the  flesh  of  the  heart.  With  so  limited 
a  source  it  can  have  little  or  no  significance  in  an  alimentary  point  of 
view.  Unlike  grape-sugar,  it  does  not  reduce  the  cupro-potassic  solution, 
nor  does  it  undergo  the  vinous  fermentation  with  yeast,  but  in  the  pres- 
ence of  caseine  it  becomes  tranformed  into  lactic  and  butyric  acids. 

Amyloid  substance  (C12H12O12,  or  C12H10O10+2HO)  [C0H12O6,  or  C6H10 
O5,  H2O]. — This  is  also  an  animal  product.  It  was  discovered  by  Bernard 
as  the  material  yielding  the  sugar  obtainable  from  the  liver,  and  was 
designated  by  him  glycogen.  Besides  the  liver,  where  it  may  occur  largely, 
some  other  structures  yield  it.  It  has  a  much  more  extensive  existence 
and  distribution  among  the  tissues  in  the  fetal  state  than  afterwards.  It 
is  also  discoverable  in  the  placenta. 

One  of  its  most  noteworthy  characters  is  the  striking  facility  and  ra- 
pidity with  which  it  undergoes  conversion  into  sugar  under  the  influence 
of  a  ferment  operating  under  appropriate  conditions.  This  principle  pos- 
sesses an  important  bearing  in  relation  to  the  assimilation  of  sugar,  as  will 
appear  from  what  is  shortly  to  be  mentioned. 

Gum  (Cj.jHjjOjj)  [CiaH22On]. — Gum,  like  starch,  extensively  pervades 
the  vegetable  kingdom.  It  is  met  with  in  the  juices  of  nearly  all  plants, 
and  occurs  in  its  purest  form  as  an  exudation  upon  the  bark  of  certain 
trees.  With  water  it  produces  a  tasteless,  ropy,  mucilaginous  liquid,  pos- 
sessing strongly  adhesive  properties,  which  render  it  a  useful  article  for 
various  purposes.  It  is  convertible  into  sugar  by  boiling  with  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid. 

Gum  is,  doubtless,  susceptible  of  being  utilized  as  an  alimentary 
principle,  although  nothing  definite  is  known  about  what  becomes  of  it 
when  introduced  into  the  alimentary  canal.  Although  soluble,  it  is  of 
very  low  diffusibility,  and,  belonging  to  the  class  of  colloids,  is,  according 
to  Graham,  only  two  and  a  half  times  more  dialyzable  than  albumen. 

Its  properties,  therefore,  are  such  as  to  preclude  its  passage  to  any 
great  extent,  by  absorption  into  the  blood-vessels.  We  have  no  tangible 
evidence  that,  like  starch,  it  undergoes  conversion  in  the  alimentary  canal 
into  sugar.  In  the  first  place,  none  of  the  secretions  are  found  to  possess 
the  power  of  effecting  the  conversion,  and,  in  the  next,  no  sugar  is  dis- 
coverable in  the  alimentary  canal  after  gum  has  been  administered.  I  have 
experimented  both  upon  rabbits  and  dogs  with  reference  to  this  point. 
In  rabbits,  to  which  nothing  else  but  gum  in  solution  had  been  adminis- 
tered for  a  few  days  before  death,  no  sugar  was  subsequently  discovera- 
ble in  either  the  stomach  or  intestine.  After  the  administration  of  gum, 


72  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

also,  iu  conjunction  with  animal  food,  to  a  dog,  no  trace  of  sugar  was  to 
be  detected  in  the  alimentary  canal. 

Lehmaun,  in  one  part  of  his  "  Physiological  Chemistry,"  goes  as  far 
as  to  say  that  gum  remains  unabsorbed.  Farther  on  he  speaks  of  its  ab- 
sorption as  being  extremely  limited,  if,  indeed,  it  occurs  at  all.  There 
are  considerations,  however,  which,  I  think,  must  be  held  as  indirectly 
showing  that,  under  some  form  or  other,  its  elements,  to  some,  if  not  to 
a  large  extent,  reach  the  circulation. 

The  first  consideration  is  this.  Amyloid  substance,  which  has  been 
before  referred  to  as  forming  a  constituent  of  the  liver,  is  evidently  de- 
rivable from  the  absorbed  products  of  the  food,  and  under  the  absence  of 
food  it  is  noticeable  that  it  entirely  disappears  from  the  organ.  Now, 
when  substances  like  starch  and  sugar  have  been  exclusively  administered, 
the  liver  is  found  to  be  charged  with  amyloid  substance,  and  in  a  series  of 
experiments  which  I  some  time  ago  conducted  I  observed,  after  the  exclu- 
sive administration  of  gum,  a  similar  existence,  of  amyloid  substance  in 
the  liver.  It  is  true  the  amount  present  was  not  very  large,  but,  never- 
theless, there  was  a  notable  quantity  to  deal  with. 

The  next  consideration  is  that  the  carbohydrates,  which  are  absorba- 
ble  and  convertible  within  the  system  into  sugar,  increase  the  sugar 
eliminated  with  the  urine  in  cases  of  diabetes.  To  a  patient  suffering 
from  this  disease,  and  under  very  strict  regimen  and  observation,  gum 
was  administered,  and  a  distinct,  although  not  a  large,  augmentation  in 
the  eliminated  sugar  was  noticed. 

Dextrine  (C1SH10O10)  [C6H10OJ. — Dextrine  does  not  occur  as  a  natu- 
ral product,  but  constitutes  an  artificial  gum,  derivable  from  the  trans- 
formation of  starch,  with  which,  in  composition,  it  is  identical.  It  is 
producible  from  starch  by  the  action  of  heat,  the  mineral  acids,  and  the 
ferment — diastase,  which  is  developed  during  the  process  of  fermenta- 
tion. It  has  been  suggested  that  it  behaves  in  the  alimentary  canal  like 
gum;  but,  being  readily  convertible,  in  the  same  manner  as  starch,  by  some 
of  the  digestive  secretions  into  sugar,  it  is  probable  that,  when  it  happens 
to  be  consumed,  it  is  transformed  into  sugar,  and  in  that  state  absorbs. 

Cellulose  (CiaH10O10)  [CieH3uO15].— This  constitutes  the  basis  of  the 
structure  forming  the  walls  of  the  cells,  fibres,  and  vessels  of  plants.  It 
is  presented  in  a  nearly  pure  form  in  cotton,  linen,  and  elder  pith.  It 
offers  strong  resistance  to  solution,  but  yields,  however,  to  the  more  pow- 
erful chemical  agents.  It  is  convertible  first  into  dextrine,  and  then  into 
sugar,  by  boiling  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid. 

Closely  allied  to  cellulose  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  is  a  principle 
which  was  discovered  by  C.  Schmidt  in  the  outer  tunic  of  some  of  the 
lower  mollusca.  It  is  known  as  animal  cellulose,  or  tunicine  (C12H10010) 
[C6H10OJ,  and  possesses  significance  from  furnishing  an  instance  in  which 
a  carbohydrate  enters  into  the  composition,  if  even  it  does  not  form  the 
basis,  of  an  animal  texture. 

From  the  resistance  offered  by  cellulose  to  solvents,  it  can  scarcely 
constitute  an  article  of  any  decided  alimentary,  value  for  the  generality 
of  animals.  It  seems,  however,  that  in  the  case  of  the  beaver  a  special 
aptitude  exists  for  digesting  this  principle. 

Lignine  or  woody  fibre  (CltH10O10)  [C.H10OB].— Lignine  forms  the 
pervading  solid  matter  which  is  deposited  within  the  vegetable  fibre,  and 
gives  to  wood  the  property  of  hardness.  It  is  of  an  exceedingly  insoluble 
nature,  and  it  is  only  in  exceptional  instances  that  it  can  do  otherwise 
than  escape  the  action  of  the  digestive  juices. 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  73 

Lactic  acid  (C6HSO6)  [HC.H.OJ  and  acetic  acid  (C4H3O3  +  HO) 
![HC,iH3O2]  also  belong  chemically  to  the  group  of  carbohydrates  accord- 
ing to  the  old  formulas,  but  in  a  physiological  point  of  view  they  proba- 
bly stand  in  quite  a  distinct  position.  They  will  be  subsequently  consid- 
ered in  connection  with  the  next  group  of  substances,  which  will  be  found 
to  include  other  organic  acids. 

I  now  come  to  speak  of  the  assimilation  and  utilization  of  the  carbo- 
hydrates. 

It  has  been  stated  that  some  conversion  of  saccharine  matter  into 
lactic  acid  may  occur  within  the  alimentary  canal.  It  can  scarcely  be 
considered,  however,  that  this  transformation  takes  place  to  a  sufficient 
extent  to  be  deserving  of  much  consideration  as  regards  the  question  of 
utilization.  It  may  be  assumed  that  the  lactic  acid  so  produced  becomes 
absorbed,  and  is  subsequently  mainly  disposed  of  by  undergoing  oxida- 
tion within  the  system,  as  happens  with  the  organic  acids  in  general. 

It  is  as  saccharine  .matter  that  the  carbohydrates,  in  the  ordinary 
course,  reach  the  circulation,  and  the  saccharine  matter  thus  derived  is 
conveyed  by  the  portal  system  of  vessels  to  the  liver,  where  it  can  be  shown 
to  be  detained  and  subjected  to  metamorphosis — a  process  which  may  be 
regarded  as  forming  its  first  step  of  assimilation. 

That  the  saccharine  matter  is  detained,  as  has  been  asserted,  in  the 
liver,  is  attested  by  the  fact  that  if  it  should  reach  the  general  circulation 
it  will  immediately  become  recognizable  in  the  urine. 

Under  natural  circumstances,  for  instance,  the  urine,  on  being  exam- 
ined in  the  ordinary  way,  gives  no  reaction  with  the  tests  for  sugar,  al- 
though, it  is  true,  when  large  quantities  are  operated  upon,  and  evaporation 
and  separation  of  the  other  ingredients  effected,  sugar,  to  a  minute  ex- 
tent, is  found  to  exist.  On  introducing  sugar,  however,  into  the  general 
circulatory  system,  it  is  found  to  pass  off  with  the  urine,  and  to  be  more 
or  less  strongly  recognizable  by  the  ordinary  mode  of  testing. 

It  used  to  be  thought  that  sugar  was  capable  of  being  oxidized  on 
being  conveyed  by  the  blood  through  the  lungs.  Liebig  suggested  this 
view  on  theoretical  grounds,  and  Bernard's  experiments  supported  it. 
With  regard  to  the  theoretical  proposition,  it  does  not  appear  to  me  to 
demand  consideration,  and  Bernard's  experiments  I  have  shown,  in  another 
place,*  to  have  received  a  fallacious  interpretation.  There  is  no  appre- 
ciably recognizable  destruction  of  sugar,  in  fact,  anywhere  effected  within 
the  circulatory  system;  hence,  sugar  in  any  way  reaching  the  general  cir- 
culation will  be  carried  in  due  course  to  the  kidney,  and  by  virtue  of  its 
property  of  diffusibility  will  escape  with  the  urine. 

Lehmann's  experiments  and  my  own  are  in  accord  upon  this  point. 
Lehmann,  for  instance,  states  that,  without  including  previous  experi- 
ments, he  had  recently  injected  grape-sugar  into  the  jugular  vein  of 
thirty-seven  rabbits  and  dogs,  and  in  no  single  instance  was  grape-sugar 
absent  from  the  urine.  He  further  remarks  that  sugar  passes  so  quickly 
into  the  urine  that  it  may  frequently  be  detected  five  minutes  after  its  in- 
jection, and  this  even  when  only  one-tenth  of  a  gramme  (1£  grain)  has 
been  injected. 

If,  then,  sugar  passes  off  in  this  way  with  the  urine  when  introduced 
into  the  general  circulation,  and  sugar  is  not  similarly  to  be  detected  in 
the  urine  by  ordinary  examination  under  natural  circumstances,  it  becomes 

*  Researches  on  Sugar  Formation  in  the  Liver,  Philosophical  Transactions,  1860. 


74  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

evident  that  the  sugar  absorbed  from  the  alimentary  canal  must  be 
stopped  on  its  transit  before  reaching  so  far. 

Such  is  what  occurs  when  ordinary  circumstances  exist;  but  if  sugar 
be  ingested  in  excessive  quantity,  and  particularly  after  fasting,  when 
absorption  is  at  the  height  of  its  activity,  sugar  in  notable  amount  is  to 
be  recognized  in  the  urine.  It  may  be  here  inferred  that  its  rapidity  of 
entrance  exceeds,  for  the  time,  the  capacity  of  the  liver  for  detaining  and 
assimilating  it,  and  that  thereby  some  passes  through  the  organ  and 
reaches  the  general  circulation.  In  illustration  of  what  has  been  men- 
tioned, it  may  be  stated  that  the  urine  has  been  observed  to  have  been 
rendered  temporarily  saccharine  in  man  by  the  ingestion  of  a  considera- 
ble quantity  of  syrup  the  first  thing  in  the  morning,  before  any  food  had 
been  taken.  Also,  in  my  experiments,  where  rabbits  have  been  fed  for  a 
few  days  solely  on  starch  and  sugar,  and  dogs  have  had  administered  to 
them  a  large  quantity  of  sugar  with  their  animal  food,  sugar  has  been 
freely  discoverable  in  the  urine. 

Not  only  have  we  this  evidence  to  denote  that  sugar  is  naturally 
stopped  on  its  passage  through  the  liver,  but  the  principle  can  be  identi- 
fied, as  I  will  proceed  to  show,  into  which,  on  being  detained,  it  is  trans- 
formed. 

I  have  already  referred  to  amyloid  substance  as  a  material  of  the  car- 
bo-hydrate group  which  has  been  discovered  to  exist  in  the  liver.  It  is  a 
principle  which  possesses  diametrically  opposite  physical  properties  to 
sugar,  being  a  colloid,  and  therefore  non-diffusible,  instead  of  a  crystalloid 
and  diffusible.  By  micro-chemical  examination  it  can  be  shown  to  be 
lodged  in  the  hepatic  cells,  within  which  its  non-diffusibility  permits  it  to 
be  retained  for  proceeding  on,  as  it  may  be  assumed  to  do,  in  the  train  of 
assimilative  metamorphoses.  Now,  one  of  the  sources  of  this  amyloid 
substance  is  evidently  saccharine  matter — at  least  such,  I  think,  will  be 
conceded,  on  casting  the  eye  through  the  following  resume  of  experimen- 
tal results  that  I  obtained,  and  published  in  the  "  Philosophical  Transac- 
tions "  for  1860.  A  very  striking  effect,  it  will  be  noticed,  was  produced 
through  the  medium  of  food  on  the  condition  of  the  liver,  and  it  is  to  the 
amount  of  amyloid  substance  that  it  was  attributable. 

In  the  first  place,  an  observation  conducted  upon  eleven  dogs,  which 
had  been  restricted  for  some  time  to  an  animal  diet,  gives  the  state  existing 
under  an  absence  of  the  introduction  of  sugar  with  the  food.  The  dogs 
were  carefully  weighed,  and  also  the  livers,  and  the  figures  furnished 
showed  a  relative  weight  of  1  to  30 — the  weight  of  the  livers,  in  other 
words,  amounted  only  to  one-thirtieth  of  the  body- weight. 

A  quantitative  determination  of  the  amyloid  substance  present  was 
made  in  seven  out  of  the  eleven  instances,  and  the  mean  amount  given 
was  7.19  per  cent. 

To  four  other  dogs  animal  food  was  given  with  an  admixture  of  sugar, 
the  quantity  of  sugar  administered  amounting  to  about  a  quarter  of  a 
pound  daily.  In  these  the  results  of  weighing  showed  a  remarkably  in- 
creased relative  weight  of  liver,  the  proportion  being  as  1  to  16£  of  body- 
weight  instead  of  as  1  to  30.  The  quantity  of  amyloid  substance  present 
amounted,  as  a  mean  for  the  four  livers,  to  14.5  per  cent. 

Five  other  dogs  were  kept  for  several  days  upon  a  purely  vegetable 
diet,  the  food  consisting  of  barley-meal  and  potatoes,  or,  where  this  was 
refused,  of  bread  and  potatoes.  The  weight  of  the  livers  was  here  found 
to  amount  to  as  much  as  one-fifteenth  of  the  body-weight — exactly  double 
the  relative  weight  under  purely  animal  food.  In  two  of  the  instances 


ALIMENTARY   PRINCIPLES.  75 

no  quantitative  determination  of  the  amyloid  substance  was  made,  but 
from  the  rough  examination  conducted  it  was  evidently  present  in  very 
large  quantity.  It  was,  in  fact,  these  identical  livers  that  first  suggested 
the  idea  which  led  me  to  prosecute  my  subsequent  inquiry.  The  three 
other  livers  were  subjected  to  analysis,  and  the  amyloid  substance  aver- 
aged the  large  amount  of  17.23  per  cent. 

From  these  observations  it  appears  that  the  ingestion  of  sugar  and 
starch  produces  an  augmentation  of  the  size  of  the  liver,  due  to  an  in- 
crease of  the  amyloid  substance  contained  in  it.  The  inference  naturally 
to  be  drawn  is  that  absorbed  saccharine  matter,  on  reaching  the  liver,  is 
transformed  by  the  assimilative  action  of  the  organ  into  amyloid  sub- 
stance, which  is  stored  up  in  its  cells  for  subsequent  further  change,  pre- 
liminary to  being  appropriated  to  the  purposes  of  life.  That  the  saccha- 
rine matter  derived  from  the  food  becomes  thus  transformed  into  amyloid 
substance  is  even  more  strongly  exemplified  by  the  results  obtained  in 
the  following  experiment  performed  upon  rabbits. 

A  couple  of  full-grown  rabbits  were  selected,  which  as  closely  as  pos- 
sible resembled  each  other  in  size  and  condition.  To  the  one,  starch  and 
ffrape-sugar  only  were  administered,  and  to  the  other,  no  food  at  all. 

The  rabbit  which  had  fasted  was  found  to  weigh  3  Ibs.  1  oz.,  and  its 
liver  1|^  oz.  The  rabbit  fed  on  starch  and  grape-sugar  weighed  3  Ibs.  4  oz., 
and  its  liver  2|-  oz.,  or  just  double  the  weight  of  the  other.  In  the  liver 
of  the  rabbit  that  had  fasted  there  was  practically  no  amyloid  substance 
present,  while  the  other  contained  15.4  per  cent. 

Upon  another  occasion  a  couple  of  half-grown  rabbits,  also  as  closely 
as  possible  resembling  each  other  in  size  and  condition,  were  submitted 
to  experiment.  One  was  fed  on  starch  and  cawe-sugar  (cane-sugar  being 
used  this  time  instead  of  grape,  as  in  the  first  experiment),  and  the  other, 
as  before,  was  kept  fasting.  The  latter  was  found  to  weigh  1  Ib.  14  oz., 
and  its  liver  1  oz.,  with  no  amyloid  substance  present.  The  former 
weighed  1  Ib.  14f  oz.,  and  its  liver  2f  oz.,  with  amyloid  substance  present- 
to  the  extent  of  16.9  per  cent.* 

Nothing  could  be  more  simple  than  the  conditions  here  dealt  with, 
and  nothing  could  more  conclusively  show  that  saccharine  matter  con- 
duces to  the  production  of  amyloid  substance.  But,  as  has  been  seen, 
amyloid  substance  is  also  present  in  the  liver  when  no  saccharine  matter 
has  been  supplied  from  without,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  case  of  an  animal 
restricted  to  a  purely  animal  diet.  Under  such  circumstances  it  is  prob- 
ably derived  from  the  metamorphosis  of  the  complemental  part  to  urea, 
which  takes  origin  in  the  splitting  up  of  the  nitrogenous  molecule.  It 
has  been,  for  example,  already  shown  how  the  nitrogenous  portion  of  food 
undergoes  conversion  into  urea,  which  is  eliminated,  and  a  residue  of  car- 
bon, hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  which  is  retained  for  utilization  in  the  sys- 
tem. Now,  there  is  evidence  producible  which  tends  to  show  that  the 
splitting  up  of  the  nitrogenous  molecule  occurs  in  the  liver,  and  nothing 
is  more  probable  than  that  the  utilizable  non-nitrogenous  portion  passes 
on  in  the  same  way  as  sugar  into  amyloid  substance. 

The  view  here  enunciated  receives  support  from  the  relation  that  has 
been  observed  by  Dr.  $ydney  Ringer  to  exist  between  the  urea  and  sugar 
eliminated  in  diabetes  mellitus  when  either  abstinence  from  food  or  re- 
striction to  a  purely  animal  diet  is  enjoined.  Under  such  circumstances 

*  Full  details  of  the  experiments  upon  this  subject  are  to  be  found  in  the  author's 
work,  Researches  on  the  Nature  and  Treatment  of  Diabetes,  p.  89  et  s=eq. 


76  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

it  was  noticed  that  the  urea  and  sugar  rose  and  fell  together  in  almost 
-exactly  the  same  ratio.  Now,  in  diabetes  mellitus  it  happens  that  there 
is  a  want  of  power  to  assimilate  and  make  use  of  the  carbohydrate  group 
of  principles,  which  occasions  their  escape,  unutilized,  with  the  urine  ; 
and,  if  the  complemental  part  to  urea  of  the  nitrogenous  molecule  fol- 
lows the  same  course  in  the  system  (and  it  has  been  suggested  that  it  is 
•converted  in  the  liver  into  amyloid  substance)  as  the  carbohydrate,  it 
is  only  natural  to  expect  that  where  the  defect  in  question  exists  it  should 
pass  off  from  the  system  in  the  same  manner  as  a  carbohydrate,  and  that 
thus,  where  there  is  only  nitrogenous  matter  as  a  source  for  the  elimina- 
ted sugar,  this  principle  and  urea — the  other  representative  of  the  nitro- 
genous molecule — should  bear  a  relation  in  amount  to  each  other. 

To  amyloid  substance,  then,  it  may  be  considered  that  the  carbohy- 
drates can  be  followed.  We  now,  however,  reach  a  break  in  the  chain  of 
metamorphoses,  and  have  to  step  over  some  missing  links.  But,  if  we 
•cannot  further  trace  the  absorbed  sugar  in  open  view  onward,  and  point 
out  the  particular  changes  it  next  undergoes,  still  we  learn,  in  another 
way,  that  it  leads  on  to  the  production  of  fat;  and  let  us  examine  the 
grounds  on  which  this  statement  is  based. 

A  sharp  controversy  was  carried  on,  some  years  back,  between  the 
German  and  the  French  schools,  upon  the  point  as  to  whether  animals  pos- 
sess the  power  of  forming  fat.  Liebig,  on  the  one  side,  partly  upon  ex- 
perimental evidence  and  partly  by  a  train  of  reasoning,  contended  that 
in  the  animal  system  the  carbohydrates  were  convertible  into  fat.  Du- 
mas and  Boussingault,  on  the  other  hand,  asserted  that  the  food  of  ani- 
mals contained  preformed  fat  sufficient  to  account  for  that  met  with  in 
the  body,  and  thence  that  there  was  no  need  for  a  fat-forming  capacity 
to  exist. 

This  controversy  gave  rise  to  the  performance  of  a  number  of  experi- 
ments which  have  proved  of  considerable  service  to  science,  inasmuch  as 
they  have  led  to  the  matter  in  question  being  placed  in  a  definitely  settled 
position. 

Huber's  experiments  on  bees  are  the  first  that  can  be  said  to  have  af- 
forded any  substantial  evidence  bearing  on  the  point.  They  go  toward 
showing  that  from  sugar  the  animal  can  produce  wax,  which  is  admitted 
to  belong  to  the  group  of  fats. 

Grundlach  subsequently  repeated  Huber's  experiments,  and  obtained 
confirmatory  results.  Both  these  experimentalists,  however,  neglected  to 
prove  that  the  wax  yielded  during  subsistence  upon  a  saccharine  diet  had 
not  been  drawn  from  a  pre-existing  store  in  the  body  of  the  animal.  Du- 
mas and  Milne-Edwards*  conjointly  undertook  the  performance  of  ex- 
periments to  decide  the  point.  They  assigned  to  themselves  the  task  of 
first  of  all  determining  the  amount  of  wax  existing  in  the  bees  at  the 
•commencement  of  the  experiment,  and  then  compared  this  with  the  wax 
formed  into  comb,  and  that  remaining  in  the  animals  at  the  conclusion  of 
the  experiment.  They  started  by  restricting  the  animal  to  a  diet  of  pure 
sugar,  but  failed  in  obtaining  a  satisfactory  development  of  comb.  They, 
therefore,  abandoned  experimenting  with  sugar,  and  substituted  honey. 
Upon  this  they  succeeded  in  getting,  from  one  swarm  out  of  four  on 
which  they  experimented,  a  fair  yield  of  wax.  As  the  honey  itself  con- 
tains a  minute  portion  of  wax,  this  also  required  to  be  looked  to  as  one 
of  the  items  to  be  taken  into  account.  It  is  not  necessary  to  give  here 

*  Annales  de  Chimie,  tome  xiv.,  p.  400.    1845. 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  77 

the  actual  numerical  results  obtained.  It  will  be  sufficient  to  state  that 
the  amount  of  wax  formed  and  the  fatty  matter  existing  in  the  animals 
at  the  conclusion  of  the  experiment  greatly  exceeded  the  fat  ingested  with 
the  honey  and  that  pre-existing  in  the  bees,  a  result  which  shows  that  a 
real  production  of  wax  took  place.  In  the  words  of  the  experimentalists, 
the  production  of  wax  may  be,  therefore,  said  to  constitute  a  true  animal 
operation,  and  consequently  the  opinion  entertained  by  the  older  natural- 
ists, and  by  some  modern  chemists,  among  whom  one  of  the  experimen- 
talists themselves  (viz.,  Dumas)  had  previously  found  it  necessary  to  range 
himself,  must  be  set  aside. 

In  the  production  of  the  foie  gras  a  further  proof  is  afforded  of  th& 
formation  of  fatty  matter  within  the  animal  system.  The  process  of  fat- 
tening geese  for  obtaining  this  article  of  luxury  is  carried  on  so  exten- 
sively in  Alsace  as  to  form  an  important  industrial  employment  in  that 
locality.  Strasburg  constitutes  the  headquarters  of  the  trade;  and  in 
Murray's  "  Handbook  for  Travellers  on  the  Continent  "  we  are  told  that 
the  cellars  of  nearly  every  house  in  the  town  form  the  scene  of  foie  gras 
production.  Almost  from  time  immemorial  the  goose  has  been  turned  to 
account  in  the  manner  under  consideration.  The  Roman  epicures,  it  is 
said,  delighted  in  the  enlarged  liver  of  the  goose  as  a  delicacy  at  the  table. 
In  our  own  time  the  demand  for  the  article  is  widely  spread,  and  propor- 
tionately met. 

The  modus  operandi  for  producing  the  fatty  liver  is  described  to  be 
this:  The  geese,  in  a  lean  state  to  start  with,  are  placed  singly  in  wooden 
coops  just  large  enough  to  admit  them  without  allowing  them  to  turn 
round.  There  is  an  opening  in  front  for  the  head  to  project.  Below 
stands  a  wooden  trough,  kept  always  full  of  water,  in  which  fragments 
of  wood  charcoal  are  immersed,  and  a  little  salt  introduced.  Morning  and 
evening,  maize  or  Indian  corn,  previously  soaked  in  water,  is  crammed 
down  the  bird's  throat  to  repletion.  During  the  day  it  "  drinks  and  guz- 
zles" in  the  water  before  it.  In  about  a  month  the  breathing  becomes 
difficult,  and  then  it  is  known  to  be  necessary  to  kill  the  animal,  other- 
wise death  would  occur  spontaneously.  The  liver  is  now  found  to  weigh 
from  one  to  two  pounds.  The  goose  itself  is  fit  for  food  for  the  table. 
On  being  roasted  as  much  as  from  three  to  five  pounds  of  fat,  it  is  saidr 
escape  from  it.  The  fattening  process  is  carried  on  in  cellars,  or  places 
where  but  little  light  is  admitted,  and  the  winter  is  the  season  selected, 
It  is  not  in  every  case  that  it  is  successful.  Some  of  the  geese  employed 
fail  to  turn  out  so  as  to  allow  the  fattener's  expectations  to  be  realized. 

Persoz,*  a  professor  in  the  Faculty  of  Science  of  Strasburg,  and  there- 
fore located  in  the  midst  of  the  operation,  applied  the  advantage  thus  pre- 
sented to  account  for  investigating  the  question  of  the  production  of  fatty 
matter  from  the  carbohydrates. 

It  is  known  that  maize,  the  article  employed  in  fattening  the  geese, 
is  charged  to  a  greater  extent  with  fatty  matter  than  the  generality  of  the 
cereal  grains.  Was  this  the  secret  of  the  phenomenon  of  foie  gras  pro- 
duction ?  Persoz  undertook  to  determine  whether  the  fat  contained  in 
the  food  sufficed  to  account  for  the  accumulation  of  fat  that  occurred. 
Taking  a  number  of  geese,  he  killed  one  to  begin  with,  and  ascertained 
the  amount  of  fat  existing  in  the  body.  This  served  as  the  basis  of  com- 
parison. The  others  were  fed  in  the  way  usually  adopted  by  the  fattener, 
and  were  killed  between  the  nineteenth  and  twenty-fourth  days.  Persoz 

*  Annales  de  Chimie,  tome  xiv.,  p.  408.     1845. 


78  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD   AND    DIETETICS. 

» 

remarks  that  in  his  neighborhood  expert  fatteners  assert  that  the  process 
cannot  be  effected  with  profit  if  the  goose  is  obliged  to  be  killed  before 
the  eighteenth  day  or  after  the  twenty-fourth.  In  fact,  after  a  certain 
period  the  animal,  it  is  stated,  begins  to  lose  instead  of  gain  weight,  and  this 
period  is  known  by  the  dejections  assuming  a  lactescent  character.  An 
account  was  taken  of  the  amount  of  food  ingested,  and  the  fat  contained 
in  it  was  estimated,  and  found  to  be  altogether  inadequate  to  explain  the 
accumulation  of  fat  which  examination  showed  had  taken  place  in  the  fat- 
tened animal.  Persoz's  results  clearly  convinced  him  that  in  the  fattening 
process  the  goose  forms  a  true  laboratory  or  manufactory  of  fat  from  the 
starch  and  sugar  in  its  food.  The  liver  became  five  or  six  times  larger 
than  at  the  beginning,  but  the  deposit  in  the  liver  occurs  only  as  a  part 
of  a  general  process,  fat  being  so  accumulated  as  to  cause  the  blood  to 
assume  a  lactescent  character,  and  also  being  correspondingly  distributed 
through  the  various  parts  of  the  body.  The  blood,  it  was  stated,  was 
found  to  have  undergone  a  further  modification,  namely,  as  regards  its 
albuminous  element,  the  serum  failing  to  give  the  usual  precipitate  of 
albumen  with  heat  and  nitric  acid. 

Boussingault  *  repeated  Persoz's  experiments,  and  obtained  confirma- 
tory results.  His  investigations  were  conducted  upon  eleven  geese,  five 
of  which  were  examined  in  the  lean  state,  and  the  remaining  six,  after 
the  process  of  fattening,  which  in  his  case  was  carried  on  for  a  period  of 
thirty-one  days.  Boussingault  estimated  the  fat  contained  in  the  dejec- 
tions as  well  as  in  the  food  of  the  animals.  This  amounted  to  something 
considerable,  and,  therefore,  correspondingly  increased  the  amount  of  fat 
that  had  to  be  reckoned  as  formed  within  the  system. 

Boussingault  likewise  experimented,  in  a  similar  manner  and  with  the 
same  result,  on  ducks.  When  fed  with  140  grammes  (about  5  ounces)  of 
maize  per  diem,  a  duck  of  rather  over  2^  pounds  weight  gained,  he  says, 
in  fifteen  days,  180  to  200  grammes  (about  6£  to  7  ounces)  of  fat. 

He  also  tried  if  the  same  result  could  be  obtained  on  substituting 
rice,  in  which  fatty  matter  is  at  a  minimum,  for  maize.  In  the  case  of 
two  out  of  three  ducks  operated  upon  no  marked  increase  of  fat  was 
observable.  In  the  third,  however,  an  increase  appears  to  have  occurred 
— assuming,  that  is,  that  the  bird  was  not  in  reality  fatter  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  experiment  than  it  was  estimated  to  be,  which  may  be  re- 
garded as  an  open  point. 

Other  ducks  were  fed  on  the  same  quantity  of  rice,  to  which  some 
butter  was  added,  and,  Boussingault  states,  were  rapidly  raised  to  a  de- 
gree of  fatness  truly  remarkable. 

A  duck  which  had  been  fed  only  on  butter  died  at  the  end  of  three 
weeks  of  starvation.  Butter,  it  is  said,  exuded  from  all  parts  of  the 
body,  and  the  feathers  seemed  as  if  they  had  been  soaked  in  melted 
butter. 

It  thus  seems,  from  these  observations  on  geese  and  ducks,  that  con- 
clusive evidence  is  afforded  that  the  carbohydrate  element  of  food  is 
susceptible  of  undergoing  conversion  into  fat,  but  that,  for  this  result  to 
ensue,  it  must  not  be  administered  without  a  due  accompaniment  of  the 
other  alimentary  principles. 

It  may  here  be  mentioned  that  the  practice  has  prevailed,  it  appears, 
in  some  parts  of  this  country,  of  fattening  fowls  for  the  London  market 
in  a  somewhat  similar  manner  to  the  process  resorted  to  with  the  Stras- 

*  Annales  de  Chimie,  tome  xiv.,  p.  461.    1845. 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  79 

burg  geese.  Although  in  this  case  fat  is  added  to  the  food,  yet,  doubt- 
less, the  modus  operandi  is  the  same.  Mavor*  says:  "They  are  put  up 
in  a  dark  place  and  crammed  with  a  paste  made  of  barley-meal,  mutton 
suet,  and  some  treacle  or  coarse  sugar  mixed  with  milk,  and  are  found  to 
be  completely  ripe  in  a  fortnight.  If  kept  longer  the  fever  that  is  in- 
duced by  this  continued  state  of  repletion  renders  them  red  and  unsala- 
ble, and  frequently  kills  them." 

Boussingault  f  furthermore  experimented  upon  pigs  with  reference  to 
the  point  under  consideration.  Like  in  the  case  of  his  ducks  fed  with 
rice,  he  found  that  pigs  would  not  fatten  on  potatoes  only,  as  on  food  of 
a  less  exclusively  farinaceous  nature.  After  a  time  they  ceased  to  make 
progress  in  growth,  and  it  was  estimated  that  the  fatty  matter  already 
contained  in  the  potatoes  ingested  sufficed  to  account  for  whatever  fatty 
accumulation  occurred.  When,  however,  the  pigs  were  fed  on  potatoes 
mixed  with  "  wash  " — a  refuse  liquid  derived  from  the  kitchen  and  dairy, 
and,  therefore,  containing  nitrogenous  and  fatty  matter — fattening  was 
observed  to  ensue,  and  the  fat  which  accumulated  was  found  greatly 
to  exceed  that  introduced  from  without  with  the  food,  and  from  which 
it  was  evident  that  a  formation  of  fat  within  the  system  must  have  oc- 
curred. 

Liebig  adduces,^  as  giving  support  to  his  own  view,  some  observa- 
tions of  Boussingault  on  a  milch  cow,  and  expresses  his  astonishment  that 
Boussingault,  with  the  results  that  were  before  him,  should  oppose  the 
opinion  that  the  formation  of  fat  occurs  within  the  body. 

It  appears  from  these  researches  of  Boussingault  that  a  milch  cow  fed 
on  potatoes  and  chopped  straw  upon  one  occasion,  and  on  potatoes  and 
hay  upon  another,  gave  out  in  the  form  of  butter  far  more  fatty  matter 
than  was  contained  in  the  food  ingested.  Nay,  it  even  appears,  accord- 
ing to  Liebig's  calculation,  that  the  cow's  egesta  contained  as  much  fatty 
matter  (substances  soluble  in  ether)  as  the  ingesta,  and  therefore  the  whole 
of  the  butter  of  the  milk,  amounting  in  the  latter  observation  to  6£  pounds 
in  six  days,  must  be  put  down  as  having  been  derived  from  an  internal  pro- 
cess of  formation. 

Dr.  Lyon  Playfair  §  has  likewise  made  investigations  of  a  similar 
character,  and  with  a  like  result.  A  cow,  subjected  to  observation 
for  several  days,  yielded  about  a  pound,  sometimes  more,  sometimes 
less,  of  butter  per  diem  in  excess  of  the  fatty  matter  contained  in  the 
food. 

Further,  Messrs.  Lawes  and  Gilbert,  from  their  extensive  and  very 
searching  investigations  into  the  fattening  of  animals,  have  abundantly 
confirmed  Liebig's  view.  They  say,  with  reference  to  some  experiments 
on  the  fattening  of  pigs,  carried  on  for  a  period  of  eight  and  ten  weeks,  || 
that  "  of  the  determined  or  estimated  fat  stored  up  in  the  increase, 
the  proportion  which  could  possibly  have  been  derived  from  the  ready 
formed  fat  of  the  food,  even  supposing  the  whole  of  that  supplied 
had  been  assimilated,  was  so  small  as  to  leave  no  doubt  whatever 
that  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  stored-up  fat  must  have  been  pro- 
duced from  other  constituents  than  the  ready-formed  fattv  matter  of 
the  food." 


*  Agricultural  Reports  of  Berkshire.     By  William  Mavor,  LL.  D.    1813. 
f  Op.  cit. ,  p.  419.  |  Animal  Chemistry,  3d  edition,  p.  313. 

§  Philosophical  Magazine,  vol.  xxiiL,  p.  287.     1843. 
I  Ibid.,  vol.  xxxii.,  p.  448.     1866. 


80  A    TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

In  the  communication  from  which  this  extract  has  been  taken  they  are 
discussing  the  question,  not  only  as  to  whether  a  formation  of  fat  can  be 
shown  to  occur  in  the  animal  system,  but  whether  it  can  be  derived  from 
both  nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous  matter;  and  the  conclusion  they 
arrive  at  from  the  evidence  before  them  they  sum  up  as  follows: 

"First. — That  certainly  a  large  proportion  of  the  fat  of  the  herbivora 
fattened  for  human  food  must  be  derived  from  other  substances  than 
fatty  matter  in  the  food. 

"  Second. — That  when  fattening  animals  are  fed  upon  their  most  ap- 
propriate food  much  of  their  stored-up  fat  must  be  produced  from  the 
carbohydrates  it  supplies. 

"37iird. — That  nitrogenous  substances  may  also  serve  as  a  source  of 
fat,  more  especially  when  it  is  in  excess  and  the  supply  of  available  non- 
nitrogenous  constituents  is  relatively  defective." 

In  addition  to  this  array  of  evidence,  one  more  instance  may  be  re- 
ferred to,  which  affords  a  crowning  proof,  if  such  were  wanted,  of  the- 
truth  of  the  view  that  has  been  advocated.  MM.  Lacaze-Duthiers  and 
Riche  *  have  shown  that  the  fat  which  abounds  in  the  larva  of  the  cynipsr 
an  animal  which  is  developed  in  the  interior  of  the  gall-nut,  cannot  pos- 
sibly, from  the  composition  of  the  nut,  be  directly  derived  from  its  food. 
In  the  starchy  matter,  however,  existing  around,  the  animal  is  supplied 
with  material  for  its  formation. 

Nothing  further,  then,  may  be  considered  to  be  required  to  show  that 
the  carbohydrates  conduce  to  the  production  of  fat.  From  what  has 
been  already  stated,  however,  it  will  be  remembered  that  it  is  not  when 
ingested  alone  that  such  production  can  take  place.  The  process  requires 
the  co-operation  of  nitrogenous  in  conjunction  with  saline  matter,  and  it 
is  probably  through  the  medium  of  the  change  excited  by  the  metamor- 
phosis of  the  former  that  the  result  is  brought  about.  The  researches 
that  have  been  referred  to  have  shown  that  on  a  diet  of  potatoes  and  of 
rice — alimentary  articles  containing  but  a  small  amount  of  nitrogenized 
matter — no  accumulation  of  fat  is  to  be  looked  for.  The  combination  of 
fat  with  the  carbohydrates,  it  has  been  seen,  conduces  to  the  accumula- 
tion of  fat  in  the  body,  but  this  may  be  due  to  the  direct  appropriation 
of  the  fat  ingested,  and  not  to  its  having  anything  to  do  with  promoting 
the  metamorphosis  of  the  carbo-hydrates. 

Liebig  has  suggested  the  following  as  a  representation  of  the  chemi- 
cal change  that  may  occur.  It  can  only  be  looked  upon,  however,  as 
showing  how,  simply  by  the  separation  of  carbonic  acid  and  oxygen  from 
the  formula  of  a  carbohydrate,  the  formula  for  fat  may  be  left.  There 
is  no  evidence  that  such  is  the  actual  manner  in  which  the  change  occurs. 
Suppose,  he  says,  that  from  one  atom  of  starch  (CirHJOO10)  we  take  one 
atom  of  carbonic  acid  (CO,,)  and  seven  atoms  of  oxygen,  we  have  in  the 
residue  one  of  the  empirical  formulae  for  fat,  viz.,  0MH,tO. 

A\  ithout  professing  to  be  able  (at  present,  at  least)  to  bring  forward 
anything  in  the  shape  of  proof  that  the  liver  is  the  organ  in  which  the 
metamorphosis  of  sugar,  finally  or  almost  so,  into  fat  occurs,  there  are 
grounds  for  believing  that  such  is  the  case,  and  that  the  formation  of 
amyloid  substance  constitutes  the  preliminary  step  in  the  process.  For 
some  years  I  have  been  engaged  in  conducting  researches  upon  this  sub- 
ject, and  have  a  large  mass  of  evidence  to  deal  with,  but  it  has  not  yet 
assumed  a  shape  sufficiently  definite  to  induce  me  to  commit  myself,  at 

*  Annales  des  Sciences  Xatur.  (Zoologie),  4me  serie,  tome  xi.,  p.  81. 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  81 

present,  to  any  decided  expression  of  opinion  regarding  the  manner  in 
which  the  final  result  is  attained. 

It  now  only  remains  for  the  ultimate  use  of  the  carbohydrates  to  be 
spoken  of.  In  leading  on  to  fat-production,  nothing  further  need  be  said 
about  their  final  application,  the  purposes  subserved  by  fat  having  been 
fully  gone  into  at  an  earlier  part  of  this  work.  The  question,  however, 
confronts  us,  whether  or  not  the  carbohydrates  contribute  to  force-pro- 
duction by  undergoing  direct  oxidation  in  the  system.  That  they  do  so 
we  have  nothing  experimentally  to  show;  and  taking  all  that  we, know 
about  them  into  account,  my  own  opinion  is  that  they  do  not. 

Saccharine  matter,  in  which  form  the  carbohydrates  are  mainly,  if  not 
wholly,  absorbed  from  the  alimentary  canal,  is  naturally  detained  and 
metamorphosed  by  the  liver,  and,  whenever  it  happens,  no  matter  in  what 
way,  to  reach  the  general  circulation,  it  is  immediately  drawn  upon  and 
eliminated  from  the  system  by  the  kidneys.  This  appears  to  me  to  afford 
a  strong  argument  against  oxidation  of  saccharine  matter  occurring,  at 
least  to  any  significant  extent,  within  the  circulatory  system  as  one  of  the 
functional  operations  of  life. 

Without  any  facts  to  support  it,  the  older  chemico-physiologists  be- 
lieved that  sugar  was  disposed  of  in  this  way.  Mialhe,  for  instance,  sug- 
gested that,  under  the  influence  of  the  alkali  and  oxygen  of  the  blood,  the 
sugar  derived  from  the  ingesta  underwent  oxidation,  and  that  diabetes 
mellitus — a  disease  attended  with  the  escape  of  sugar  with  the  urine — 
was  due  to  a  defective  oxidizing  capacity,  from  the  blood  being  deficient 
of  its  normal  amount  of  alkali. 

Lehmann  has  refuted,  by  direct  experiment,  this  theoretical  allegation, 
and  has  shown  (as  my  own  experiments  corroborate)  that  sugar,  intro- 
duced either  with  an  alkali  or  without  one  (for  the  result  is  the  same  in  the 
two  cases),  into  the  circulation,  fails  to  undergo  the  alleged  oxidation,  as 
is  evidenced  by  its  subsequent  appearance  in  the  urine.  Moreover,  as  re- 
gards non-oxidation  from  a  deficient  amount  of  alkali  in  the  blood  being 
the  cause  of  the  escape  of  sugar  occurring  in  diabetes,  this  also  rests  only 
upon  hypothesis,  for  Lehmann  has  found  that  analytical  examination 
gives  no  evidence  of  the  deficiency  referred  to  in  the  amount  of  alkali  be- 
longing to  the  blood  in  the  disease. 

Whatever  the  series  of  changes  undergone — whether  oxidized  after 
passing  through  the  stage  of  fat  or  through  any  other  line  of  metamor- 
phosis— supposing  complete  oxidation  to  occur,  it  may  be  considered 
that  the  amount  of  force  evolved  will  always  be  the  same.  Looking, 
therefore,  at  these  compounds  as  force-producers,  we  must  take  them 
in  their  original  state,  and  upon  the  amount  of  unoxidized  oxidizable 
elementary  matter  they  contain  will  depend  their  value  in  force-pro- 
duction. 

In  all  of  them,  there  being  just  the  quantity  of  oxygen  to  represent 
the  equivalent  of  the  hydrogen  in  combination  as  water,  their  capacity 
for  appropriating  oxygen  corresponds  only  with  the  carbon  that  is  present. 
In  fatty  compounds,  on  the  other  hand,  there  exists  a  quantity  of  hydro- 
gen, as  well  as  carbon,  free  for  oxidation;  and  thus  these  latter  are  of  a 
correspondingly  higher  value  as  force-producers.  Nitrogenous  matter 
also,  even  although  disposed  of  as  it  is  within  the  system,  where  a  por- 
tion of  its  oxidizable  elementary  matter  escapes  unconsumed  under  the 
form  of  urea,  possesses  a  higher  capacity  for  appropriating  oxygen. 

For  further  particulars  concerning  the  application  of  the  carbohydrates 
to  force-production,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  discussion  that  has  pre- 
6 


82  A    TREATISE    OX    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

ceded  under  the» heads  of  nitrogenous  and  fatty  matters  (vide  pp.  50,  Gl). 
It  will  suffice  to  reinsert  here  a  tabular  representation  of  the  relative  value 
they  possess. 

Amount  of  oxygen  re-  Units  of  heat  produced  by  oxi- 

quired  to  oxidize  100  dation   of   1  gramme   (15.432 

parts  as  oxidation  oc-  grs. )  as  oxidation  occurs  with- 

curs  within  the  body.  in  the  body  (Frankland) . 

Grape-sugar,  .  .     106  3,277 

Starch,      .  .  .120  3,912 

Albumen,  .  .     150  4,263 

Fat,  .        .  .  .293  9,069 

There  are  other  ternary  compounds  consumed,  which,  if  they  do  not 
hold  the  significant  position  as  alimentary  articles  held  by  the  principles 
already  considered,  are  yet  susceptible  of  oxidation  within  the  system, 
and  will  thus  contribute  in  some  degree  to  force-generation,  heat  being 
probably  the  form  of  force  to  which  they  give  rise. 

In  some  of  these  compounds,  such  as  pectine  and  the  vegetable  acids, 
the  oxygen  is  in  excess  of  that  required  to  form  water  with  the  hydrogen. 

Pectine  forms  the  basis  of  vegetable  jellies.  It  is  met  with  in  most 
fruits  and  many  vegetables,  but  does  not  exist  to  an  extent  sufficiently 
large  to  be  of  much  importance  in  an  alimentary  point  of  view.  Fremy's 
old  formula  for  pectine  was  C94H1TOM;  under  the  new  notation  it  is  now 
given  as  follows:  C3,H40O78,4H2O. 

Organic  acids,  such  as  citric  aciW(C1!1H6Otl,3HO)  [H3CeH6O7],  tartaric 
ac*W(C8H4O,0,2HO)  [HaC4H4O8],  malic  acid  (C8H4O8,2HO)  [H2C4H4OJ, 
and  others  of  less  extensive  distribution,  are  met  with  in  various  vegetable 
juices.  Lactic  acid  (C9H8Og)  [HC3H6O3]  and  acetic  acid  (C4H3O3  +  HO) 
[HC^HjO,],  although  carbohydrates,  appear  to  behave  like  the  above- 
enumerated  acids  within  the  system. 

Wohler  asserts,  with  regard  to  these  principles,  that  when  they  are 
ingested  in  a  free  state  they  pass  through  the  system  and  appear  un- 
changed in  the  urine;  whereas  it  is  well  known  that  when  they  are  intro- 
duced in  combination  with  alkalies — that  is,  as  alkaline  salts — they 
undergo  oxidation,  the  alkali  escaping  with  the  urine  in  combination  with 
carbonic  acid.  Within  thirteen  minutes  after  taking  half  an  ounce  of 
lactate  of  soda,  Lehmann  found  that  his  urine  had  acquired  an  alkaline 
reaction  from  the  presence  of  alkaline  carbonate.  Lehmann  also  found, 
in  experiments  on  dogs,  that  the  injection  of  lactate  of  soda  into  the 
jugular  vein  was  followed  in  five,  or  at  the  most  twelve  minutes,  by  an 
alkaline  behavior  of  the  urine,  snowing,  unlike  what  occurs  with  sugar, 
that  the  direct  introduction  into  the  general  circulatory  system  is  attended 
with  the  same  result  as  introduction  into  the  alimentary  canal. 

Alcohol  (C4H6O,))  [CsHgO],  looked  at  chemically,  stands  on  the  other 
side  of  the  carbohydrates,  and  may  be  regarded  as  holding  a  position 
intermediate  between  the  carbohydrates  and  the  fats.  From  its  compo- 
sition, which  is  given  above,  it  is  seen  to  be  a  less  oxygenated  body  than 
the  carbohydrates,  and  more  highly  so  than  the  fats. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  as  regards  the  destination  of  alcohol 
in  the  animal  economy.  It  was  one  of  Liebig's  propositions  that  it  is  con- 
sumed by  oxidation  like  any  other  non-nitrogenous  alimentary  principle. 
"Alcohol,"  he  says,  "  stands  only  second  to  fat  as  a  respiratory  material." 
Liebig,  however,  adduced  no  physiological  evidence  in  support  of  his  as- 
sertion, b.ut  based  it  as  a  generalization  on  chemical  considerations. 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  83 

That  alcohol  should  occupy  the  position  thus  defined  seemed  so 
reasonable  that  Liebig's  view  originally  met  with  general  and  unques- 
tioned acceptance.  A  reaction,  however,  was  started  by  the  announce- 
ment of  MM.  Lallemand,  Perrin,  and  Duroy,  that  alcohol  escapes  from 
the  body  in  an  unchanged  state  after  being  ingested.  It  was  found,  in 
observations  both  upon  man  and  the  dog,  that  when  a  moderate  quantity 
of  alcohol  had  been  administered,  it  was  recognizable  in  the  pulmonary 
and  cutaneous  exhalations,  and  also  in  the  urine  for  some  hours  after- 
ward. Hence  was  supplied  the  ground  for  the  denial  that  alcohol  con- 
stituted a  food;  and  in  harmony  therewith  it  was  further  found  that  it  re- 
mained untransforrned  in  the  system,  so  as  to  be  discoverable  in  the  brain 
fora  period,  it  is  stated,  of  as  many  as  thirty-six  hours  after  its  ingestion. 

Dr.  Edward  Smith  repeated  these  experiments  of  Lallemand  and  the 
others,  and  obtained  similar  results.  The  test  that  was  employed  con- 
sisted of  one  part  of  bichromate  of  potash  dissolved  in  three  hundred 
parts  of  strong,  pure  sulphuric  acid.  Chromic  acid  being  liberated  by 
this  admixture,  a  cherry-red  colored  liquid  is  produced.  This,  in  contact 
with  alcohol,  becomes  changed  to  an  emerald  green  from  the  reduction  of 
the  chromic  acid  to  the  oxide  of  chrpmium  that  ensues.  Dr.  Smith  as- 
serts that  he  has  frequently  detected  alcohol  in  the  breath  for  four  hours 
after  1£  ounce  had  been  taken.  Lallemand  showed  its  presence  in  the 
exhalation  from  the  skin  by  confining  a  dog  in  a  closed  case,  through 
which  a  current  of  air  was  made  to  pass  and  subsequently  traverse  the 
test.  Dr.  Smith  enclosed  a  man's  arm  in  an  impermeable  bag,  and  simi- 
larly, with  a  current  of  air  passed  through,  readily  obtained  an  indication 
of  the  escape  of  alcohol. 

If  the  alcohol  ingested  escape  from  the  body  in  an  unaltered  state,  it 
cannot,  of  course,  be  looked  upon  as  possessing  any  alimentary  value. 
Dr.  E.  Smith  sides  with  the  French  observers,  whose  experiments  he  has 
confirmed  in  taking  this  view.  He  considers  that  it  does  not  increase 
the  production  of  heat  in  the  body  as  a  chemical  agent,  but  by  the  power 
it  possesses  of  stimulating  the  activity  of  the  vital  functions.  In  his  ex- 
periments on  respiration  he  found  that  in  every  dose  up  to  the  usual  one 
in  taking  spirits  and  water  it  increased,  but  only,  he  says,  to  a  moderate 
degree,  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  evolved,  and  this  he  ascribes  to  a 
similar  cause. 

Looking  at  the  very  large  quantity  of  alcohol  under  the  form  of  vari- 
ous beverages  that  is  consumed  amongst  us,  and  consumed  under  the 
idea  that  it  is  an  article  capable  of  being  turned  to  useful  account  in  the 
system,  the  question  before  us  becomes  one  of  extensive  interest  and  im- 
portance. Now,  suppose  it  be  conceded  that  evidence  has  been  adduced 
sufficiently  decisive  to  show  that  alcohol,  after  being  ingested,  escapes 
from  the  body  through  various  channels;  this  would  form  all  that  it  can 
be  contended  has  been  discovered.  Neither  of  the  persons  whose  observa- 
tions have  been  referred  to  has  collected  the  alcohol  or  done  anything 
toward  showing  that  what  escapes  is  equivalent  to  that  which  enters. 

Dr.  Anstie  *  directs  attention  to  the  experiment  of  M.  Baudot,  and 
gives  the  results  of  a  repetition,  with  modifications  of  his  own,  which  throw 
doubt  upon  the  soundness  of  the  opinion  of  M.  Lallemand  and  others. 
It  is  asserted  that  the  chromic  acid  test  is  one  of  extreme  delicacy,  being 
affected  by  the  presence  of  the  minutest  quantity  of  alcohol,  and  that  it 
is  only  whan  an  excessive  quantity  of  alcohol  has  been  administered  that 

*  On  Stimulants  and  Narcotics.     Mactnillan,  1364 


84  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

its  escape  is  to  be  recognized  by  any  other  means.  It  is  also  contended 
that,  through  the  delicacy  of  this  test,  the  quantity  escaping  may  easily 
be  overrated — that  although  a  reaction  is  distinctly  obtainable  with  the 
test,  in  reality  only  a  fraction  of  that  which  enters  is  eliminated,  and,  if 
such  be  the  case,  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  us  from  regarding  alcohol 
as  having  an  alimentary  value. 

Considering  the  diffusible  property  which  alcohol  possesses,  it  is  not 
inconsistent  that  a  small  portion  should  escape  and  yet  that  the  article 
should  form  a  utilizable  agent  in  the  body.  It  certainly  may  be  reason- 
ably considered  that  evidence  of  a  stronger  nature  than  that  which  has 
been  adduced  should  be  brought  forward  before  it  would  be  right  to  look 
upon  alcohol  as  devoid  of  alimentary  value. 

Dr.  Parkes,  in  conjunction  with  Count  Wollowicz,  has  recently  *  prose- 
cuted an  inquiry  into  the  action  of  alcohol  on  the  human  body,  and  the 
question  of  elimination  is  touched  upon  as  one  of  the  points  of  considera- 
tion. Although  they  confirm  previous  observers  in  recognizing  it,  after 
its  administration,  by  means  of  the  chromic  acid  test,  in  the  urine  and 
the  exhalations  from  the  lungs  and  skin,  and  further  find  it  to  a  slight 
extent  in  the  alvine  dejections,  y^t  their  observations  were  only  of  a 
qualitative  nature,  and  did  not  enable  them,  they  say,  to  solve  the  diffi- 
cult problem  as  to  whether  all  the  alcohol  passes  off  or  whether  some  is 
retained  and  destroyed. 

In  a  later  communication  on  the  action  of  claret  wine  f  they  state 
that  they  obtained  a  marked  reaction  with  the  chromic  acid  test  from 
the  condensed  perspiration  of  the  arm,  when  no  alcoholic  fluid  had  been 
taken  for  twenty-six  days  previously.  They  are,  therefore,  led  to  sug- 
gest that  the  perspiration  may  at  times  contain  some  non-alcoholic  sub- 
stance capable  of  exerting  the  same  reducing  action,  and  conclude  that 
fresh  experiments  are  necessary  to  determine  the  reliance  to  be  placed  on 
the  test  when  applied  to  the  condensed  perspiration. 

Communications  have  since  been  published  in  the  "  Proceedings  of 
the  Royal  Society;"  J  giving  the  results  of  Dr.  Dupre's  experiments.  Dr. 
Dupre  agrees  with  Anstie  and  Thudichura  in  this  country,  and  Schulinus 
and  Baudot  abroad,  in  believing  that  the  chief  portion  of  the  alcohol  in- 
gested undergoes  consumption  in  the  body. 

Dr.  Dupre  starts  with  the  proposition  that  "obviously  three  results 
may  follow  the  ingestion  of  alcohol.  All  the  alcohol  may  be  oxidized 
and  none  be  eliminated,  or  a  portion  only  may  be  oxidized  and  the  rest 
be  eliminated  unaltered  ;  or,  lastly,  all  may  be  eliminated  again  unaltered. 
Assuming  the  last  to  be  the  case,  it  would  follow  that  if  a  certain  quantity 
of  alcohol  were  taken  daily,  the  amount  eliminated  would  increase  from 
day  to  day,  until  at  last  the  amount  eliminated  would  equal  the  daily 
consumption,  be  this  in  five,  ten,  or  more  days.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
all  the  alcohol  consumed  is  either  oxidized  or  eliminated  within  twenty- 
four  hours,  no  increase  in  the  daily  elimination  would  take  place,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  continuance  of  the  alcohol  diet." 

"  Assuming,  for  the  sake  of  argument,  that  all  the  alcohol  is  elimina- 
ted, and  that  such  elimination  takes  ten  days,  it  would  follow,"  aptly  ob- 
serves Dr.  Dupre,  "  that  if  a  certain  quantity  of  alcohol  were  taken  daily, 

*  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society,  No.  120.     May,  1870. 
f  Ibid.,  No.  123.     June,  1870. 

;  On  the  Elimination  of  Alcohol,  by  Dr.  A  Dupre,  Proc.  Roy  Society,  No.  131,  p. 
107,  1872,  and  No.  133,  p.  268,  1872. 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  85 

the  amount  eliminated  would  increase  from  day  to  day  until,  from  the 
tenth  day  onward,  the  quantity  eliminated  daily  would  equal  the  daily 
consumption;  in  other  words,  the  quantities  which  would  be  eliminated, 
if  this  theory  were  correct,  might  be  measured  by  ounces  instead  of  by 
grains,  and  even  the  most  ordinary  processes  of  analysis  could  not  fail  to 
yield  considerable  quantities  of  alcohol." 

Now,  from  the  results  obtained  in  two  series  of  experiments  conducted 
upon  himself,  Dr.  Dupre  sums  up  as  follows: 

"The  amount  of  alcohol  eliminated  per  day  does  not  increase  with  the 
continuance  of  the  alcohol  diet;  therefore,  all  the  alcohol  consumed  daily 
must  of  necessity  be  disposed  of  daily,  and  as  it  certainly  is  not  eliminated 
within  that  time,  it  must  be  destroyed  in  the  system." 

"  The  elimination  of  alcohol  following  the  ingestion  of  a  dose,  or  doses, 
of  alcohol,  ceases  in  from  nine  to  twenty-four  hours  after  the  last  dose  has 
been  taken." 

"  The  amount  of  alcohol  eliminated,  in  both  breath  and  urine,  is  a 
minute  fraction  only  of  the  amount  of  alcohol  taken." 

In  agreement  with  what  had  been  noticed  by  Dr.  Parkes  and  Count 
Wollowicz,  Dr.  Dupre  found  in  the  course  of  his  experiments,  that  after 
six  weeks  of  total  abstinence  from  alcohol,  and  even  in  the  case  of  a  tee- 
totaller, a  substance  was  eliminated  in  the  urine,  and  perhaps  also,  it 
is  stated,  in  the  breath,  which,  though  apparently  not  alcohol,  gave  all 
the  reactions  ordinarily  used  for  the  detection  of  traces  of  alcohol.  "  It 
passes  over,"  Dr.  Dupre  says,  "with  the  first  portions  of  the  distillate;  it 
yields  acetic  acid  on  oxidation,  gives  the  emerald-green  reaction  with  the 
bichromate  of  potassium  and  strong  sulphuric  acid,  yields  iodoform,  and 
its  aqueous  solution  has  a  lower  specific  gravity  and  a  higher  vapor  ten- 
sion than  pure  water."  Dr.  Dupre  further  remarks  that  "  the  presence 
of  a  substance  in  human  urine  and  the  urine  of  various  animals,  which 
yields  iodoform,  but  is  not  alcohol,  had  already  been  discovered  by  M. 
Lieben.  The  quantity  present  in  urine  is,  however,  so  small  that  the 
precise  nature  of  this  substance  has  not  as  yet  been  determined." 

Shortly  after  the  publication  of  the  first  edition  of  this  work,  an  arti- 
cle from  the  pen  of  Dr.  Anstie  appeared  in  the  Practitioner*  entitled 
"  Final  [and  the  word  final  has  received  a  melancholy  expressiveness  by 
Dr.  Anstie's  untimely  death]  Experiments  on  the  Elimination  of  Alcohol 
from  the  Body."  In  harmony  with  what  has  preceded,  evidence  is  there 
adduced  which  shows  that  only  a  fractional  proportion  of  the  alcohol  in- 
gested is  eliminated  through  the  various  channels  of  exit  from  the  body. 
An  experiment  is  related  in  which,  after  the  administration  of  Bordeaux 
wine  to  six  persons  in  sufficient  quantity  to  produce  intoxication,  not 
more  than  one  per  cent,  of  the  alcohol  ingested  could  be  recovered  by  dis- 
tillation from  the  collected  samples  of  urine.  In  another  experiment,  af- 
ter the  administration  of  brandy  to  the  extent  of  one  ounce  daily  for  ten 
days  to  a  dog,  the  animal  was  killed,  and  the  alcohol  obtained  from  its 
whole  body  determined.  The  quantity  recoverable  amounted  only  to 
about  one-fourth  of  that  contained  in  the  dose  which  had  been  adminis- 
tered two  hours  previous  to  death.  "  These  experiments,"  it  is  remarked 
by  Dr.  Anstie,  "  certainly  furnish  us  with  a  final  and  conclusive  demon- 
stration of  the  correctness  of  Dr.  Dupre's  arguments  against  the  possi- 
bility of  material  accumulation  of  alcohol  in  the  body." 

From  a  review  of  the  evidence  as  it  at  present  stands,  it  may  reason- 

*  Practitioner,  p.  15.   July,  1874. 


86  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

ablv  be  inferred  that  there  is  sufficient  before  us  to  justify  the  conclusion 
tha't  the  main  portion  of  the  alcohol  ingested  becomes  destroyed  within 
the  system,  and,  if  this  be  the  case,  it  may  be  fairly  assumed  that  the  de- 
struction is  attended  with  oxidation  and  a  corresponding  liberation  of 
force,  unless,  indeed,  it  should  undergo  metamorphosis  into  a  principle  to 
be  temporarily  retained,  but  nevertheless  ultimately  applied  to  force-pro- 
duction. The  subject  appears  to  me  to  be  open  to  physiological  as  well 
as  chemical  investigation,  and  probably  some  additional  light  may  be 
hereafter  thrown  upon  it  by  an  approach  through  the  former  channel. 


THE  INORGANIC  ALIMENTARY  PRINCIPLES. 

Although  it  is  to  the  play  of  changes  taking  place  in  organic  matter 
that  the  manifestations  of  life  are  to  be  traced,  yet  organic  matter  alone, 
it  has  been  found  experimentally,  will  not  suffice  for  supplying  all  that  is 
wanting  for  the  occurrence  of  living  action.  Inorganic  matter,  under  the 
form  of  water  and  certain  saline  principles,  constitutes  an  indispensable 
part  of  a  living  being,  and  hence  must  enter  into  the  composition  of  food. 

Water,  besides  fulfilling  many  other  subsidiary  offices,  is  essential  for 
the  occurrence  of  molecular  change  or  mobility — the  essence  of  the  mani- 
festations of  life.  In  the  absence  of  water  a  state  of  molecular  rest,  which 
means  an  absence  of  vital  activity,  prevails.  Water  does  not  in  itself  un- 
dergo any  chemical  alteration,  and  hence  is  not  susceptible  of  liberating 
force — does  not,  in  other  words,  constitute  a  force-producing  agent;  but 
it  contributes  to  chemical  change  by  supplying  a  necessary  condition  for 
its  occurrence  in  other  bodies. 

Saline  matter  stands,  if  not  to  the  full  extent,  nearly  so,  in  the  same 
position  as  water,  as  regards  the  non-possession  in  itself  of  force-produ- 
cing properties.  Some  of  the  saline  matter  of  food,  it  is  true,  may  be  sus- 
ceptible of  oxidation,  and  thereby  give  rise  to  the  liberation  of  force,  but 
this,  it  may  be  considered,  is  not  the  particular  office  which  saline  matter 
is  designed  to  fulfil.  It  forms  a  necessary  part  of  the  organism,  without, 
however,  constituting  the  source  of  the  manifestation  of  power.  It  exists 
intimately  incorporated  with  the  organic  principles  comprising  the  differ- 
ent component  parts  of  the  fabric,  and  enters  as  an  essential  element  into 
the  constitution  of  the  secretions.  It  may  be  looked  upon  in  the  light  of 
an  integrant  portion  of  the  structure  of  the  machine,  other  agents  being 
concerned  in  supplying  the  moving  power. 

Mineral  matter  is  thus  required  to  be  furnished  for  the  growth  and 
nutrition  of  the  constituent  parts  of  the  organism,  and  also  for  the  forma- 
tion of  the  secretions.  It  is  required  by  the  plant  as  well  as  by  the 
animal,  and  hence  we  find  in  all  natural  organic  products  a  certain  ad- 
mixture of  mineral  matter.  It  hereby  follows  that  whether  the  food  be 
derived  from  the  animal  or  vegetable  kingdom,  there  exists,  entering  into 
its  constitution,  a  definite  proportion  of  mineral  matter;  and,  just  such 
as  is  required  by  the  animal  being  has  been  drawn  from  the  inorganic 
kingdom  by  the  plant,  whereby,  without  going  further  than  the  organic 
substance  itself,  the  animal  meets  with  the  mineral  matter  that  is  needed. 

Of  the  various  saline  principles  necessary,  the  chief  consist  of  combi- 
nations of  lime,  magnesia,  potash,  soda,  and  iron,  with  chlorine,  phos- 
phoric acid,  carbonic  acid,  and,  in  smaller  quantity,  sulphuric  acid.  Each 
has  its  share  of  importance,  but  lime  and  phosphoric  acid  may  be  looked 
upon  as  occupying  the  highest  position  in  this  respect.  From  no  struc- 


ALIMENTARY    PRINCIPLES.  87 

tural  element  of  the  body  is  phosphate  of  lime,  it  would  appear,  absent, 
and  its  incorporation  with  the  nitrogenous  constituent  principles  is  so  in- 
timate that  much  difficulty  is  experienced  in  effecting  a  complete  separa- 
tion without  involving  the  destruction  of  the  compound.  Caseirie  is  a 
nitrogenous  principle  which  is  conspicuous  for  the  tenacity  with  which  it 
holds  a  large  quantity  of  phosphate  of  lime  incorporated  with  it.  From 
what  is  observed,  indeed,  in  the  relations  of  the  organic  and  mineral 
principles  to  each  other,  it  seems  that  in  many  instances  an  actual  chemi- 
cal union  of  the  two  exist. 

On  account  of  what  has  been  mentioned,  the  chemist,  in  conducting 
an  analysis  for  the  determination  of  the  mineral  matter  that  is  present  in 
an  organic  product,  subjects  it  to  a  preliminary  process  of  incineration. 
After  being  thus  treated,  however,  no  knowledge  is  to  be  derived  of  the 
precise  state  or  mode  of  arrangement  under  which  the  mineral  matter 
originally  existed.  Even  the  mineral  combinations  found  may  not  iden- 
tically correspond  with  those  present  in  the  product,  for  in  the  process  of 
incineration  effects  are  produced  which  leads  to  new  compounds  being 
formed.  There  is  the  reducing  influence  of  carbon,  for  instance,  in,  oper- 
ation upon  the  sulphate.  There  is  also  a  production  of  carbonic  acid 
from  the  oxidation  of  carbonaceous  matter;  and  the  saline  principles, 
under  the  elevated  temperature  to  which  they  are  exposed,  are  likely  to 
react  to  some  extent  upon  each  other. 

That  the  various  kinds  of  saline  matter  must  fulfil  a  specific  office  in 
the  economy  of  life  may  be  looked  upon  as  shown,  if  proof  of  it,  indeed, 
were  wanted,  by  the  special  manner  in  which  it  is  distributed.  Although 
so  closely  allied  in  their  chemical  properties,  potash  and  soda  cannot  be 
made  to  replace  each  other  in  the  living  system,  and  the  same  is  likewise 
noticeable  in  the  case  of  lime  and  magnesia.  In  the  process  of  vegetable 
alimentation  a  qualitative  and  quantitative  selection  is  made  by  the  organ- 
ism from  the  soil  around.  Whilst  in  some  plants  one  kind  of  mineral 
matter  may  preponderate,  in  others  it  may  be  another  kind,  and  to  such 
an  extent  may  this  preponderance  reach  as  to  have  led  to  plants  being 
characterized  as  potash  plants,  lime  plants,  siliceous  plants,  and  so  on.  In 
the  animal  organism  a  like  inequality  of  distribution  is  also  observable. 
Thus,  in  the  blood — and  here  the  circumstances  are  of  the  most  favorable 
nature  for  an  equal  distribution  of  saline  matter,  if  a  special  appropria- 
ting action  were  not  in  operation — it  is  found  that  phosphates  and  potash 
salts  predominate  in  the  corpuscles,  and  chlorides  and  soda  salts  in  the 
plasma  arou»d.  Again,  as  regards  the  distribution  of  potash  and  soda, 
generally,  it  is  noticeable  that  the  former  is  the  alkali  belonging  particu- 
larly to  the  formed  tissues,  the  latter  to  the  infiltrating  fluids. 

It  is  no  mere  indiscriminate  diffusion  of  saline  matter,  therefore,  that 
has  to  be  dealt  with.  Saline  matter,  on  the  contrary,  is  evidently  con- 
cerned as  one  of  the  factors  of  the  formative  operations  carried  on,  and 
no  food  can  satisfy  the  requirements  of  life  that  does  not  contain  an  ap- 
propriate amount  of  certain  saline  principles. 

In  the  egg,  and  also  in  milk,  we  have  articles  provided  by  nature  for 
the  special  purpose  of  being  employed  in  the  construction  and  subsequent 
maintenance  of  the  animal  organism.  Milk  is  complete  in  itself.  In  it 
exists,  besides  the  organic  principles,  all  the  inorganic  matter,  including 
both  saline  and  water,  that  is  needed.  The  egg,  taken  as  a  whole,  stands 
in  a  similar  position,  but  it  is  not  so  with  regard  to  the  contents  exclu- 
sive of  the  shell.  It  is  well  known  that  from  the  egg  all  the  constituent 
parts  of  the  young  animal  are  formed — its  skeleton  as  well  as  its  various 


88  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

soft  textures.  Now,  for  the  construction  of  the  skeleton  an  amount  of 
earthy  matter  is  required  which  does  not  exist  preformed  in  the  soft  con- 
tents of  the  egg,  but  has  to  be  drawn  from  the  shell.  During  the  process 
of  incubation,  with  the  co-operation  of  the  atmospheric  air  which  perme- 
ates the  shell,  it  appears  that  the  phosphorus  present  in  the  yolk  gradu- 
ally undergoes  oxidation  and  becomes  converted  into  phosphoric  acid. 
This  acts  upon  and  dissolves  the  carbonate  of  lime  belonging  to  the  shell, 
which  thus,  as  incubation  proceeds,  becomes  thinner  and  thinner.  As 
Liebig  therefore  remarks,  if  it  be  compared  with  milk,  both  the  contents 
and  the  shell  must  be  reckoned  to  bring  them  into  an  analogous  position. 

It  has  lately  been  urged  by  Liebig  *  that  saline  matter  has  failed  to 
receive  its  due  consideration  as  a  nutritive  element  of  food.  It  is  per- 
fectly true,  as  he  has  pointed  out,  that  in  the  preparation  of  food  for 
human  consumption  the  natural  article  is  often  considerably  depreciated 
in  nutritive  value  by  the  abstraction  that  may  happen  to  have  occurred. 
Meat  soaked  or  boiled  in  water  loses  more  or  less  of  its  soluble  portion, 
and,  included  in  this,  are  its  nutritive  salts.  Roasted  meat,  on  this  ac- 
count^is  of  higher  value  than  boiled.  In  the  process  of  salting  a  portion 
(about  15  per  cent.,  Liebig  says)  of  the  nutritive  juice  escapes  into  the 
brine.  In  the  boiling  of  vegetable  nutritive  principles,  and  particularly 
the  nutritive  salts,  are  removed  by  the  water.  The  separation  that  is 
effected  in  the  dressing  of  flour  leaves  this  product  in  an  inferior  posi- 
tion to  the  grain  from  which  it  is  derived.  Both  the  saline  and  nitro- 
genous matters  belonging  to  wheat  are  chiefly  encountered  in  the  outer 
or  tegumentary  p'art  of  the  grain,  and  are,  therefore,  more  or  less  ex- 
cluded from  white  bread.  It  is  a  scientific  fact,  Liebig  remarks,  which 
Magendie  has  proved  by  experiment,  that  a  dog  dies  if  fed  on  white 
bread,  while  its  health  does  nor  suffer  at  all  if  its  food  consist  of  brown 
bread,  or  bread  made  of  unbolted  flour.  Liebig  also  asserts  his  belief 
that  many  millions  more  men  could  be  daily  fed  in  Germany  if  it  were 
only  possible  to  persuade  the  population  of  the  advantage  which  bread 
made  of  unbolted  flour  has  over  that  ordinarily  eaten. 

This  doctrine,  however,  is  hardly  to  be  accepted  in  the  precise  terms 
that  Liebig  has  proposed  it.  It  must  certainly  be  conceded  that  if  our 
food  consisted  only  of  eggs,  we  should  require,  in  order  to  satisfy  the  re- 
quirements of  nutrition,  to  place  ourselves  in  the  same  position  as  the  de- 
veloping chick,  and  consume  the  shell  as  well  as  its  contents.  Again,  if 
corn  formed  our  staple  food,  as  it  may  happen  to  do  in  the  case  of  the 
horse,  etc.,  we  should  be  obliged  to  consume  the  whole  of  the  grain  to  ob- 
tain all  the  nutritive  principles  we  require.  It  is  a  mixture  of  animal 
and  vegetable  food,  however,  which  forms  our  natural  diet,  and  the  diet 
which  is  actually  employed  by  the  great  majority  of  mankind.  Now,  if 
we  are  supplied  with  the  nutritive  salts  through  meat  or  the  other  arti- 
cles consumed,  we  can  spare  them  without  detriment  from  our  bread. 
Nor  need  there  be  waste  involved  in  this  proceeding.  If  our  taste  leads 
us  to  prefer  bread  made  from  white  flour,  and  thereby  to  reject  the  outer 
part  of  the  grain,  it  does  not  follow  that  in  so  doing  we  are  committing 
an  act  of  dietetic  prodigality,  for  what  we  do  not  use  ourselves  may  be, 
and  in  reality  is,  turned  to  account  in  feeding  animals  that  are  either 
kept  to  serve  some  useful  purpose,  or  reared  for  consumption  as  food; 
and,  in  the  latter  case,  the  nutritive  salts  which  we  originally  rejected  in 
separating  the  bran  from  flour  may  actually  reach  us  after  all  amongst 
the  constituents  of  animal  food. 

*  On  the  Nutritive  Value  of  Different  Sorts  of  Food,  Lancet,  vol.  L    1869. 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES. 


ALIMENTARY  substances  comprise  products  of  the  animal  and  vegeta- 
ble kingdoms  in  which  the  various  alimentary  principles  are  combined.' 

It  is  to  the  consideration  of  these  products  that  attention  will  now  be 
directed;  and  first  to  be  described  will  be  those  derived  from  the  animal 
kingdom. 

ANIMAL  ALIMENTARY  SUBSTANCES. 

Animal  food  being  identical  in  composition  with  the  structures  of  the 
body,  requires  neither  addition  nor  subtraction  to  enable  it  to  administer 
to  the  purposes  of  nutrition. 

The  chief  characteristic  of  animal  food  is  the  large  amount  of  nitro- 
genous matter  it  contains.  This,  it  is  true,  adapts  it  for  the  construction 
and  maintenance  of  the  body,  but  food  is  also  required  for  force-produc- 
tion, and  provided  a  certain  amount  of  nitrogenous  matter  be  supplied, 
the  force-production  is  better  derived  from  one  or  other  of  the  forms 
of  non-nitrogenous  matter.  Such  may  be  effected  by  the  presence  of 
a  certain  quantity  of  fat  with  the  nitrogenous  matter,  and  with  a  proper 
combination  the  adjustment  may  be  made  from  animal  food  alone,  so  as  just 
to  meet  the  requirements  without  incurring  waste  on  either  side.  Hence 
the  advantage  of  the  common  practice,  which  is  doubtless  due  to  some- 
thing more  than  accident,  of  eating  some  kinds  of  food  rich  in  fatty 
matter,  as  bacon  or  pork,  with  food  such  as  chicken,  rabbit,  etc.,  which 
consists  almost  entirely  of  nitrogenous  matter. 

Animal  food  is  comprised  of:  1,  the  various  parts  of  animals;  2,  eggs; 
and  3,  milk,  with  its  derivatives — cream,  butter,  and  cheese. 

Honey  is  also  enumerated  by  Payen  amongst  the  articles  belonging 
to  animal  food,  but  this  substance  is  in  reality  a  vegetable  product,  hav- 
ing only  been  collected  and  stored  up  by  the  animal  to  whose  industry 
we  owe  it. 

The  food  falling  under  the  first  head  is  popularly  classified  into  meat, 
poultry,  game,  wild-fowl,  fish,  and  shell-fish. 

Like  popular  classifications  in  general,  this  will  not  bear  close  inspec- 
tion; still,  for  the  description  about  to  be  undertaken,  it  forms,  upon  the 
whole,  the  most  convenient  arrangement  to  follow. 

MEAT. — The  meats  we  ordinarily  consume  are  all  derived  from  vege- 
table feeders.*  They  consist  of  beef,  mutton,  veal,  lamb,  pork,  bacon, 
and  venison. 

*  The  pig  is,  strictly  speaking,  an  omnivorous  animal,  but  reared  for  the  purpose  of 
food,  it  ought  to  be  a  vegetable  feeder  ;  offal,  however,  ia  often  given  to  it  with 
other  food. 


90  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

Rabbit  and  hare  may  be  conveniently  considered  with  game.  Turtle 
is  employed  for  the  preparation  of  soup.  The  flesh  of  a  very  large  num- 
ber of  other  animals  than  those  yielding  the  meats  above  named  is  like- 
wise eaten  in  various  parts  of  the  globe.  A  separate  section  will  be  here- 
after devoted  to  this  subject. 

The  flesh,  bones,  internal  or  visceral  organs,  and  even,  as  from  the 
pig,  the  blood  of  the  slaughtered  animal,  are  all  turned  to  account  as 
food.  They  each  require  consideration.  First,  however,  remarks  will  be 
made  on  the  influence  of  age,  sex,  size,  season,  mode  of  life,  nature  of 
feeding,  and  mode  of  death,  upon  the  flesh  of  animals. 

The  flesh  of  young  animals  is  more  tender  than  that  of  old,  but  ex- 
perience shows  that  it  is  more  resistant  to  the  digestive  powers.  Veal 
and  lamb,  for  instance,  are  found  by  the  dyspeptic  to  tax  the  stomach 
more  than  beef  and  mutton.  The  flesh  of  an  aged  animal,  as  is  well 
known,  may  be  so  tough  as  to  be  almost  uneatable.  The  tissues  of  young 
animals  are  more  gelatinous,  less  stimulating,  and  of  less  nutritive  value 
than  those  of  the  adult  and  aged,  which,  instead,  contain  a  larger  amount  of 
fibrine  and  of  the  flavoring  principle,  osmazome.  The  flesh  of  very  young 
animals,  indeed,  contains  so  little  fibrine  and  osmazome  as  to  be  almost 
unpleasantly  soft,  flabby,  and  insipid. 

According  to  the  information  given  me  by  an  intelligent  and  experi- 
enced grazier,  and  evidently  a  connoisseur  of  meat,  ox  beef  is  in  highest 
perfection  at  four  years  old.  An  ox  that  has  been  employed  for  working 
does  not  afford  such  good  meat,  and  in  grazing  does  not  put  on  fat  so 
evenly,  or  become  so  shapely,  as  one  that  has  not  been  worked.  Wether 
mutton  is  best  at  three  years  old;  and  in  the  case  of  both  beef  and  mutton 
the  meat  of  the  female  is  in  its  prime  rather  earlier  than  that  of  the  male. 
Ewe  mutton  undergoes  deterioration  by  the  occurrence  of  lambing. 

Sex  greatly  influences  the  quality  of  the  flesh,  that  of  the  female 
being  more  delicate  and  finely  grained  (the  hen  pheasant  is  very  notice- 
ably more  tender  and  delicate  eating  than  the  male  bird)  than  that  of  the 
entire  male,  which,  during  the  time  that  the  genital  organs  are  in  a  state 
of  functional  activity,  may  be  so  coarse  and  rank  as  to  render  it  almost 
uneatable.  The  buck,  bull,  and  ram  form  examples.  Castration  deprives 
the  meat  of  this  strong  flavor,  and  improves  it  altogether  for  edible  pur- 
poses. Spaying  also  improves  the  edible  qualities  of  the  female  animal. 
These  operations,  therefore,  particularly  that  of  castration,  are  commonly 
performed  where  the  animals  are  destined  to  serve  only  as  food.  They 
are  even  practised  in  the  case  of  the  bird.  The  capon  and  poulard  are 
examples;  and  it  is  well  known  that  in  this  mutilated  state  the  animal  be- 
comes larger,  fatter,  and  more  tender  than  where  the  sexual  organs  re- 
main intact. 

The  flesh  of  an  animal  is  generally  coarse  in  proportion  to  its  size. 
The  difference  in  this  respect  in  the  flesh  of  the  larger  and  smaller  quad- 
rupeds is  sufficiently  striking.  The  remark  is  applicable  not  only  to  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  animals,  but  to  different  varieties  of  the  same  species. 

In  season  and  out  of  season  are  common  expressions  as  applied  to 
animals.  Their  meaning  is  well  known,  and  they  signify  that  there  is  a 
season  when  an  animal  is  in  a  better  state  for  consumption  as  food  than 
at  another.  Beef  and  mutton  are  never  actually  out  of  season,  but  are 
most  in  season  during  autumn  and  the  early  part  of  winter,  that  is,  just 
after  the  animal  has  been  afforded  the  advantage  of  an  abundant  supply 
of  fresh  summer  food.  The  precise  period  of  highest  perfection  in  flavor 
is  just  before  removal  from  the  green  pasturage,  viz.,  during  the  months  of 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  91 

September  and  October.  There  is  a  saying  that  the  time  for  beef  in  its 
choicest  state  is  whilst  French  beans  are  in.  By  stall-feeding  on  dry  and 
artifical  food,  although  the  animal  gains  in  fat,  the  meat  loses  in  choiceness 
of  flavor.  Pork  is  absolutely  out  of  season  during  the  summer  months. 
Buck  venison  is  in  highest  season  from  the  middle  of  June  to  the  begin- 
ning of  September,  when  the  rutting  period  commences.  Doe  venison  is 
in  season  during  the  winter.  The  season  for  young  meats,  as  veal  and 
lamb,  is  when  a  sufficient  time  has  elapsed  after  the  breeding  period  for 
the  animal  to  have  arrived  at  a  state  suitable  for  consumption  as  food. 
The  breeding  period  varies  somewhat  in  different  breeds,  and  thus  a  sup- 
ply of  young  meat  may  be  secured  for  some  length  of  time.  By  ex- 
posure to  certain  conditions,  also,  the  period  of  heat  in  a  female  may  be 
considerably  advanced.  In  this  way  it  is  that  lamb  is  procurable  as  an 
article  of  luxury  for  the  table  of  the  wealthy  as  early  as  December  or 
even  November.  With  sheep  kept  on  a  cold  or  poor  hill  pasture  the 
lambing  season  is  retarded. 

The  mode  of  life  exerts  its  influence  on  the  flesh  of  animals.  In  the 
wild  state  there  is  very  much  less  fat  present  than  in  a  well-fed  domes- 
ticated state.  In  the  former  case  the  meat  also  is  higher  in  color  and  richer 
in  flavor  and  extractives. 

Some  kinds  of  food  influence  in  a  marked  manner  the  character  of 
the  meat.  Feeding  oxen  upon  oil-cake  communicates  a  yellow  color  to 
the  fat.  Oily  foods  also  have  a  tendency  to  make  soft  fat.  Turnips 
give  a  flavor  to  mutton  which  is  distinctly  recognizable  by  the  epicure. 
The  fragrant  herbs  belonging  to  different  pastures  produce  their  influ- 
ence upon  the  taste  of  the  meat.  The  peculiar  flavor  of  mountain  sheep 
is  easily  appreciable  by  all. 

The  art  of  feeding  animals  is  directed  to  increasing  the  amount  of 
fat:  they  are  fattened,  in  other  words,  for  the  table.  If  this  fattening 
process  be  carried  only  to  a  certrin  point,  the  alimentary  value  of  the 
meat  is  increased,  but  when  carried  to  an  extreme,  as  we  see  it  in  some 
of  the  animals  exhibited  at  the  Christmas  Cattle  Shows,  the  fat,  as  far  as 
our  requirements  are  concerned,  is  out  of  proportion  to  the  nitrogenous 
matter,  and  thus  an  actual  waste  is  incurred. 

Violent  exercise  just  previous  to  death  gives  increased  tenderness  to 
the  flesh,  hence  the  greater  tenderness  which  is  well  known  to  belong  to 
the  flesh  of  the  hunted  animal. 

In  the  process  of  slaughtering,  the  animal  is  drained  as  far  as  practi- 
cable of  its  blood.  Either  life  is  destroyed  by  the  removal  of  blood,  or 
the  blood  is  allowed  to  escape  immediately  after  resort  to  some  other 
means  of  occasioning  death.  The  loss  of  blood  certainly  involves  a  loss 
or  waste  of  nutritive  material.  It  would  be  thereby  to  be  condemned  if 
it  did  not  possess  counterbalancing  advantages.  Besides  rendering  the 
meat  more  pleasant  to  the  eye,  it  enables  it  to  keep  longer,  and  improves 
the  delicacy  of  its  flavor.  The  Mosaic  law  is  very  strict  regarding  the 
killing  of  animals  for  food,  and  the  regulations  are  such  as  to  secure  to 
the  fullest  extent  the  removal  of  the  blood.  Jews,  as  a  point  of  religion, 
will  not  eat  the  flesh  of  any  animal  that  has  not  been  killed  by  a  slaugh- 
terer of  their  own  persuasion.  They  consider  their  meat  superior  to  our 
own;  and  it  is  even  eaten  in  preference  by  some  Christians. 

It  is  usual  to  keep  an  animal  for  a  short  time  without  food  before  be- 
ing killed,  and  it  is  believed  that  the  meat  thereby  keeps  better.  It  is 
obvious,  however,  that  the  fasting  must  not  be  prolonged  sufficiently  to 
produce  an  unhealthy  state. 


92  A    TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

To  give  additional  whiteness  to  veal,  which  is  looked  upon  as  a  de- 
sirable quality  for  it  to  possess,  it  was  formerly  a  common  custom  to 
bleed  the  animal  pretty  freely  a  day  or  two  before  being  killed.  This 
practice  appears  now,  however,  to  be  almost  if  not  entirely  abandoned. 
Whatever  may  formerly  have  been  the  case,  it  does  not  appear  that  calves 
slaughtered  for  the  London  market  are  now  ever  treated  in  this  wav. 

It  is  well  known  that  meat  is  greatly  improved  in  tenderness  by  being 
allowed  to  hang  for  some  time  after  the  animal  is  killed.  Whilst  the 
fibres  are  set  by  rigor  mortis,  it  is  much  harder  than  before  or  afterward; 
and  unless  cooked  before  this  state  has  supervened,  which  can  but  seldom 
be  convenient,  it  should  be  allowed  to  remain  until  it  has  passed  off,  if 
not  longer. 

With  these  general  remarks  I  will  now  speak  in  detail  of  the  various 
kinds  of  meat  and  the  other  alimentary  products  derived  from  animals. 
The  analyses  given  on  the  forthcoming  pages,  unless  otherwise  stated, 
are  taken  from  a  table  contained  in  Dr.  Letheby's  work  on  Food.*  It 
must  be  understood,  however,  that  no  fixed  composition  exists,  and  that 
the  analyses  furnished  by  other  authorities  may  show  figures  that  some- 
what differ.  The  relative  amount  of  fat  and  nitrogenous  matter,  for  in- 
stance, varies  considerably  in  samples  of  meat  obtained  from  different 
animals. 

The  following  is  Ranke's  analysis  of  cooked  meat,  the  composition  of 
which  necessarily  differs  from  that  of  fresh  meat  on  account  of  the  loss 
which  occurs  in  cooking.  For  particulars  regarding  the  loss  under  dif- 
ferent modes  of  cooking,  vide  the  section  on  the  culinary  preparation  of 
food. 


Composition  of  Cooked  Meat   (Roast},  no  Dripping  being  Lost- 
Soiled  assumed  to  be  the  same  (Ranke). 

Nitrogenous  matter,          .         .         .         .         .         .     27.6 

Fat,. 15.45 

Saline  matter,  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .2.95 

Water, 54.00 


100.00 


J3eefis  of  a  firmer  texture  and  more  satisfying  to  the  stomach  than 
mutton.  Rightly  or  wrongly,  it  is  generally  reputed  as  possessing  also 
higher  strengthening  properties. 


Composition  of  Lean  JBeef. 

Nitrogenous  matter,   .......     19.3 

Fat, .         .3.6 

Saline  matter, 5.1 

Water, 72.0 


100.0 


*  On  Food,  p.  6.     Longmans,    1870. 


ALIMENTAKY    SUBSTANCES.  93 


Composition  of  Fat  Beef. 

Nitrogenous  matter, 14.8 

Fat, 29.8 

Saline  matter,     ........  4.4 

Water, 51.0 


100.0 

Mutton  appears  to  be  a  meat  more  easy  of  digestion  than  beef.  This 
is  not  appreciable  by  a  healthy  person,  because  the  digestive  power  is  in 
excess  of  what  is  required  for  the  easy  digestion  of  either  when  a  proper 
amount  only  is  consumed.  In  the  dyspeptic,  however,  where  a  nice  balance 
may  exist  between  the  digestive  power  possessed  and  that  required — 
where,  in  other  words,  the  digestive  power  is  only  just  sufficient  for  what 
is  wanted,  the  usual  experience  is  that  mutton  taxes  the  stomach  less 
than  beef.  There  are  many,  for  instance,  who  find  that  whilst  mutton  can 
be  eaten  without  exciting  discomfort,  beef  rests  somewhat  heavily  upon 
the  stomach  if  it  do  not  even  actually  disagree. 

Idiosyncrasies,  however,  exist  for  meat  as  well  as  for  other  kinds  of 
food.  Dr.  Prout*  records  an  instance  of  a  person  known  to  him  on 
whom  mutton  acted  as  a  poison.  "  He  could  not,"  says  Prout,  "  eat  mut- 
ton in  any  form.  The  peculiarity  was  supposed  to  be  owing  to  caprice, 
and  the  mutton  was  repeatedly  disguised  and  given  unknown  to  the  in- 
dividual; but  uniformly  with  the  same  result  of  producing  violent  vomit- 
ing or  diarrhoaa,  and  from  the  severity  of  the  attacks,  which  were,  in  fact, 
those  of  a  virulent  poison,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  if  the  use  of 
mutton  had  been  persisted  in,  it  would  soon  have  destroyed  the  life  of 
the  individual." 

Composition  of  Lean  Mutton. 

Nitrogenous  matter,  .......     18.3 

Fat, .         .       4.9 

Saline  matter,     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .4.8 

Water, 72.0 


100.0 


Composition  of  Fat  Mutton. 


Nitrogenous  matter,    .......  12.4 

Fat, 31.1 

Saline  matter,     ........  3.5 

Water, 53.0 


100.0 


Veal  and  lamb. — It  has  been  already  stated  that  these  meats,  although 
more  tender,  are  more  resistant  to  digestive  action.  They  appear  also  to 
possess  less  strength-giving  properties.  It  need  scarcely  be  said  that 
there  is  a  deeply  rooted  belief  that  for  sustaining  the  powers  under  great 

*  On  the  Nature  and  Treatment  of  Stomach  and  Urinary  Diseases,  8d.  ed.,  p.  30. 


04  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

exertion  these  meats  are  not  to  be  compared  to  beef  and  mutton.  They 
are  meats  that  it  is  desirable  to  avoid,  generally  speaking,  in  case  of 
dyspepsia. 

Composition  of  Veal. 

Nitrogenous  matter,  .               ,    .         .         .  .         .16.5 

Fat,    .....                  .  .     15.8 

Saline  matter,     .          .         .          .          .          .  .          .4.7 

Water,       . .     63.0 

100.0 

PorJc  is  of  all  meats  the  most  difficult  to  digest.  It  is  rich  and  trying 
to  the  stomach  on  account  of  the  large  quantity  of  fat  it  contains.  The 
flesh  of  the  wild  hog  is  easier  of  digestion  and  not  so  fat  as  that  of  the 
domestic  animal  (Forsyth*).  All  fat  meats  contain  a  relatively  smaller 
proportion  of  water  than  lean,  on  account  of  fat  not  being  infiltrated  with 
fluid  to  the  same  extent  as  the  other  tissues. 


Composition  of  Fat  Pork. 

Nitrogenous  matter,  . 9.8 

Fat, 48.9 

Saline  matter,     .         .  -      .         .         .         .         .         .  2.3 

Water,                 .       ' 39.0 


100.0 

J3acon. — Cured  meats  generally  are  less  digestible  than  the  same  meat 
in  the  fresh  state.  Bacon,  however,  occupies  an  exceptional  position  in 
this  respect.  Its  fat,  certainly,  is  less  likely  to  disagree  with  the 
stomach  than  the  fat  of  pork.  It  contains  but  a  small  proportion  of 
water,  and,  therefore,  weight  for  weight,  is  an  advantageous  kind  of 
food.  It  should  not  lose  more  than  10  to  15  per  cent,  in  cooking  (Lethe- 
by).  Among  the  laboring  classes  it  forms  an  almost  universal  article  of 
diet.  Its  popular  use,  like  that  also  of  boiled  pork  with  lean  meats,  such 
as  veal,  chicken,  and  rabbit,  and  also  with  other  articles  rich  in  nitro- 
genous matter,  as  eggs,  beans,  and  peas,  is  founded  upon  a  rational 
principle,  serving,  as  it  does,  to  establish  a  proper  proportion  in  the  sup- 
ply of  nitrogenous  and  carbonaceous  material. 

Composition  of  Dried  Bacon. 

Nitrogenous  matter,   .         .         .         .         •         .         .8.8 

Fat, "...     73.3 

Saline  matter, 2.9 

Water,        .  .         .  15.0 


100.0 


'  Dictionary  of  Diet.    London,  1835. 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  95 

Composition  of  Green  Bacon. 

Nitrogenous  matter,  .          .         .          .         .         .         .7.1 

Fat, 66.8 

Saline  matter,     .          .          .          .         .         .         .          .2.1 

Water, 24.0 


100.0 

Venison  (the  flesh  of  the  deer  only  is  here  understood  to  be  referred 
to)  partakes  more  of  the  character  of  game  than  of  butchers'  meat.  It  is 
lean,  dark  colored,  and  savory.  It  constitutes  one  of  the  most  digestible 
of  meats,  and  would  be,  therefore,  well  suited  for  the  dyspeptic  and  con- 
valescent were  it  not  for  its  rich  and  savory  character. 

Hone. — The  relative  amount  of  bone  in  animals  varies  according  to 
their  condition.  Taking  the  whole  animal,  20  per  cent,  may  be  allowed 
(Parkes).  In  lean  animals  it  is  in  too  large  a  relative  proportion  viewed 
in  reference  to  economy.  In  the  various  joints  "  it  is  rarely  less  than  8  per 
cent.  In  the  neck  and  brisket  of  beef  it  is  about  10  per  cent.,  and  in  shins 
and  legs  of  beef  it  amounts  to  one-third,  or  even  to  half  the  total  weight. 
The  most  economical  parts  are  the  round  and  thick  flank,  then  the 
brisket  and  sticking-piece,  and,  lastly,  the  leg.  In  the  case  of  mutton 
and  pork,  the  leg  is  the  most  profitable,  and  then  the  shoulder  "  (Letheby). 

Bones  contain  a  considerable  amount  of  nutritive  matter,  both  nitro- 
genous and  fatty.  To  extract  it  the  bones  should  be  broken  up  into 
small  fragments  and  boiled  for  many  hours.  Dr.  E.  Smith  says,*  "  When 
reporting  to  the  Privy  Council  upon  the  dietary  of  the  Lancashire  opera- 
tives, I  had  special  analyses  made  of  the  nutritive  material  which  was  ex- 
tracted from  bones,  and  the  result  showed  that  bones  were  equal  in  nutri- 
ment to  about  one-third  of  their  weight  of  flesh  in  carbon,  and  one-seventh 
in  nitrogen;  and  at  the  relative  prices  of  bones  and  flesh,  the  use  of  the 
former  rendered  the  dietary  more  economical'."  According  to  this  state- 
ment, therefore,  three  pounds  of  bones  represent  the  equivalent  of  one 
pound  of  meat  in  carbon;  and  seven  pounds,  one  pound  of  meat  in  nitro- 
gen. Gelatine,  which  forms  the  basis  of  soup,  is  the  nitrogenous  princi- 
ple extracted  by  boiling  from  bones. 

Hlood. — The  only  animal  from  which  the  blood  is  saved  and  employed 
for  dietetic  purposes  is,  as  a  rule,  the  pig,  but  sometimes  bullock's  blood 
is  also  made  use  of.  It  is  mixed  with  groats,  fat,  and  spice,  and  sold 
under  the  name  of  "  black  pudding." 

Liver. — The  liver  of  the  calf,  lamb,  and  pig  is  largely  consumed  as 
human  food.  It  is  generally  fried,  and,  thus  prepared,  forms  a  rich  and 
savory  dish.  Its  richness  renders  it  an  inappropriate  food  for  a  delicate 
stomach. 

Composition  of  Calves'  Liver  (Payen). 

Nitrogenous  matter, .......  20.10 

Fat, 5.58 

Carbohydrate  (amyloid  matter),         ....  0.45 

Saline  matter,    ......;.  1.54 

Water, 72.33 

100.00 
*  Report  on  Dietaries  of  Lunatics  and  Workhouses,  p.  46. 


96  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD    ATs'D    DIETETICS. 

Thefoie  gras  which  is  produced  for  the  rich  as  an  article  of  luxury  is 
obtained  by  subjecting  the  goose  to  the  process  of  feeding  described  at 
p.  77.  The  liver  thereby  becomes  enormously  enlarged  and  loaded  with 
fat.  Its  highly  fatty  nature  is  shown  by  the  following  analysis: 

Composition  of  Foie  Gras  (Pay en). 

Nitrogenous  matter,.         ......     13.75 

Fat, '.....     54.57 

Carbohydrate  (amyloid  matter),         .          .         .         .        6.40 

Saline  matter,  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .2.58 

Water, 22.70 

100.00 

J&dney. — The  substance  of  the  kidney  is  of  a  close,  fleshy  nature.  It 
can  never  be  looked  upon  as  otherwise  than  an  article  of  difficult  digesti- 
bility, but  as  regards  this  quality  a  great  deal  depends  upon  the  process 
of  cooking.  When  lightly  cooked  it  is  soft,  juicy,  and  agreeably  sapid, 
but  cooked  for  some  time,  and  with  the  employment  of  a  high  tempera- 
ture, it  undergoes  considerable  contraction,  and  becomes  hard,  dry,  com- 
paratively tasteless,  and  exceedingly  indigestible.  The  amount  of  fatty 
matter  present  is  small. 

Composition  of  Sheep's  Kidneys  (Pay en). 

Nitrogenous  matter,        ......  17.250 

Fatty  matter, . 2.125 

Saline  matter,          .......  1.100 

Non-azotized  organic  matter  and  loss,     .          .          .  1.325 

Water,    .         .  "     . '       .         .         .         .         .         .  78.200 


100.00 

Heart. — The  heart  consists  of  fat  and  muscular  tissue,  like  ordinary 
meat.  The  muscular  tissue,  however,  is  of  a  much  closer  texture,  and 
this  gives  the  greater  hardness  which  is  well  known  to  belong  to  it  both 
in  the  cooked  and  uncooked  states.  On  account  of  this  closeness  of 
texture  and  hardness,  it  forms  an  indigestible  article  of  food. 

Tripe. — The  tripe  which  is  consumed  as  human  food  consists  of  the 
paunch  or  first  portion  of  the  ruminant  stomach  of  the  ox.  This  is  the 
only  instance  of  any  part  of  the  alimentary  canal  being  applied  to  our 
own  use,  excepting  in  the  case  of  the  pig,  where  the  chitterlings  are 
cleansed  and  eaten.  The  muscular  fibres  belonging  to  tripe  possess  a 
different  structure  from  those  belonging  to  ordinary  meat,  and  yield  more 
readily  to  digestion.  Tripe,  indeed,  is  an  easily  digestible  article  of  food, 
but  the  fat  present  renders  it  somewhat  rich. 

Composition  of  Tripe. 

Nitrogenous  matter, 13.2 

Fat, 16.4 

Saline  matter,     ........  2.4 

Water, 68.0 

100.0 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  97 

Sweetbread  embraces  more  than  one  organ.  Stomach  sweetbread  and 
throat  sweetbread  are  spoken  of.  The  former  constitutes  the  pancreas, 
the  latter  the  thymus.  Sweetbread  is  easy  of  digestion,  and,  when  plainly 
cooked,  forms  a  suitable  food  for  the  convalescent.  When  richly  dressed, 
as  it  is  usually  served  up  at  company  dinners,  it  is  neither  suited  for  the 
dyspeptic  nor  invalid. 

Lungs. — Pig's  lights  are  eaten  as  a  fry  with  the  animal's  liver.  A 
food  is  prepared  called  "  fagots,"  from  bullock's  and  sheep's  lights  mixed 
with  bullock's  liver. 

Spleen. — The  milt  of  the  bullock,  sheep,  and  pig  is  sold  for  human, 
food.  It  is  usually  stuffed  and  roasted. 

UNWHOLESOME  MEAT. — Meat  cannot  be  subjected,  like  many  alimen- 
tary articles,  to  adulteration  or  falsification,  but  it  may  be  in  an  unwhole- 
some state,  and  thereby  unfit  for  food. 

Good  meat,  according  to  Dr.  Letheby,*  has  the  following  characters: 

"  First. — It  is  neither  of  a  pale  pink  color  nor  of  a  deep  purple  tint, 
for  the  former  is  a  sign  of  disease,  and  the  latter  indicates  that  the  ani- 
mal has  not  been  slaughtered,  but  has  died  with  the  blood  in  it,  or  has 
suffered  from  acute  fever. 

"  Second. — It  has  a  marbled  appearance,  from  the  ramifications  of  lit- 
tle veins  of  fat  among  the  muscles. 

"  Third. — It  should  be  firm  and  elastic  to  the  touch,  and  should 
scarcely  moisten  the  fingers,  bad  meat  being  wet,  and  sodden,  and  flabby, 
with  the  fat  looking  like  jelly  or  wet  parchment. 

"  Fourth. — It  should  have  little  or  no  odor,  and  the  odor  should 
not  be  disagreeable,  for  diseased  meat  has  a  sickly,  cadaverous  smell,  and 
sometimes  a  smell  of  physic.  This  is  very  discoverable  when  the  meat  is 
chopped  up  and  drenched  with  warm  water. 

"Fifth. — It  should  not  shrink  or  waste  much  in  cooking. 

"Sixth. — It  should  not  run  to  water  or  become  very  wet  on  stand- 
ing for  a  day  or  so,  but  should,  on  the  contrary,  be  dry  upon  the  surface. 

"Seventh. — When  dried  at  a  temperature  of  212°  or  thereabouts,  it 
should  not  lose  more  than  70  to  74  per  cent,  of  its  weight,  whereas  bad 
meat  will  often  lose  as  much  as  80  per  cent." 

To  this  it  may  be  added,  that  there  should  be  no  sign  of  the  presence 
of  parasites.  The  fat  also  should  neither  be  deficient  nor  excessive. 

To  assist  in  judging  of  the  freshness  of  meat,  a  clean  knife  may  be 
passed  into  it  and  applied  to  the  nose  on  withdrawal.  In  this  way  the 
condition  of  the  centre  may  be  ascertained. 

Unwholesomeness  of  meat  may  be  due  (1)  to  the  condition  of  the  ani- 
mal previous  to  death,  or  (2)  to  the  effects  of  decomposition  afterward. 
Remarks  will  be  offered  under  each  of  these  heads: 

1.  Unwholesomeness  of  meat  arising  from  the  condition  of  the  animal 
previous  to  death. — The  conditions  productive  of  unwholesome  meat, 
under  this  head,  are:  — 

a.  The  existence  of  parasites; 

b.  Infectious  diseases;  and 

c.  Contamination  by  some  drug   or  other  noxious  agent  adminis- 

tered or  consumed  during  life. 

*  Lectures  on  Food,  p.  235.    1870. 


98  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

a. — Meat  infested  with  parasites  is  known  with  absolute  certainty  to 
be  liable  to  injuriously  affect  the  consumer. 

There  is  one  form  of  parasite  which  is  frequently  met  with,  particu- 
larly in  the  flesh  of  the  pig,  here  giving  rise  to  what  is  known  as  "  measly 
pork."  It  constitutes  the  Cysticercus  celluloses,  which  consists  of  a  little 
animal  possessing  a  tapeworm-like  head  with  a  bladder-like  tail,  from 
which  its  name  is  derived.  It  lies  in  the  flesh,  surrounded  by  a  cyst, 
which  in  the  pig  is  about  the  size  of  a  hemp-seed,  arid  thus  is  easily  seen. 
It  appears  to  be  widely  spread  amongst  the  pigs  in  Ireland,  to  the  extent, 
it  is  stated,*  of  rendering  at  least  3  per  cent,  and  probably  5  per  cent, 
measly.  The  cysticerci  of  beef  and  veal  are  much  smaller  than  those  of 
pork,  and  require  close  inspection  to  discover  them. 

Now,  when  meat  thus  infested  is  eaten  in  the  raw  or  imperfectly 
cooked  state,  it  gives  rise  to  the  development  of  tapeworm  in  the  alimen- 
tary canal.  The  cysticerci,  unless  they  have  been  killed,  as  they  can  be 
by  the  meat  being  well  cooked  throughout,  change  their  form  when  they 
reach  the  alimentary  canal  into  that  of  tapeworms.  The  cysticercus  of 
pig's  flesh  becomes  the  Tcenia  solium,  and  that  of  beef  and  veal  the  Tcenla 
medio-canellata. 

Far  more  serious  effects  are  produced  by  meat  infested  with  another 
parasite — the  Trichina  spiralis.  This  animal  has  been  known  and  de- 
scribed for  some  years,  but  it  has  only  recently  been  recognized  as  capa- 
ble of  exerting  a  mischievous  action  within  the  system.  It  was  formerly 
noticed  that  the  animal  was  occasionally  come  across,  as  it  were  acci- 
dentally, in  the  course  of  anatomical  dissection,  and  it  could  not  be 
learnt  that  there  was  anything  to  betray  its  existence  in  the  individual 
during  life.  It  was  therefore  looked  upon  as  a  harmless  parasite,  and 
rather  simply  in  the  light  of  a  dissecting-room  curiosity  than  anything 
else.  In  1860,  however,  circumstances  occurred  which  led  to  the  dis- 
covery that  this  animal  was  not  at  all  times  the  innocent  or  harmless 
guest  that  had  been  formerly  supposed.  Briefly  stated,  the  circumstances 
that  brought  this  to  light  were  these: 

A  robust  maid-servant,  aged  twenty-four,  was  admitted  into  the 
Dresden  Hospital,  January  12,  I860,  under  Prof.  Zenker's  care.  She  had 
been  ailing  since  Christmas,  and  confined  to  bed  since  New  Year's  Day. 
Her  symptoms  presented  some  resemblance  to  typhoid  fever,  and,  in  the 
absence  of  other  indications,  were  at  first  put  down  to  this  malady.  Soon, 
however,  a  new  train  of  symptoms  became  developed.  The  whole  mus- 
cular system  became  the  seat  of  great  pain,  which  was  much  increased 
by  the  slightest  movement.  The  patient  was  constantly  moaning.  The 
arms  and  legs  were  drawn  up,  and  could  not  be  extended  on  account  of 
the  agony  which  the  attempt  induced.  Inflammation  of  the  lungs  now 
supervened,  and  death  occurred  on  the  27th.  A  post-mortem  examina- 
tion revealed  the  existence  of  vast  numbers  of  Trichina?  in  the  muscles 
in  the  non-encysted  state,  and  disclosed  the  cause  of  the  patient's  anoma- 
lous symptoms  and  death.  Inquiry  was  now  set  on  foot,  and  it  was  ascer- 
tained that,  four  days  before  the  girl  was  first  taken  ill,  two  pigs  and  an 
ox  had  been  slaughtered  at  the  house  of  her  master.  Some  smoked  ham 
and  sausage  were  fortunately  obtained  by  Prof.  Zenker,  which  had  been 
derived  from  one  of  the  pigs  that  had  been  killed,  and  an  examination 
showed  that  the  flesh  was  infested  with  Trichinae  in  an  encysted  state. 


*Prof.  Gamgee's  communication  in  the  ';  Fifth  Report  of  the  Medical  Officer  to  the 
Privy  Council,"  1863. 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  99 

Since  this  case  occurred  others  have  been  noticed,  more  particularly 
in  Germany,  in  which  the  effects  of  the  Trichinae  were  recognized  in 
their  true  light.  In  1863  a  catastrophe  happened  at  Helstiidt,  in  Prussia, 
•which  aroused  universal  attention,  and  excited  a  great  deal  of  uneasiness 
in  England  as  well  as  abroad.  One  hundred  and  three  persons,  mostly 
men  in  the  prime  of  life,  sat  down  to  a  festive  dinner  ordered  at  an  hotel. 
Within  a  month  more  than  twenty,  it  is  stated,  had  died,  and  most  of  the 
others  were  suffering  from  the  effects  of  the  parasite.  The  result  was 
traced  to  some  smoked  sausages,  which  had  been  made  from  a  pig  that 
had  been  noticed  to  be  out  of  condition,  and  happened  to  be  slaughtered 
for  food  by  mistake.  The  Trichina}  were  discovered  in  the  muscles  of 
those  affected,  and  the  sausages  that  remained,  and  the  meat  from  which 
they  had  been  prepared,  were  found  to  be  swarming  with  the  parasite. 
After  this,  people  naturally  became  frightened  to  eat  German  sausages, 
and  inspectors  were  appointed  to  examine  the  meat  before  being  used. 

The  whole  progress  of  the  affection  is  now  thoroughly  known.  When 
meat  is  eaten  containing  Trichinae,  if  the  heat  employed  in  cooking  be 
not  sufficient  to  destroy  the  life  of  the  animal,  symptoms  begin  to  show 
themselves  in  a  few  days'  time.  The  first  effect  noticeable  is  irritation 
of  the  alimentary  canal,  manifested  under  the  form  of  vomiting  and  diar- 
rhffia.  On  reaching  the  stomach,  the  capsule  in  which  the  parasite  is 
contained  becomes  dissolved.  Thus  liberated  from  its  previously  impris- 
oned condition,  and  finding  in  the  intestine  a  favorable  locality  for  its 
growth,  the  animal  increases  in  size,  and  in  two  or  three  days  attains 
three  or  four  times  its  original  dimensions.  It  may  now  be  discerned  by 
the  naked  eye,  looking  like  a  small  piece  of  fine  thread.  The  sexes  are 
distinct,  and  the  female  gives  rise  to  a  large  progeny — from  three  to  five 
hundred,  it  is  said — of  little  ones.  These  at  once  begin  to  migrate  from 
the  alimentary  canal.  They  straightway  pierce  the  walls  of  the  intestine, 
pass  through  the  peritoneal  cavity,  and  spread  themselves  throughout 
the  body.  Now  it  is  that  febrile  symptoms  become  established,  and 
that  they  produce  the  terrible  affection  of  the  muscular  system  which 
forms  so  striking  a  feature  of  the  sufferer's  complaint.  From  the  state 
induced,  the  strongest  person  may  be  carried  off  in  the  course  of  a  few 
weeks'  time.  But  should  the  patient  survive  the  first  effects  of  the  para- 
site, a  cyst  is  developed  around  it,  and  this,  in  the  course  of  time,  be- 
comes calcareous.  Thus  imprisoned,  the  animal  seems  to  be  perfectly 
harmless,  and,  apparently,  may  remain  for  years  without  further  betray- 
ing any  evidence  of  its  existence.  It  is  only,  indeed,  on  reaching  the 
alimentary  canal  of  another  animal  that  it  occasions  any  further  mischief, 
and  then  occurs  a  repetition  of  what  has  been  described. 

Trichinae  have  been  discovered  in  the  flesh  of  a  variety  of  animals — 
birds,  and  frogs,  as  well  as  mammals;  but  the  pig  is  the  animal  that  is 
most  frequently  found  to  be  infested.  Whilst  in  a  free  state  within  the 
muscle  they  may  be  scarcely  susceptible,  or  even  unsusceptible  of  detec- 
tion without  the  aid  of  a  microscope.  When  first  encysted,  also,  from 
the  transparency  of  the  cyst  they  are  not  easily  seen,  but  when  calcification 
of  the  cyst  has  occurred  they  are  readily  recognizable,  and  appear  as 
white  specks,  or  like  little  nits,  lying  amongst  the  muscular  fibres.  With- 
in the  cyst  the  minute  thread-like  worm  lies  coiled  up  after  a  spiral  fash- 
ion; hence  the  qualifying  adjunct  (spiralis)  applied  to  the  generic  name. 

As  a  point  of  practical  importance,  it  may  be  stated  that  neither  salt- 
ing, smoking,  nor  moderately  heating,  affords  any  security  against  the 
development  of  the  trichinous  disease  from  infested  meat.  Exposure, 


100  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

however,  to  the  temperature  of  boiling  water  effectively  kills  the  animal, 
but  it  is  obvious  that  the  temperature  must  be  raised  throughout  every 
particle  of  the  meat  to  ensure  that  it  is  rendered  harmless. 

Other  parasites  are  encountered  in  the  visceral  organs  of  animals, 
but  the  Cysticerci  and  Trichinae  are  the  only  ones,  as  far  as  is  known,  of 
a  hurtful  nature,  in  an  alimentary  point  of  view,  that  infest  their  flesh. 

b.  There  are  various  diseases  of  an  acute  infectious  nature  and  malig- 
nant type,  such,  particularly,  as  rinderpest,  anthrax,  and  pleuro-pneumo- 
nia,  to  which  animals  are  subject.  Can  the  meat  of  animals  that  have 
been  thus  affected  be  eaten  without  producing  injurious  consequences? 
The  idea  of  it  is  repulsive,  and,  strangely,  the  answer  to  the  question 
cannot  be  given  in  such  a  manner  as  our  preconceived  notions  would  lead 
us  to  expect.  The  conflicting  opinions  of  various  persons  on  this  point 
show  the  amount  of  uncertainty  that  exists  with  regard  to  it. 

The  diseases  of  live  stock  in  relation  to  the  public  supply  of  meat  for 
alimentary  purposes,  formed  the  subject  of  investigation  by  Professor 
Gamgee  for  the  Fifth  Report  of  the  Medical  Officer  to  the  Privy  Council, 
published  in  1863.  From  the  evidence  before  him,  Professor  Gamgee, 
unpleasant  as  it  may  sound,  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  as  much  as  one- 
fifth  of  the  common  meat  of  the  country  was  then  derived  from  animals 
killed  in  a  state  of  disease.  It  is  difficult  to  obtain  complete  and  precise 
data  on  such  a  point,  but  whether  the  estimate  be  correct  or  not,  it  may 
be  taken  as  showing  that  a  large  amount  of  diseased  meat  was  consumed 
by  the  public.  This,  however,  included  all  diseases,  and  it  is  positively 
known  that  some  need  not  be  regarded  as  depriving  the  meat  of  whole- 
someness  as  food. 

Animals  killed  in  the  early  stage  of  the  simple  inflammatory  affections 
may  be  safely  eaten,  and  also,  of  course,  those  killed  by  or  as  the  result 
of  some  accidental  injury.  But  what  is  the  evidence  for  and  against  the 
deleteriousness  of  meat  when  a  contagious  poison  has  existed  in  the 
system  ? 

On  the  one  hand,  it  is  stated,  as  an  authentic  fact,  that  during  the 
prevalence  of  the  cattle  plague,  or  rinderpest,  in  England  in  1865,  large 
quantities  of  the  meat  of  animals  killed  in  all  stages  of  the  disease  were 
eaten  without  being  followed  by  any  ill  effect.  The  same  absence  of 
ill  effect  is  also  stated  to  have  been  observed  after  the  consumption  of 
meat  derived  from  animals  affected  with  anthrax  and  epidemic  pleuro- 
pneumonia — other  virulent  contagious  diseases.  It  is  even  asserted  that 
when  the  steppe  murrain  was  prevalent  in  Bohemia  some  years  ago,  the 
carcases  of  infected  animals  that  had  been  killed  and  buried  by  order  of 
the  Government  were  dug  up  and  eaten  by  the  poor  without  any  injury 
being  sustained. 

On  the  other  hand,  instances  have  been  placed  on  record  where  the 
most  serious  consequences  have  arisen  from  the  employment  of  meat  of 
this  kind.  A  marked  case  in  point  is  cited  by  Mr.  Simon  in  his  report  to 
the  Privy  Council  above  alluded  to.*  He  adduces  it  as  conclusively 
showing  that  under  some  circumstances  human  life  may  be  endangered 
by  the  use  of  cooked  meat  derived  from  an  animal  affected  with  anthrax, 
and  states  that  the  account  of  it  was  communicated  to  him  by  Mr.  Keith, 
Senior  Surgeon  to  the  Aberdeen  Royal  Infirmary.  Subjoined  are  the 
main  particulars. 


*  Fifth  Report  of  the  Medical  Officer  to  the  Privy  Council,  p.  28.    1863. 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  101 

During  the  first  week  of  November,  1840,  a  two-year-old  heifer,  at  a 
farm  in  Aberdeenshire,  was  observed  to  be  unwell,  and  was  slaughtered 
by  the  ploughman,  aided  by  a  neighboring  blacksmith.  A  portion  of  the 
animal  was  salted  down,  and  another  appropriated  to  immediate  use.  A 
piece  of  the  latter,  which  appeared  quite  fresh,  and  about  which  there  was 
nothing  wrong  to  be  seen,  was  cooked  next  day  in  a  pot  of  broth  for  the 
dinner  of  the  family,  which  consisted  of  eleven  persons.  Of  the  eleven, 
two  did  not  partake  of  it,  and  these  remained  well,  whilst  the  nine  who 
did  partake  of  it  were  soon  seized  with  such  alarming  symptoms  of  poison- 
ing that  a  medical  man  was  at  once  called  in.  Two  died  and  the  others 
recovered.  On  the  12th  of  November  both  the  ploughman  and  the  black- 
smith were  admitted  into  the  Aberdeen  Royal  Infirmary,  suffering  from 
phlegmonous  erysipelas  of  the  arm.  The  offal  of  the  animal  was  cast 
upon  a  dung-heap,  to  which  two  swine  had  access.  They  ate  it  freely, 
and  were  both  taken  ill  and  died. 

The  data  in  this  case  stand  quite  complete,  the  ill  effects  having  been 
traced  to  the  infected  animal.  More  frequently  it  is  only  the  ill  effects 
that  are  observed,  without  information  being  procurable  regarding  the 
animal  from  which  the  meat  was  derived.  For  example,  instances  have 
been  from  time  to  time  noticed,  and  some  few  have  been  placed  on  record, 
where  a  number  of  persons  have  suffered  from  symptoms  of  irritant 
poisoning  after  partaking  of  meat  that  has  been  purchased  in  a  casual 
way,  meat,  it  may  be,  that  has  presented  no  visible  signs  of  unwhole- 
sorneness.  Pork  is  known  to  be  more  likely  to  produce  such  ill  effects 
than  other  kinds  of  meat,  but  perhaps  something  in  this  case  may  be  due 
to  the  unwholesome  food  on  which  the  animals  are  often  fed. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  the  prevalence  of  boils-and  carbuncles  may 
be  sometimes  attributable  to  the  unconscious  consumption  of  meat  from 
diseased  animals,  and  some  statistics  have  been  adduced  in  support  of 
this  view.  The  flesh  of  animals  affected  with  a  certain  disorder  is  specifi- 
cally stated  to  have  the  effect  of  producing  carbuncles.  Dr.  (now  Sir 
Robert)  Christison  asserts  *  that  the  solids  and  fluids  of  animals  suffering 
from  a  gangrenous  carbuncular  disorder,  denominated  Milzhrand  in  Ger- 
many, and  analogous  to  the  Pustule  maligne  of  the  French,  are  rendered 
so  poisonous,  that  not  only  those  who  handle  but  those  who  eat  the  flesh 
are  apt  to  suffer  severely — the  affection  thus  produced  in  man  being  some- 
times ordinary  inflammation  of  the  alimentary  canal,  but  most  commonly 
an  eruption  of  one  or  more  large  carbuncles,  resembling  those  of  the 
original  disease  of  the  animal.  Dr.  Livingstone,  in  his  "  Missionary 
Travels  and  Researches  in  South  Africa,"  p.  136,  1857,  speaks  of  the  oc- 
currence of  malignant  carbuncle,  called  Knatsi  or  Selonda,  as  a  result  of 
eating  the  flesh  of  diseased  animals. 

Looking,  therefore,  at  the  evidence  before  us  regarding  the  effects  of 
consuming  meat  derived  from  animals  suffering  from  infectious  disease, 
it  appears  that  diametrically  opposite  results  have  been  observed.  It  may 
be  concluded  that  some  kind  of  subtle  poison  exists,  and  that  this  may 
become  neutralized  or  destroyed  by  the  process  of  cooking  and  digestion, 
but  why  such  an  event  should  occur  in  some  cases  and  not  in  others,  is 
indeed  difficult  to  understand.  Practically,  however,  seeing  that  serious 
consequences  may  ensue,  it  is  only  right  to  look  upon  all  such  meat  as 
unsafe  and  unfit  for  human  food. 


*  On  Poisons,  p.  633.  Edinburgh,  1845. 


102  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

c.  Meat  may  be  rendered  unwholesome  by  contamination  with  some 
drug  or  noxious  agent  administered  or  consumed  during  life. 

Many  examples  of  this  have  been  known.  The  following  is  a  striking 
one,  bearing  on  contamination  by  a  drug  administered  as  a  remedial  agent 
previous  to  slaughtering.  It  is  quoted  by  Professor  Gamgee  and  related 
by  Dr.  Kreutzer  in  the  Central  Zeitung  fttr  die  gesammte  Veterinarmedi- 
zinfilr  1854.  "Three  hundred  and  one  persons  partook  of  the  flesh  of 
an  ox  that  had  been  treated  during  life  with  the  potassio-tartrate  of  an- 
timony. Of  these,  one  hundred  and  seven  suffered  from  violent  vomit- 
ing, purging,  etc., -and  mothers  that  were  suckling  children  noticed  violent 
effects  on  their  babies.  One  of  the  affected  persons  died,  and  the  cause  of 
the  attack  was  demonstrated  by  chemical  analysis  of  the  flesh,  and  of  the 
contents  of  the  stomach  and  intestine  of  the  person  that  succumbed. 
This  person  had  eaten  only  half  a  pound  of  the  meat.  Pigs,  dogs,  and  cats 
that  partook  of  the  meat  also  suffered.  Some  of  the  meat  was  given  to  a 
magpie  and  it  died." 

The  flesh  of  cattle  is  sometimes  rendered  poisonous  by  the  food  con- 
sumed, without  the  animals  themselves  being  affected.  For  instance,  it 
is  known  that  cattle  fed  in  some  of  the  districts  of  North  America  cannot 
be  eaten  without  giving  rise  to  violent  symptoms  of  poisoning.  The  flesh 
of  hares,  also,  which  have  fed  upon  the  Rhododendron  chrysanthemum  is 
considered  to  be  poisonous. 

2.  Uhwholesomeness  of  meat  arising  from  decomposition. — Dr.  Chris- 
tison  says:  "the  tendency  of  putrefaction  to  impart  deleterious  qualities 
to  animal  matters  originally  wholesome  has  long  been  known,  and  is 
quite  unequivocal.  To  those  who  are  not  accustomed  to  the  use  of  tainted 
meat,  the  mere  commencement  of  decay  is  sufficient  to  render  meat  insup- 
portable and  noxious.  Game,  only  decayed  enough  to  please  the  palate 
of  the  epicure,  has  caused  severe  cholera  in  persons  not  accustomed  to 
eat  it  in  that  state."  *  It  cannot  be  said,  however,  that  even  putrid  meat 
is  poisonous  to  all,  although  it  may  prove  so  to  many.  The  effect  of 
habit  would  appear  to  confer  some  sort  of  immunity,  judging  from  the 
accounts  that  are  given  of  the  state  in  which  meat  is  eaten  in  some  coun- 
tries. "  The  American  Indians,"  says  Wilkes,  "  all  prefer  their  meat 
putrid,  and  frequently  keep  it  until  it  smells  so  strong  as  to  be  disgust- 
ing. Parts  of  the  salmon  they  bury  underground  for  two  or  three  months 
to  putrefy,  and  the  more  it  is  decayed  the  greater  delicacy  they  consider 
it."  f  Simmonds  also  states,  with  reference  to  the  food  of  the  Green- 
landers,  that  "the  head  and  fins  of  the  seal  are  preserved  under  the  grass 
in  summer,  and  in  winter  the  whole  seal  is  frequently  buried  in  the  snow. 
The  flesh,  half  frozen,  half  putrid,  in  which  state  the  Greenlanders  term 
it  mikiak,  is  eaten  with  the  keenest  appetite."  J  Rotten  fish,  we  are  also 
told,  is  used  by  the  Burmese,  Siamese,  and  Chinese  as  a  sort  of  condi- 
ment, without  any  bad  effect  being  produced. 

Cooking  doubtless  neutralizes,  to  some  extent,  the  effect  of  decompo- 
sition; and  the  secretion  of  the  stomach  (gastric  juice),  with  the  strongly 
antiseptic  properties  it  possesses,  will  tend  to  prevent  any  further  ad- 
vance of  ordinary  decomposition  as  soon  as  the  food  reaches  the  stomach. 
Notwithstanding  these  salutary  influences,  however,  experience  shows 

*  On  Poisons,  p.  635.     Edinburgh,  1845. 

f  U.  S.  Exploring  Expedition,  vol.  iv.,  p.  452. 

t  Curiosities  of  Food,  p.  32.     1859. 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  103 

that  the  resisting  power  enjoyed  by  those  accustomed  to  our  mode  of  life 
is  not  sufficient  to  allow  meat  tainted  with  decomposition  to  be  consumed 
without  incurring  a  risk  of  more  or  less  severe  gastro-intestinal  derange- 
ment, if  nothing  more,  being  set  up. 

In  addition  to  meat  being  rendered  unwholesome  by  ordinary  putre- 
faction, it  sometimes  becomes  so  from  undergoing,  during  the  process  of 
curing,  another  kind  of  decomposition.  Meat  rendered  noxious  by  this 
modified  and  peculiar  form  of  decomposition  may  present  no  marked  ex- 
ternal signs  of  being  unwholesome,  and  thus  is  produced  a  very  serious 
source  of  danger.  The  change  has  been  especially  found  to  occur  in  the 
sausages  cured  by  drying  and  smoking  in  Germany,  and  many  fatal  re- 
sults have  been  occasioned  therefrom.  Bacon,  cheese,  and  other  kinds  of 
animal  food  have  been  also  noticed  in  a  similar  manner  to  become  delete- 
rious. The  nature  of  the  poisonous  principle  is  not  precisely  known,  but 
it  is  generally  believed  to  consist  of  an  acrid  fatty  acid.  The  symptoms 
produced  are  those  of  severe  gastro-intestinal  irritation,  followed  by  ner- 
vous depression  and  collapse.  Dr.  Christison's  work  on  "Poisons"  con- 
tains a  collection  of  particulars  bearing  on  this  matter. 

POULTRY,  GAME,  AND  WILD-FOWL. — Next  to  mammals,  birds  are  of 
the  most  importance  to  us  in  an  alimentary  point  of  view.  As  far  as  is 
known,  there  is  no  bird,  and  no  part  of  any  bird,  nor  any  bird's  egg, 
which  may  not  be  safely  used  as  food.  It  must  be  stated,  however,  that 
some  birds  are  rendered  poisonous  by  the  food  which  they  have  eaten. 
The  pheasant,  for  instance,  which  feeds  on  the  buds  of  the  Calmia  lati- 
folia  in  North  America,  is  deemed  poisonous  during  the  winter  and 
spring.  It  is  also  well  known  that  the  American  partridges  sent  over  here 
have  been  sometimes  found  to  possess  poisonous  properties. 

The  flesh  of  birds  differs  from  that  of  mammals  in  never  being  mar- 
bled or  having  fat  mixed  with  the  muscular  fibres. 

Domesticated  or  tame  birds,  such  as  the  common  fowl,  turkey, 
guinea-fowl,  duck,  and  goose,  fall  under  the  denomination  of  poultry. 
Under  the  head  of  game  a  limited  number  of  wild  birds  are  included, 
and  particularly  the  pheasant,  partridge,  and  grouse.  Wild-fowl  com- 
prise untamed  aquatic  birds.  There  are  many  other  edible  birds,  in- 
cluding especially  the  smaller  ones,  which  cannot  be  grouped  under 
either  of  these  heads. 

The  flesh  belonging  to  different  birds  presents  considerable  variation 
— in  some  being  white,  and  in  others  quite  dark-colored.  It  also  varies 
in  different  parts  of  the  same  animal,  that  on  the  wings  and  breast  being 
whiter,  drier,  and  of  a  more  delicate  taste  than  that  on  the  legs.  On  ac- 
count of  the  legs  being  higher  flavored,  they  are  preferred  by  many.  In 
the  blackcock  the  layer  of  muscles  forming  the  outer  part  of  the  breast 
is  of  a  dark  brown  color,  whilst  the  deeper  part  is  white.  To  a  less  ex- 
tent a  similar  difference  is  also  observed  in  many  other  birds. 

The  fowl,  turkey,  and  guinea-fowl  amongst  poultry,  which  form 
white-fleshed  birds,  stand  in  a  very  different  position  from  ducks  and 
geese.  The  flesh  of  the  former  is  delicate-flavored,  tender,  and  easy  of 
digestion.  It  also  possesses  less  stimulating  properties  than  ordinary 
meat,  and  is  thus  well  adapted  for  the  delicate  stomach  of  the  dyspeptic 
and  invalid.  The  flesh  of  the  latter,  on  the  other  hand,  is  harder,  richer, 
or  stronger  tasted,  and  far  more  difficult  of  digestion.  It  is  therefore 
to  be  avoided  where  weakness  of  stomach  exists. 

The  fattening  of  poultry  for  the  table  forms  in  some  parts  of  the 


104  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

country  an  extensive  branch  of  industry,  and  the  improvement  that  is 
effected  in  the  quality,  equally  as  regards  tenderness  and  flavor  as  size,  of 
the  bird  is  exceedingly  striking.  Exercise  is  unfavorable  to  fatty  de- 
posit, and  wild  birds,  unless  it  should  happen  that  they  keep  at  rest,  are 
not  likely  to  become  fat.  Domesticated  birds,  also,  that  are  allowed  to 
run  about  do  not  become  fat  to  the  same  extent  as  those  confined  at  rest. 
The  art  of  fattening  consists  in  keeping  the  animal  at  rest,  and  supply- 
inrr  it  with  an  abundance  of  an  appropriate  fattening  food,  and  it  is  sub- 
jected to  this  process  for  a  few  weeks  before  it  is  required.  It  is  found 
that  the  animal  in  a  sexless  state  grows  to  a  larger  size,  fattens  better, 
is  more  tender  eating,  and  finer  flavored  than  one  in  which  the  sexual  or- 
gans exist  (vide  p.  90).  Improvement  for  the  use  of  the  table  is  thus 
effected  by  castration  and  spaying.  For  the  proper  effect  it  is  necessary 
that  the  operation  should  be  performed  at  an  early  age.  The  capon  and 
poulard  are  the  result,  and  their  superior  qualities  are  well  known. 

The  flesh  of  game  contains  a  smaller  amount  of  fat  than  that  of  poul- 
try, and  is  regarded  as  possessing  more  strengthening  properties.  It  is 
also  tender  and  easy  of  digestion,  and  possesses  a  marked  but  delicate 
flavor,  which  increases  by  keeping.  The  aromatic  bitter  taste,  for  in- 
stance, of  the  grouse  is  more  pronounced  after  the  bird  has  been  hung  a 
little  time  than  when  eaten  in  a  fresh  state.  The  flesh  about  the  back 
possesses  this  flavor  in  a  higher  degree  than  that  elsewhere,  and  hence 
this  part  is  often  selected  as  a  bonne  bouche  by  epicures.  Each  kind  of 
bird  has  its  special  flavor,  and  thus  considerable  variety  is  presented. 
The  flavor  of  the  partridge  and  quail  is  exceedingly  delicate,  and  so  also 
is  that  of  the  snipe  and  woodcock,  but  these  latter  birds  are  richer. 
From  the  qualities  possessed  by  it,  game  is  tempting  to  the  appetite  of 
the  invalid.  Its  easy  digestibility  renders  it  further  well  suited  for  a 
weak  stomach.  It  therefore  forms  a  valuable  article  of  food  for  the  sick 
room,  and  is  often  found  to  be  better  borne  than  poultry  or  meat.  It 
may,  however,  prove  too  rich;  and  to  obviate  this,  as  far  as  possible,  the 
bird  should  be  kept  long  enough  to  secure  tenderness,  and  the  breast 
only  should  be  eaten. 

Wild-fowl  requires  strong  digestive  power  to  dispose  of  it.  Its  flesh 
is  close  and  firm.  Its  taste  also  is  strong,  and  often  of  a  fishy  nature — a 
character  which  becomes  more  pronounced  by  keeping,  so  that  the  bird 
is  at  its  best  when  in  a  fresh  state  for  eating. 

The  pigeon  and  many  other  birds  are  eaten  which  do  not  fall  under 
the  head  of  either  poultry,  game,  or  wild-fowl.  The  flesh  is  usually  tender 
in  proportion  to  the  smallness  of  the  animal. 

The  flesh  of  the  rabbit  and  the  hare  more  resembles  that  of  poultry 
and  game  than  butcher's  meat.  It  is  characterized  in  each  case  by  the 
small  quantity  of  fat  it  contains.  That  of  the  hare  possesses  to  a  marked 
extent  savory  and  stimulating  properties,  of  which  the  flesh  of  the  rab- 
bit is  comparatively  void.  So  far  the  rabbit  would  form  suitable  food  for  a 
delicate  stomach;  but,  although  tender,  its  fibres  are  close,  and  it  cannot 
be  regarded  as  possessing  the  digestibility  belonging  to  many  other  kinds 
of  animal  food. 

FISH. — Fish  is  an  important  article  of  nourishment.  A  very  large 
number  of  different  kinds  of  it,  both  fresh  water  and  salt  water,  are  con- 
sumed, giving  great  variety  to  this  kind  of  food.  The  amount  that 
must  exist  in  the  vast  waters  of  the  ocean  may  also  be  regarded  as 
rendering  the  supply  inexhaustible.  In  some  places  it  constitutes  by 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  105 

necessity  the  chief  or  sole  sustenance  of  the  people,  who  are  hence  styled 
Ichthyophagi.  The  inhabitants  of  the  most  northern  parts  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  America,  where  it  is  too  cold  for  any  of  the  higher  forms  of 
vegetation  to  grow,  are  mainly  dependent  upon  food  of  which  the  chief 
portion  consists  of  fish  derived  from  the  sea.  In  Siberia,  fish  after  being 
dried,  is  ground  into  powder,  and  formed  into  a  substance  which  is  used 
instead  of  bread.  Putrid  fish,  we  are  told,  is  even  the  favorite  and  ordi- 
nary food  of  some  tribes. 

Although  from  time  immemorial  fish  has  formed  an  article  of  food 
more  or  less  consumed  by  most  people,  yet  many  prejudices  used  to  exist 
with  regard  to  it.  The  Egyptian  priests  were  forbidden  to  eat  fish  of 
any  kind,  under  the  idea  that  it  increased  the  sexual  appetite,  or  that  it 
was  the  cause  of  leprosy.  For  the  latter  reason  the  people  also  were 
forbidden  to  eat  fish  not  covered  with  scales.  In  the  writings  of  Moses 
it  is  stated:  "  Whatsoever  hath  fins  and  scales  in  the  waters,  in  the  seas, 
and  the  rivers,  them  shall  ye  eat.  .  .  .  Whatsoever  hath  no  fins  or 
scales  in  the  waters,  that  shall  be  an  abomination  unto  you."  *  Rightly  or 
wrongly,  English  history  says  that  Henry  I.  got  a  surfeit,  and  died  from 
eating  too  heartily  of  lampreys,  a  food  against  which  he  had  been  often 
cautioned.  There  does  not  appear  to  be  any  substantial  foundation, 
however,  for  the  belief  that  formerly  prevailed;  for  the  lamprey  and  the 
sturgeon  also — another  fish  without  scales — are  now  extensively  eaten  by 
some  communities  without  any  bad  effects. 

If  present  experience  does  not  permit  any  basis  of  selection  being 
given,  it  does  show  that  fish  is  not  invariably  free  from  poisonous  proper- 
ties. It  is  especially  in  tropical  climates  where  poisonous  fish  are  en- 
countered. Some  are  poisonous  at  all  times,  others  only  at  certain  sea- 
sons. Individuals  of  certain  species  may  be  poisonous,  whilst  others 
of  the  same  species,  that  are  not  to  be  distinguished  by  any  external 
characters,  are  free,  it  is  stated,  from  deleterious  properties — a  circum- 
stance which  renders  the  eating  of  fish  in  such  countries  not  without 
danger.  Some  persons,  it  is  also  said,  escape,  whilst  others  are  injuriously 
affected.  The  symptoms  produced  f  are  sometimes  allied  to  those  of 
cholera.  Sometimes  an  eruption,  often  resembling  nettle-rash,  is  occa- 
sioned, and,  it  may  be,  various  nervous  disorders,  as  trembling  or  con- 
vulsive twitches  of  the  limbs,  paralysis,  arid  stupor. 

It  is  not  definitely  known  to  what  the  deleterious  effects  of  the 
poisonous  fish  are  to  be  ascribed.  They  have  been  variously  referred  to 
the  aliment  on  which  the  animals  have  fed,  to  their  being  in  a  diseased 
state,  to  decomposition,  and  to  idiosyncrasy  on  the  part  of  the  person  af- 
fected. A  fish  is  said  to  justify  suspicion  "  if  it  has  attained  an  unusu- 
ally large  size,  or  is  destitute  of  the  natural  fishy  smell,  or  has  black 
teeth,  or  if  silver  or  an  onion  boiled  along  with  it  becomes  black;  but  all 
these  tests  are  unreliable." 

As  an  article  of  nourishment,  fish  does  not  possess  the  satisfying  and 
stimulating  properties  that  belong  to  the  flesh  of  quadrupeds  and  birds. 
Still  the  health  and  vigor  of  the  inhabitants  of  fishing  towns,  where  fish 
may  form  the  only  kind  of  animal  food  consumed,  show  that  it  is  capable 
of  contributing,  in  an  effective  manner,  to  the  maintenance  of  the  body 
under  active  conditions  of  life.  On  account  of  its  being  less  satisfying 
than  meat,  the  appetite  returns  at  shorter  intervals,  and  a  larger  quantity 
is  required  to  be  consumed. 

*  Leviticus  xi.  9-12.  f  Pereira  on  Food  and  Diet,  p.  284.    1843. 


106  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD   AND    DIETETICS. 

Dr.  Davy  says:  "  If  we  give  our  attention  to  classed  people — classed 
as  to  the  quality  of  food  they  principally  subsist  on — we  shall  find  that 
the  ichthyophagous  class  are  especially  strong,  healthy,  and  prolific.  In 
no  other  class  than  in  that  of  fishers  do  we  see  larger  families,  handsomer 
women,  or  more  robust  and  active  men."  * 

As  a  less  stimulating  article  of  food  than  meat,  fish  possesses  valuable 
properties  in  a  therapeutic  point  of  view,  and  is  constantly  being  advan- 
tageously employed  when  the  powers  are  too  weak  for  the  stronger  kinds 
of  animal  food  to  be  borne. 

The  flesh  of  some  fish  is  white,  and  that  of  others  more  or  less  red. 
The  former  is  less  stimulating  and  lighter  to  the  stomach  or  more  easy  of 
digestion  than  the  latter. 

Amongst  the  fish  having  white  flesh  are  the  whiting,  haddock,  cod, 
sole,  turbot,  brill,  plaice,  flounder,  etc.  The  flesh  contains  but  little  fat, 
as  the  following  analysis  will  show.  The  fat  existing  in  the  animal  is  es- 
pecially accumulated  in  the  liver,  and  in  the  cod-fish,  particularly  when  in 
season,  the  liver  is  enormously  gorged  with  oil. 

Composition  of  White  Fish. 

Nitrogenous  matter,  .         .         .         .         .         .         .18.1 

Fat,    ...  .  .2.9 

Saline  matter,     ........       1.0 

Water,       .         .         .  ' 78.0 


100.0 

The  flesh  of  the  salmon,  particularly,  presents  a  strong  contrast  in  color 
to  that  of  the  fish  above  enumerated.  It  approaches  meat  in  redness,  and 
is  regarded  as  approaching  it  also  more  closely  than  other  fish  in  sustain- 
ing properties.  Fatty  matter  is  incorporated  with  the  muscular  fibres, 
and  there  is  also  a  layer  of  superficial  fat  beneath  the  skin.  This  is  more 
abundant  in  the  abdominal  or  thinner  than  in  the  dorsal  or  thicker  part 
of  the  animal — hence  the  richer  flavor,  and  thereby  the  preference  given 
to  the  former  for  eating. 

Composition  of  Salmon. 

Nitrogenous  matter,  .         .         .         .         .         .         .16.1 

Fat, 5.5 

Saline  matter,     ........        1.4 

Water,        .....  .     77.0 


100.0 

The  mackerel,  eel,  herring,  sprat,  and  pilchard  are  other  fish  charac- 
terized by  the  presence  of  fatty  matter  incorporated  with  the  flesh.  Thus 
it  is  that  these  fish  are  richer  and  less  suited  to  a  delicate  stomach  than 
the  white  fish.  The  eel  especially  is  rich  in  fat,  as  is  shown  by  the  fol- 
lowing analysis  from  Letheby's  table: 

*  The  Angler  and  His  Friend,  by  John  Davy,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  p.  114.    London,  1855. 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  107 

Composition  of  Eds. 

Nitrogenous  matter,  .         .         .         .         .         .         .9.9 

Fat,    ...  .         .  .     13.8 

Saline  matter,     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .1.3 

Water, 75.0 


100.0 
Payen's  analysis  gives  a  still  considerably  larger  quantity  of  fat,  thus  I 

Composition  of  Eels  Deprived  of  the  Non-edible  Portions  (Pay en). 

Nitrogenous  matter,  ......     13.00 

Fatty  matter, 23.86 

Mineral  matter,          .         .         .         .         .         .         .0.77 

Non-nitrogenous  matter  and  loss,      .         .         .         .0.30 

Water, 62.07 


100.00 

Of  all  fish  the  whiting  may  be  regarded  as  the  most  delicate,  tender,, 
easy  of  digestion,  and  least  likely  to  disagree  with  a  weak  stomach.  It 
is  sometimes  styled  the  chicken  of  the  fish  tride.  The  haddock  is  some- 
what closely  allied  but  has  a  firmer  texture,  and  is  inferior  in  flavor  and  di- 
gestibility. The  sole  is  a  tender  and  digestible  fish.  It  also  has  a  delicate 
flavor,  and  deservedly  enjoys  a  high  reputation  as  an  article  of  food  for  the 
invalid.  The  flounder  is  light  and  easy  of  digestion,  but  insipid.  In  all 
cases  where  fish  is  required  for  a  weak  stomach,  either  boiling  or  broiling 
should  constitute  the  process  of  cooking.  Frying  is  objectionable  on  ac- 
count of  the  fatty  matter  used  rendering  the  fish  rich  and  more  indigestible. 

The  cod-fish  is  far  from  possessing  the  digestibility  that  is  enjoyed  by 
most  other  white  fish.  It  varies  in  quality  a  great  deal,  but  some  of  it  is 
exceedingly  hard,  tough,  stringy  or  woolly,  and  indigestible.  I  believe 
it  to  be  a  more  trying  article  of  food  to  the  stomach  than  is  generally 
credited.  When  reputed  to  be  in  good  condition,  or  in  season,  the  flesh, 
which  is  arranged  in  flakes,  becomes  opaque  on  boiling.  The  juice  be- 
tween the  flakes  also  undergoes  alteration,  and  produces  a  layer  of  white 
curdy  matter,  apparently  consisting  of  coagulated  albumen.  When  out 
of  season,  this  white  curdy  matter  is  absent,  and  the  flesh  remains,  after 
being  boiled,  semi-transparent  and  bluish.  In  this  state  it  is  evidently 
not  so  nourishing,  but  being  more  watery  and  soft,  I  believe  it  is  more 
easy  of  digestion.  Indeed,  some  few  instances  have  fallen  under  my 
notice  where  eating  what  would  be  called  cod-fish  in  a  state  of  high  per- 
fection— that  is,  cod-fish  in  a  firm,  flaky,  and  opaque  state  after  being 
boiled — has  been  followed  by  an  attack  of  indigestion. 

Crimping  increases  the  firmness  of  the  flesh,  and  is  often  employed  in 
the  case  of  cod-fish.  It  must  be  effected  whilst  the  muscular  fibres  re- 
tain their  vitality,  or  before  rigor  mortis  has  set  in.  The  fish  when  caught 
is  struck  on  the  head,  and  afterward  a  number  of  transverse  incisions 
are  made.  It  is  then  immersed  in  cold  water,  which  occasions  a  strong 
contraction  of  the  muscular  fibres,  and  causes  the  flesh  to  assume  a  firmer 
state  than  would  otherwise  be  the  case.  It  is  considered  that  crimped 
cod  is  not  only  firmer,  but  keeps  longer,  and  has  a  better  flavor  than  that 
which  has  not  been  crimped.  Rigidity  or  firmness  of  flesh  being  due  to 


108  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

rigor  mortis,  which  passes  off  in  the  course  of  time,  its  existence  in  all 
fish  affords  a  sign  of  freshness. 

The  turbot  for  flavor  is  deservedly  held  in  high  estimation.  It  is 
firmer  and  richer,  but  less  digestible  than  other  kinds  of  flat  fish,  as  the 
sole,  flounder,  and  plaice. 

Brill  is  also  an  excellent  fish,  but  is  inferior  in  flavor  to  the  turbot, 
for  which  it  is  sometimes  substituted. 

In  both  turbot  and  brill,  the  skin,  on  boiling,  swells  and  assumes  a 
gelatinous  character.  This  is  eaten  as  a  choice  part.  Its  appearance 
would  lead  to  the  supposition  of  its  being  easily  digestible,  but,  whether 
on  account  of  its  rich  flavor  or  not,  it  appears  to  be  more  apt  than  the 
flesh  to  disagree  with  the  stomach. 

The  sturgeon  is  a  fish  that  is  not  much  eaten  in  this  country.  Its 
flesh  is  looked  upon  as  presenting  some  resemblance  in  taste  and  char- 
acter to  veal. 

The  quality  of  fish  as  an  article  of  food  is  influenced  by  the  act  of 
spawning,  and  presents  considerable  variation  at  different  periods.  It  is 
just  previous  to  spawning  that  the  animal  is  in  its  highest  state  of  per- 
fection. Its  condition  altogether  is  then  at  its  best  point.  The  animal 
is  fatter  than  at  any  other  period,  and  of  a  richer  flavor  for  eating.  Dur- 
ing the  process  of  spawning  its  store  of  fatty  matter  is  drawn  upon,  and 
it  becomes  poor,  thin,  and  water}'  or  flabby.  It  is  now  said  to  be  "  out 
of  season,"  and  requires  time  to  arrive  in  condition  again.  In  fish  like 
the  cod,  where  the  fatty  matter  accumulates  specially  in  the  liver,  this 
organ  presents  a  most  striking  difference  in  volume  and  condition  before 
and  after  spawning;  whilst  in  such  as  the  salmon,  herring,  etc.,  where 
the  fat  is  dispersed  amongst  the  flesh,  it  is  the  body  which  affords  the  chief 
•evidence  of  change.  As  the  salmon  enters  the  rivers  from  the  sea,  for  the 
purpose  of  ascending  them  and  depositing  its  spawn,  it  is  plump  and  well 
provided  with  fat.  On  its  return  the  contrast  in  its  condition  is  very  great. 
It  is  now  so  exhausted  and  thin  as  to  be  looked  upon  as  unfit  for  food. 

Young  fish  which  have  not  arrived  at  an  age  for  spawning  do  not 
present  any  variation,  but  are  always  "  in  season." 

After  the  operation  of  castration  and  spaying,  it  has  been  found  also 
that  fish  maintain  a  uniform  condition.  The  operation  has  never  been 
practised  to  any  extent,  but  an  account  of  it  has  been  given  by  Mr.  Tull 
in  the  "Philosophical  Transactions"  for  1754.  The  object  of  its  original 
performance  appears  to  have  been  to  prevent  the  excessive  increase  of 
fish  in  some  ponds  where  the  numbers  did  not  permit  any  of  them  to  grow 
to  an  advantageous  size.  Not  only,  it  is  stated,  was  the  desired  result 
attained,  but  the  fish  that  had  undergone  the  operation  grew  much  larger 
than  their  usual  size,  were  more  fat,  and  remained  always  "  in  season." 

The  flavor  of  fish  is  much  influenced  by  the  nature  of  their  food.  In 
general,  sea-fish  are  better  that  have  been  caught  in  deep  water  off  rocky 
headlands  where  the  current  is  strong,  than  in  estuaries  and  bays  where 
the  water  is  shallow  and  the  current  weak.  As  regards  fresh- water  fish, 
those  which  have  been  obtained  from  deep  lakes  or  ponds  with  clear  water 
and  a  rocky  or  gravelly  bottom  are  far  superior  in  flavor  to  those  obtained 
from  shallow  water  on  a  muddy  bottom.  The  earthy  taste  of  the  latter, 
indeed,  may  be  so  strong  as  to  render  them  also  uneatable,  but  fish 
bred  in  such  water  may  be  deprived  of  their  unpleasant  flavor  by  being 
kept  for  some  time,  before  being  killed,  in  ponds  of  clear  water  with  a 
gravelly  bottom. 

With  reference  to  the  edible  qualities  of  fish,  Dr.  Davy  says:    "  As 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES. 

to  individual  species,  whether  of  sea  or  fresh-water  fish,  there  are  notable 
differences  and  peculiarities,  some  depending  on  the  species,  some  on  the 
qualities  of  the  feed.  Of  the  first  we  have  instances  almost  without  num- 
ber, inasmuch  as  almost  each  kind  has  some  distinctive  peculiarity.  The 
delicate  smelt  has  the  odor  of  the  cucumber  ;  the  grayling  of  thyme  ;, 
some  of  those  of  the  Scomber  family  abound  in  blood,  have  a  compara- 
tively high  temperature,  and  dark-colored  muscles;  others,  as  those  of  the 
Galidce,  of  which  group  the  whiting  is  one,  have  little  blood,  at  least  few 
red  corpuscles,  have  white  muscles,  and  are  delicately  tasted;  some,  as  the 
common  ray,  and  most  of  the  order  of  cartilaginous  fish,  have  a  muscular 
fibre  of  much  firmness  and  power  of  resistance,  yielding  and  becoming 
tender  from  keeping,  and  consequently,  contrary  to  the  general  rule  ap- 
plicable to  fish,  they  should  not  be  dressed  fresh;  and  other  differences 
might  be  pointed  out:  one  kind  abounding  in  oil,  as  the  pilchard,  her- 
ring, and  eel — the  eel  especially,  and  so  luscious  in  consequence — other 
kinds  containing  little  or  no  oil,  as  the  sole  and  ray. 

"  Of  the  influence  of  feed  on  the  same  kind  of  fish  we  have  striking 
examples,  both  in  many  salt-water  and  fresh-water  species.  Of  the  former, 
how  different  in  quality  is  the  herring  caught  off  different  parts  of  the 
coast;  so  too,  of  the  common  haddock.  What  herring  is  equal  to  that  of 
Loch  Fine;  what  haddock  equal  to  that  of  the  Bay  of  Dublin  ?  Of  fresh- 
water fish,  what  a  contrast  there  is  between  the  lake-trout  and  the  brook- 
trout  ! — the  one  well  fed,  well  flavored,  of  the  color  of  the  salmon;  the 
other  small,  colorless,  and  insipid.  What  a  contrast  between  either  of 
these  and  the  trout  of  bog-water;  the  latter  black,  ill-formed,  and  ill- 
tasted.  What  a  contrast,  again,  between  the  trout  inhabiting  a  stream 
in  a  fertile  limestone  district  fed  by  springs,  fluctuating  little,  and  the  in- 
dwellers  of  the  mountain-stream  of  a  primitive  country,  subject  to  great 
fluctuations — one  day  a  raging  torrent,  in  a  brief  space  run  out  and  all 
but  dried  up.  As  with  other  animals,  whether  beast  or  bird,  domestic  or 
wild,  much,  we  know,  as  to  their  quality  depends  on  their  feed,  its  kind, 
and  quantity,  and  so  with  fish.  Of  these  the  paradoxical  sturgeon  may 
be  mentioned  as  another  and  very  striking  example;  by  the  Norwegians, 
we  are  informed  by  Block,  it  is  even  designated  after  the  fish  on  which,, 
from  its  flavor,  it  is  supposed  to  have  fed,  as  the  mackerel-sturgeon,  her- 
ring-sturgeon, etc. 

"Other  circumstances  besides  food,  no  doubt,  have  likewise  an  effect 
— all  which  anywise  influence  the  health,  such  as  climate,  air,  water,  etc.  ; 
nor  amongst  these  should  age  be  omitted.  This  last,  in  the  instance  of 
fish,  and  of  fish  only,  is  little  thought  of  at  home;  and  it  may  be  because, 
in  our  well-fished  seas,  rivers,  and  lakes,  few  fish  are  allowed  to  reach  a 
very  advanced  age;  but  not  so  in  the  tropical  seas,  where  there  is  not  the 
same  activity  practised  in  the  capture  of  fish;  there  it  is  not  uncommon  to 
be  helped  at  table  to  an  old  fish,  and  to  have  its  hardness  and  toughness 
explained  by  one's  experienced  host  by  reference  to  age."* 

The  turbot  is  a  fish  which  improves  in  flavor  and  tenderness  by  keep- 
ing for  a  little  time  before  being  dressed.  Trout  and  salmon  cannot  be 
sent  to  table  too  soon  after  being  caught.  Eaten  immediately  after  be- 
ing killed,  they  possess  a  delicate  sweet  flavor  which  quickly  disappears 
on  keeping.  It  is  thus  impossible  to  have  trout,  in  particular,  in  the  same 
state  of  perfection  at  a  distance  from  the  stream  where  they  are  caught 
as  on  the  spot  itself. 

*   The  Angler  and  His  Friend,  by  John  Davy,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  p.  117.  London,  1855. 


110 


A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 


What  is  called  the  roe  of  fish  constitutes  the  reproductive  secreting 
organs,  which  attain  a  very  large  size,  and  render  the  animals  exceedingly 
prolific.  The  hard  roe  belongs  to  the  female,  and  is  formed  by  the  ovary. 
The  soft  roe  or  milt  belongs  to  the  male,  and  is  formed  by  the  spermatic 
organ.  Both  are  eaten.  The  parts  belonging  to  the  male  cod  are  used 
as  a  garnish  to  the  fish  when  served. 

Caviare  is  the  hard  roe  of  the  sturgeon  preserved  by  salting.  It  is 
pretty  extensively  employed  as  a  common  food  in  Russia,  but  in  this  coun- 
try is  consumed  only  as  a  relish  at  the  table  of  the  rich,  the  mode  of  serv- 
ing it  being  on  dry  toast. 

Cod  sounds  represent  the  swimming-bladder  of  the  animal.  They  are 
dried  and  eaten  separately.  The  swimming-bladder  of  the  sturgeon,  in 
particular,  also  yields  the  well-known  article,  isinglass. 

The  processes  of  drying,  salting,  smoking,  and  pickling  are  employed 
for  the  preservation  of  fish.  Each  process  considerably  lessens  the  di- 
gestibility of  the  article,  and  fish  so  prepared  are,  therefore,  unsuited  for 
the  dyspeptic  and  invalid. 

SHELL-FISH. — Shell-fish  are  derived  from  both  the  crustacean  and  mol- 
luscous tribes  of  animals.  They  yield  a  less  nutritive  kind  of  food  than 
that  which  has  been  already  considered,  but  must  nevertheless  be  looked 
upon  as  holding  a  position  of  considerable  importance  in  an  alimentary 
point  of  view. 

Shell-fish,  taken  altogether,  are  more  indigestible  and  apt  to  upset  the 
stomach  than  other  kinds  of  animal  food.  Whether  from  idiosyncrasy  on 
the  part  of  the  person  affected,  as  is  doubtless  often  the  case,  or  from  nox- 
ious properties  in  the  particular  animals  eaten,  shell-fish  not  unfrequently 
produce  urgent  symptoms  of  derangement.  Sometimes  the  symptoms 
are  those  of  gastro-intestinal  irritation,  as,  for  instance,  nausea,  vomiting, 
colic,  cramps,  and  purging.  Sometimes  an  eruptive  disorder  of  the  skin, 
and  more  particularly  nettle-rash,  is  induced.  So  strong,  indeed,  is  the 
tendency  in  some  for  such  affection  of  the  skin  to  be  developed,  that  it  is 
occasionally  found  necessary  to  scrupulously  exclude  shell-fish  from  the 
diet.  At  other  times  giddiness  and  other  symptoms  of  disorder  of  the 
nervous  system,  as  paralysis,  coma,  and  convulsions,  have  been  noticed, 
and  instances  of  death  have  been  known  to  occur. 

The  crustaceans  commonly  eaten  consist  of  the  lobster,  crab,  crawfish, 
shrimp,  and  prawn.  They  are  all  regarded  as  choice  articles  of  food.  The 
flesh  belonging  to  them  is  white  and  firm. 

Composition  of  the  Edible  Poi'tions  of  the  Lobster  (Payeu). 


Flesh. 

Soft  internal 
substance. 

Spawn. 

Nitrogenous  matter,      

19.170 

12.140 

21.892 

Fatty  matter,      

1.170 

1.444 

8.234 

Mineral  matter,        

1.823 

1.749 

1.998 

Non-nitrogenous  matter  and  loss, 
Water  

1.219 
76.618 

0.354 
84.313 

4.893 
62,983 

100.000 

100.000 

100.000 

ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  Ill 

The  lobster  occupies  a  higher  position  in  public  estimation  than  the 
crab.  The  flesh  of  the  two  is  much  alike,  but  the  flavor  is  different,  that 
of  the  lobster  being  the  more  delicate,  and  apparently  the  least  likely  to 
disagree. 

The  female,  or  hen-lobster  as  it  is  called,  is  in  special  request  for 
making  sauce,  for  the  sake  of  the  spawn  or  eggs  belonging  to  it.  These 
are  attached  beneath  the  tail,  and  consist  of  little  round  bodies.  They  are 
black  in  their  natural  state,  but  become  of  a  bright  red  on  boiling.  They 
are  pounded  and  mixed  with  the  sauce,  and  thus  give  it  after  boiling  the 
desired  red  color,  as  well  as  some  amount  of  flavor.  There  is  another 
part  inside  the  animal  which  becomes  of  a  bright  red  color  on  boiling. 
This  is  called  the  coral.  It  consists  of  the  ovary,  and  is  used  for  gar- 
nishing. 

The  flesh  of  the  lobster  is  mainly  found  in  the  tail  and  claws.  That 
of  the  claws  is  more  tender,  delicate,  and  digestible  than  that  of  the  tail, 
which  is  firmer  and  closer. 

The  thorny  or  spiny  lobster,  or  sea-crawfish,  is  sometimes  substituted 
for  the  ordinary  lobster.  It  eats  much  like  it,  but  is,  perhaps,  rather 
inferior  in  flavor  and  tenderness. 

The  flesh  belonging  to  the  claws  of  the  crab  is  far  less  likely  to  disa- 
gree with  the  stomach  than  the  soft  part  contained  within  the  shell.  This 
is  rich,  and  somewhat  of  the  consistence  of  brain-matter,  a  name  that  is 
often  popularly  applied  to  it,  although  it  really  consists  of  liver. 

The  brancheae,  or  gills,  sometimes  called  "  dead  men's  fingers,"  are  in 
the  case  of  both  the  lobster  and  the  crab  carefully  avoided,  but  there  is 
no  foundation  for  the  notion  that  they  possess  any  deleterious  properties. 

Although  an  agreeable  article  of  food  to  many,  the  lobster  and  crab 
are  not  fit,  on  account  of  their  difficult  digestibility,  for  the  stomach  of 
the  invalid  and  dyspeptic.  They  also  disagree  with  some  persons  pos- 
sessing an  ordinary  amount  of  digestive  power:  producing  a  sense  of 
weight  in  the  epigastrium,  nausea,  and,  it  may  be,  vomiting.  A  cuta- 
neous eruption,  and  other  urgent  symptoms,  have  occasionally  been  pro- 
duced by  these  as  well  as  other  shell-fish. 

Popular  usages  generally  rest  upon  some  substantial  foundation,  and 
the  almost  universal  employment  of  vinegar  and  pepper  as  an  adjunct  to 
the  kind  of  food  under  consideration  has  doubtless  arisen  from  the  advan- 
tage shown  by  experience  to  accrue  therefrom.  Indeed,  the  use  of  these 
condiments  is  almost  looked  upon  as  a  matter  of  course,  and  they  will 
have  the  effect — the  one  of  stimulating  an  increased  flow  of  digestive 
secretion,  and  the  other  of  furnishing  a  certain  amount  of  additional  acid, 
and  thereby  augmenting  the  energy  of  the  natural  secretion.  Thus  in- 
creased power  will  be  provided,  by  the  agency  of  these  adjuncts,  to  meet 
the  difficult  digestibility  of  the  crustaceans  in  question. 

The  river  or  fresh-water  crawfish  is  obtained  from  brooks  and  streams 
in  certain  localities.  It  is  an  animal  of  only  moderate  dimensions.  Its 
flesh  is  softer  and  more  digestible  than  that  of  the  lobster.  When  eaten 
it  is  rather  as  a  relish  than  for  the  actual  amount  of  nourishment  yielded. 
It  enters  as  an  ingredient  into  Bisque  soup,  and  sometimes  it  is  used 
simply  as  a  garnish. 

Shrimps  and  prawns  are  a  favorite  article  of  food  with  all  classes  of 
society.  Although  they  cannot  be  reputed  as  easy  of  digestion,  or  adapted 
for  a  weak  stomach,  yet  they  are  not  so  likely  to  disagree  as  the  lobster 
.and  crab. 

Of  the  shell-fish  belonging  to  the  molluscous  tribe  consumed  in  this 


112  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

country  some  are  bivalve,  such  as  the  oyster,  mussel,  scallop  and  cockle, 
whilst  others  are  univalve,  as  the  periwinkle,  whelk,  and  limpet. 

Oysters  have  always  held  a  high  rank  amongst  the  deliclae  gulosorum. 
They  are  found  on  various  parts  of  our  coast,  and  are  caught  by  dredg- 
ing, but  instead  of  being  consumed  at  once  they  are  transferred  to  oyster- 
beds  in  creeks  along  the  shore  for  the  purpose  of  being  "  fattened." 
Here  they  quickly  undergo  a  marked  increase  in  size,  become  more 
plump,  and  improve  in  flavor.  Colchester  is  the  head-quarters  as  a  feed- 
ing-ground for  the  metropolis.  Arrived  in  London,  some  of  the  sales- 
men keep  them  for  a  few  days  and  place  some  oatmeal  in  the  water  with 
the  view  of  still  further  improving  their  whiteness  and  plumpness.  The 
small  "  native "  has  the  greatest  delicacy  of  taste,  and  possesses  the 
highest  market  value. 

Oysters  are  a  nutritious  kind  of  food.  Different  opinions  have  pre- 
vailed regarding  their  digestibility.  Seeing,  however,  how  often  they 
can  be  borne  without  inconvenience  by  a  delicate  stomach,  it  may  be  con- 
cluded that  they  are  not  difficult  to  dispose  of,  and  especially  when  it  is 
considered  that  from  the  manner  in  which  they  are  usually  eaten,  viz., 
without  being  subjected  to  mastication,  they  are  rarely  swallowed  in  as 
favorable  a  state  for  digestion  as  other  kinds  of  food.  By  many  the  whole 
animal  is  eaten,  whilst  those  who  are  dainty  over  them  remove  the  outer 
fringed  part,  or  beard,  which  constitutes  the  gills.  Of  the  remainder  there 
is  a  soft  and  a  somewhat  hard  portion.  The  former  consists  mainly  of 
liver,  which  in  this  animal  is  a  very  bulky  organ.  The  latter  is  composed 
of  the  adductor  muscle,  which  serves  to  connect  the  two  shells  together. 
It  forms  by  far  the  most  indigestible  part  of  the  oyster,  and  should  be 
carefully  rejected  where  any  weakness  of  stomach  exists. 

Oysters  are  more  digestible  in  the  raw  than  in  the  cooked  state. 
Cooking,  whether  by  grilling,  scalloping,  or  stewing,  coagulates  and 
hardens  them,  and  thereby  renders  them  more  difficult  of  solution  in  the 
stomach. 

Composition  of  Oysters  (Pay en). 

Mean  of  two  series 
of  analyses. 

Nitrogenous  matter, 14.010 

Fatty  matter, 1.515 

Saline  matter, .  2.695 

Non-nitrogenous  matter  and  loss,    ....       1.395 
Water, 80.385 


100.000    ' 

Though  generally  wholesome,  oysters  have  been  sometimes  known  to 
possess  noxious  properties,  and  to  have  given  rise  to  symptoms  of  poison- 
ing. At  the  time  of  spawning  they  lose  their  good  condition,  and  are 
reckoned  "  out  of  season."  It  is  in  the  month  of  May  that  they  cast  their 
spawn,  which  the  dredgers  call  the  spat.  They  are  now  in  a  poor  and 
sickly  state.  During  the  months  of  June  and  July  they  pick  up,  and  in 
August  regain  their  former  condition.  There  is  an  old  saying  that  an 
oyster  is  only  good  when  there  is  an  "  r  "  in  the  name  of  the  month. 

Mussels  are  consumed  pretty  largely,  but  they  do  not  reach  the  table 
of  the  higher  classes  in  the  same  way  as  the  oyster.  They  are  subjected 
to  a  preparatory  process  of  cooking,  usually  by  stewing  in  their  own 
liquor.  There  is  a  little  tongue-like,  hardish,  dark-colored  mass  belonging 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  113 

to  them  which  is  generally  picked  out,  under  the  supposition  that  it  is 
deleterious.  No  proof  of  this,  however,  exists,  as  many  persons  consume 
the  mussel  whole  without  experiencing  any  injurious  consequences. 

Composition  of  Mussels  (Pay en). 

Nitrogenous  matter, 11.72 

Fatty  matter, 2.42 

Saline  matter,  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .2.73 

Non-nitrogenous  matter  and  loss,      ....       7.39 

Water, 75.74 

100.00 

Of  all  kinds  of  shell-fish  most  frequently  found  to  exert  deleterious 
effects,  the  mussel  stands  pre-eminent.  It  is  well  known  to  the  public  that 
it  is  liable  to  act  in  this  way.  Sometimes  all  who  partake  of  a  prepared 
dish  suffer,  whilst  at  other  times  some  may  be  affected  and  others  escape. 
Dr.  Christison,  in  his  work  on  "Poisons,"  refers  to  an  instance  which 
occurred  at  Leith  in  1827,  in  which  no  fewer  than  thirty  people  were 
severely  affected  and  two  persons  died.  As  in  other  cases,  it  has  not  been 
clearly  ascertained  to  what  the  poisonous  effects  are  attributable. 

Scallops,  cockles,  periwinkles,  limpets,  and  whelks  are  not  of  sufficient 
importance  as  articles  of  food  to  require  any  further  notice  here.  They 
are  principally  sold  in  the  streets,  and  eaten  only  by  a  limited  class  of 
people. 

EGGS. — Eggs  necessarily  contain  all  that  is  required  for  the  construc- 
tion of  the  body,  as  the  young  animal  is  developed  from  it,  but,  as  Liebig 
has  pointed  out,  the  shell  must  be  taken  into  account  as  well  as  its  con- 
tents. During  the  process  of  incubation,  in  fact,  the  earthy  matter  of 
the  shell  becomes  gradually  dissolved  and  applied  to  the  purposes  of 
growth.  Phosphoric  acid,  formed  by  the  gradual  oxidation  of  phos- 
phorus, constitutes  the  solvent  agent,  and  the  shell  is  found  to  become 
progressively  thinner  and  thinner,  until  at  last  it  is  no  thicker  than  a 
sheet  of  letter  paper. 

Various  eggs  are  eaten,  including  those  of  reptiles — as,  for  instance, 
the  turtle — as  well  as  birds;  but  it  is  especially  the  egg  of  the  fowl 
which  is  employed  as  a  general  article  of  food,  and  to  this  the  succeeding 
remarks  are  intended  to  refer. 

The  average  weight  of  an  egg  is  about  two  ounces  avoirdupois,  and 
the  quantity  of  dry  solid  matter  contained  in  it  amounts  to  about  two 
hundred  grains.  It  is  composed  of  shell,  white,  and  yolk,  and  in  one 
hundred  parts  about  ten  consist  of  shell,  sixty  of  white,  and  thirty  of 
yolk. 

Composition  of  the  Entire  Contents  of  the  Egg. 

Nitrogenous  matter,  ....          ...  14.0 

Fatty  matter, 10.5 

Saline  matter,     ........  1.5 

Water, 74.0 

100.0 


114  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 


Composition  of  the  White  of  Egg. 

Nitrogenous  matter,  .         .     •    .         .         .         .  .  20.4 

Fatty  matter,      .         .          .         .         .         .         .  .  — 

Saline  matter,     .         .         .         ...         .  .  1.6 

Water,        .         .         ...         .         .         .  .  78.0 


100.0 
Composition  of  the  Yolk  of  Egg. 

Nitrogenous  matter,   .         .         .         .         .         . .  16.0 

Fatty  matter, 30.7 

Saline  matter,      ........  1.3 

Water, 52.0 


100.0 

The  white  of  the  egg,  as  shown  by  the  above  analysis,  contains  a 
considerably  larger  proportion  of  water  than  the  yolk.  It  contains  no 
fatty  matter,  but  consists  mainly  of  albumen  in  a  dissolved  state,  and 
enclosed  within  very  thin-walled  cells.  It  is  this  arrangement  which  gives 
to  the  white  of  egg  its  ropy,  gelatinous  state.  Thoroughly  shaking  or 
beating  it  up  with  water  breaks  the  cells  and  removes  the  ropy  state. 

The  yolk  of  the  egg  forms  a  kind  of  yellow  emulsion.  All  the  fatty 
matter  of  the  egg  is  accumulated  in  this  portion  of  it,  and  it  here 
amounts  to  as  much  as  30  per  cent.  The  fat  is  held  in  suspension  or 
emulsified  by  the  albuminous  matter  of  the  yolk,  which  constitutes  a 
slight  modification  of  that  of  the  white,  and  is  called  vitelline.  The  yolk 
contains  relatively  a  less  proportion  of  nitrogenous  matter  than  the 
white.  The  proportion  of  solid  matter,  on  account  of  the  fat,  is  consider- 
ably greater.  An  enveloping  membrane  or  bag  surrounds  the  yolk,  and 
keeps  the  fluid  matter  of  which  it  is  composed  together.  Being  lighter 
than  the  white,  it  floats  to  that  portion  of  the  egg  which  is  uppermost, 
but  is  kept  in  position  between  the  two  extremities  by  two  processes  of 
inspissated  albumen,  called  chalazae,  which  pass  and  are  attached  one  to 
either  end  of  the  egg. 

The  quality  of  eggs  varies  according  to  the  food  upon  which  the  fowl 
is  kept.  Certain  articles  of  food  communicate  a  distinct  flavor  to  the  egg. 

In  an  alimentary  point  of  view,  therefore,  the  white  and  yolk  differ 
markedly  from  each  other,  the  one  being  mainly  a  simple  solution  of 
albumen,  the  other  a  solution  of  a  modified  form  of  albumen  associated 
with  a  considerable  quantity  of  fat. 

Reckoning  the  weight  of  an  egg  at  two  ounces,  and  that  one-tenth  of 
this  consists  of  shell,  the  contents  will  furnish  the  following  amounts 
of  dry  constituents,  the  percentage  composition  given  above  being  taken 
as  the  basis  of  calculation : 

Dry  Constituents  of  the  Contents  of  an  Egg. 

Grains. 

Nitrogenous  matter, 110 

Fatty  matter,       .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .82 

Saline  matter,      .  ...          ...       11 

Total  solid  matter,          ....     203 


ALIMENTARY   SUBSTANCES.  115 

Raw  and  lightly  boiled  eggs  are  easy  of  digestion.  The  hard-boiled 
egg  offers  considerable  resistance  to  gastric  solution,  and  exerts  a  consti- 
pating action  on  the  bowels. 

The  egg  changes  by  keeping,  and  certain  devices  are  practised  to  pre- 
serve its  freshness.  The  shell,  being  porous,  allows  of  the  evaporation  of 
fluid,  and  air  accumulates  in  its  place  at  one  of  the  extremities.  Thus, 
an  egg  under  exposure  to  the  air  loses  weight  from  day  to  day,  and  the 
diminution  in  density  indicates  the  length  of  time  it  has  been  kept.  For 
example,  a  solution  of  salt  in  the  proportion  of  about  10  per  cent. — that 
is,  one  ounce  of  salt  in  ten  ounces  of  water — will  just  allow  a  fresh  egg 
to  sink,  whilst  one  which  has  been  kept  several  days  will  switn.  Bad 
eggs  become  sufficiently  light  to  float  even  in  pure  water. 

The  air  which  finds  its  way  through  the  pores  of  the  shell  into  the 
egg  causes  gradual  decomposition,  until  ultimately  a  state  of  putrescence 
is  attained.  With  the  view  of  excluding  the  air,  eggs  are  sometimes 
placed  and  kept  in  lime-water.  The  shell  is  also  sometimes  covered  with 
a  layer  of  wax  and  oil,  or  some  other  kind  of  fatty  matter,  and  sometimes 
with  gum.  By  packing  in  bran,  salt,  or  some  such  material,  they  keep 
longer  than  they  otherwise  would  do,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that 
eggs  easily  acquire  a  taste  from  that  which  surrounds  them.  Immersed 
for  some  hours  in  a  solution  of  salt,  some  of  the  saline  matter  penetrates 
and  tends  to  preserve  the  egg  under  subsequent  exposure  to  the  air. 

Fresh  eggs  are  easily  known  by  their  translucency  when  held  up  to 
the  light.  By  keeping  they  become  cloudy,  and  when  decidedly  stale  a 
distinct,  dark,  cloud-like  appearance  is  discernible  opposite  some  portion 
of  the  shell.  A  little  instrument  is  sold  as  an  egg-tester.  It  consists  of 
a  small  square  box,  with  a  hole  at  the  top  to  receive  the  egg,  and  another 
at  one  side  to  look  into.  By  an  arrangement  of  mirrors  within,  the  state 
of  the  egg  is  seen  when  a  strong  light  is  thrown  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
be  transmitted  through  it.  If  the  egg  be  fresh,  the  image  seen  in  the 
mirror  is  almost  transparent,  whilst  if  stale  it  is  more  or  less  dark. 

Eggs  are  sometimes  noticed  to  break  spontaneously  on  being  boiled. 
This  occurs  when  the  egg  is  suddenly  plunged  into  a  considerable  amount 
of  boiling  water.  The  sudden  expansion  of  the  contents  produced  by  the 
heat  causes  the  shell  to  give  way.  Immersed  in  a  small  quantity  of  water 
only,  the  temperature  is  lowered  sufficiently  to  prevent  any  immediate 
extensive  expansion,  and  then,  with  the  subsequent  gradual  elevation  of 
the  temperature,  time  is  given  for  a  little  fluid  to  be  forced  through  the 
pores  of  the  shell  from  the  pressure  within,  and  perhaps,  for  the  shell  it- 
self to  undergo  some  expansion.  A  stale  egg  is  less  likely  to  become 
broken  in  this  way  than  a  fresh  one,  on  account  of  the  air  which  has  re- 
placed the  evaporated  fluid  admitting  easily  of  compression. 

MILK. — Milk,  an  article  furnished  and  intended  by  nature  as  the  sole 
food  for  the  young  of  a  certain  class  of  animals,  necessarily  contains,  like 
eggs,  all  the  elements  that  are  required  for  the  growth  and  maintenance 
of  the  body.  Holding  the  position  it  does,  it  may  be  justly  regarded  as 
the  type  of  an  alimentary  substance. 

Good  milk  is  a  homogeneous,  opaquely  white,  or  very  faintly  buff- 
tinted  liquid,  which  is  entirely  free  from  any  viscidity,  and  undergoes  no 
change  on  being  heated.  It  has  a  sweet  taste,  and  a  slightly  percepti- 
ble, agreeable  odor.  Its  reaction,  although  formerly  described  as  faintly 
acid,  has  been  more  recently  ascertained  to  be  slightly  alkaline,  or  else 
neutral,  when  in  a  natural  state  and  at  the  moment  of  removal.  A  little 


116  A  TREATISE    ON   FOOD   AND   DIETETICS. 

later  an  acid  character  becomes  perceptible,  and  is  evidently  due  to  the 
effect  of  change  after  removal.  Its  density  varies,  but  1030  may  be  looked 
upon  as  about  the  average  in  the  case  of  cow's  milk.  Although  appear- 
ing homogeneous  to  the  naked  eye,  it  in  reality  consists,  as  is  shown  by 
microscopic  examination,  of  a  clear  liquid  holding  in  suspension  a  multi- 
tude of  little  particles  or  globules,  which  constitute  the  cause  of  its  opac- 
ity. These  globules  are  of  a  fatty  nature,  and,  being  lighter  than  the 
surrounding  liquid,  gradually  rise  to  the  surface,  and  form  the  cream 
which  collects  at  the  top  of  milk  that  is  allowed  to  repose. 

The  ingredients  of  milk  consist  of  nitrogenous  matter,  fatty  matter, 
lactine,  or  sugar  of  milk,  mineral  matter,  and  water. 

The  nitrogenous  matter  is  chiefly  composed  of  caseine,  a  principle 
which,  unlike  albumen,  is  not  coagulated  by  heat,  but  is  coagulable  by 
acids,  organic  as  well  as  mineral,  and  also  by  a  neutral  organic  substance 
obtainable  from  the  stomach,  viz.,  pepsine,  which  forms  the  active  prin- 
ciple of  rennet.  It  is  caseine  which  constitutes  curd  and  the  basis  of 
cheese.  It  is  thrown  down,  carrying  with  it  in  an  entangled  state  the 
suspended  fatty  globules,  not  only  by  the  addition  of  the  agents  men- 
tioned, but  as  a  result  of  the  spontaneous  change  which  milk  undergoes 
under  exposure  to  air.  The  cause  of  this  spontaneous  coagulation  is  the 
development  of  lactic  acid  by  a  fermentative  transformation  of  the  lactine. 
As  is  well  known,  warmth  greatly  favors  this  change,  and  it  does  so  to 
such  an  extent,  that  during  the  hot  weather  of  summer,  milk  very  quickly 
passes  into  a  coagulated  or  curdled  state.  Contact  with  the  smallest 
quantity  of  milk  that  has  undergone  the  change  also  rapidly  induces 
curdling  throughout  the  whole  bulk.  Hence  arises  the  necessity,  as 
has  been  found  by  experience,  of  exercising  the  most  scrupulous  care  in 
securing  the  utmost  cleanliness  of  the  vessels  used  for  the  purpose  of 
storage.  It  may  further  be  mentioned  that,  at  the  commencement  of  the 
change,  an  amount  of  lactic  acid  may  have  been  generated  insufficient  to 
curdle  the  milk  at  the  ordinary  temperature,  but  sufficient  to  do  so  at  a 
greater  heat,  because  the  action  of  the  acid  is  then  more  energetic.  This 
accounts  for  the  circumstance  frequently  noticed  in  household  economy, 
that  milk  may  be  liquid,  and  apparently  fresh,  at  the  ordinary  tempera- 
ture, and  yet  shall  curdle  upon  being  boiled. 

Besides  caseine,  milk  contains  a  little  albumen,  and  a  third  nitro- 
genous principle  in  a  small  amount,  which  has  been  named  lacto-proteine. 

The  fatty  matter  constitutes  butter.  Whilst  existing  in  milk  it  is 
suspended,  as  has  been  already  mentioned,  under  the  form  of  microscopic 
globules.  These  globules  appear  to  be  surrounded  by  an  envelope  of 
caseine  or  albuminoid  matter,  which  becomes  broken  in  the  process  of 
churning  for  the  production  of  butter,  so  allowing  the  incorporation 
of  the  fatty  matter  to  occur.  It  is  seemingly  on  account  of  this  envelope 
that  ether  fails  to  dissolve  out  the  fat  when  simply  shaken  up  with  milk; 
for  if  a  small  quantity  of  an  alkali,  as,  for  instance,  potash,  which  may  be 
presumed  to  dissolve  the  envelopes,  be  previously  added,  then  ether  im- 
mediately takes  up  the  fat,  leaving  a  clear  watery  liquid,  consisting  of 
the  caseine,  etc.,  lactine,  and  salts. 

Lactine  forms  one  of  the  varieties  of  sugar,  and  remains  dissolved  in 
the  liquid  from  which  both  the  curd  and  butter  may  have  been  sepa- 
rated. It  has  a  less  sweet  taste,  and  is  less  soluble  in  water  than  ordi- 
nary sugar,  is  nearly  insoluble  in  alcohol  and  ether,  readily  crystallizes, 
and  reduces  the  cupro-potassic  solution  like  grape-sugar,  but  is  not 
directly  susceptible  of  alcoholic  fermentation.  Alone  it  forms  a  stable 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES. 


117 


compound,  but  in  contact  with  decomposing  nitrogenous  matter  it  under- 
goes conversion  into  lactic  acid,  which  accounts  for  the  sourness  that 
milk  acquires  on  keeping. 

The  mineral  matter  and  water  comprise  the  inorganic  principles  re- 
quired for  the  purposes  of  life. 

According  to  the  analysis  given  in  Dr.  Letheby's  table,  cow's  milk 
contains  14  per  cent,  of  solid  matter,  which  is  distributed  as  follows: 


Composition  of  Cow's  Milk. 

Nitrogenous  matter,  ..... 

Fatty  matter, 

Lactine,       ....... 

Saline  matter, 

Water, 


4.1 
3.9 
5.2 
0.8 
86.0 

100.0 


One  pint  of  milk  of  the  above  composition,  reckoned  at  a  sp.  gr.  of 
1030  which  will  give  9,012  grains  as  its  weight,  will  contain  the  following 
amounts  of  the  several  solid  constituents  represented  in  grains  and 


ounces: 


Solid  Constituents  in  One  Pint  of  Milk. 

Grains. 
Nitrogenous  matter, .....     369 

Fatty  matter, 351 

Lactine,      .......     468 

Saline  matter,    ......       72 


Total  solid  matter, . 


1,260 


Ozs. 
0.843 
0.802 
1.069 
0.164 

2.878 


The  proportion  of  the  several  constituents  of  milk  varies  in  different 
animals,  and  also  under  different  circumstances  in  the  same  animal. 

First,  as  regards  the  composition  of  the  milk  of  different  animals. 
As  it  does  not  happen  that  a  fixed  or  invariable  composition  exists,  it  is 
not  surprising  that  the  analyses  of  different  authorities  should  be  found 
to  vary  to  some  extent.  They  so  far  agree,  however,  as  to  give  marked 
distinctive  features  to  the  milk  of  certain  animals.  The  following  table 
is  furnished  by  Pay  en  as  affording  a  mean  representation: 

Mean  Composition  of  the  Milk  of  Various  Animals  (Payen). 


Woman. 

Cow. 

Goat 

Sheep. 

Asa. 

Mare. 

Nitrogenous  matter  and  in-  ) 
soluble  salts,                    .    \ 
Butter,     

3.35 
3.34 

4.55 
3.70 

4.50 
4.10 

8.00 
6.50 

1.70 
1.40 

1.62 

0.20 

Lactine  and  soluble  salts,  .     . 
Water,      

3.77 
89.54 

5.35 
86.40 

5.80 
85.60 

4.50 
82.00 

6.40 
90.50 

8.75 
89.33 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00* 

100.00 

100.00* 

*  The  correct  additions  here  do  not  quite  correspond  with  the  figures  given,  a  devi- 
ation to  the  extent  of  1.0  existing  iu  the  one  case  and  0.1  in  the  other.  The  soluble 
salts,  which  in  the  above  table  are  grouped  with  the  lactine,  are  in  Payen's  table  put 


118  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD   AND    DIETETICS. 

The  milk  of  the  cow,  according  to  the  above  analysis,  the  most  closely 
approximates  to  that  of  woman,  but  it  is  rather  more  highly  charged  with 
each  kind  of  solid  constituent.  Next  follows  the  milk  of  the  goat,  which, 
taken  altogether,  is  again  rather  richer.  That  of  the  sheep  is  character- 
ized by  its  marked  richness  in  nitrogenous  matter  and  butter.  The  milk 
of  the  ass  and  mare  presents  a  striking  difference  from  the  rest.  The 
peculiarity  consists  of  the  small  amounts  of  nitrogenous  matter  and  but- 
ter, and  the  large  amount  of  lactine  or  sugar.  The  milk  of  the  mare 
forms  the  higher  representative  of  this  peculiarity  of  the  two,  and  so 
large  is  the  amount  of  sugar  contained  in  it,  that  in  Tartary  it  is  fer- 
mented and  converted  into  an  extensively  consumed  spirituous  liquor, 
which  is  known  by  the  name  of  koumiss.  Ass's  milk  is  well  known  to 
form  a  most  useful  aliment  for  persons  too  delicate  in  health  to  bear  cow's 
milk.  Its  prominent  characters  as  an  article  of  food  are  sweetness  of  taste 
and  facility  of  digestion;  and  a  glance  at  its  composition  suffices  to  ac- 
count for  the  possession  of  these  qualities.  It  is  said  to  have  the  objec- 
tion of  being  sometimes  apt  to  occasion  diarrhoea. 

I  have  selected  and  introduced  Payen's  analysis,  but  it  must  be  stated 
that  somewhat  different  results  are  furnished  by  other  analysts,  and  par- 
ticularly as  regards  woman's  milk,  in  which  the  proportion  of  sugar  is 
given  as  considerably  larger,  and  that  of  caseine  smaller,  thus  bringing  it 
in  respect  of  these  constituents  closer  to  the  milk  of  the  ass. 

With  reference  to  the  caseine,  it  is  stated  that  the  coagulum  or  curd  of 
woman's  milk  is  "in  general  somewhat  gelatinous,  and  not  so  dense  or 
solid  as  that  of  cow's  milk,  and,  therefore,  more  easily  digested  by  the 
child's  stomach  "  (Lehmann). 

The  quality  of  milk  further  varies  -in  different  breeds  of  animals.  The 
milk  of  the  Alderney  cow,  for  example,  is  well  known  for  its  great  rich- 
ness in  fat,  and  that  of  the  breed  of  long-horns  is  reputed  to  contain  a 
larger  proportion  of  caseine  than  exists  in  the  milk  of  other  cows.  It  is 
also  a  popular  belief  that  dark-complexioned  women  possess  superior  qual- 
ifications for  nursing  than  fair-complexioned  women,  and  this  view  is  sup- 
ported by  the  results  of  a  comparative  analysis  made  by  L'Heritier  *  of 
the  milk  of  two  nursing  mothers,  aged  twenty  years,  one  of  whom  was 
dark  and  the  other  fair,  it  having  been  found  that  the  secretion  of  the 
brunette  was  richer  in  each  of  the  organic  constituents  than  that  of  the 
blonde. 

Besides  these  variations  in  the  milk  of  individual  animals,  variations 
of  a  certain  nature  are  noticeable  in  the  milk  of  the  same  individual. 

The  fluid  which  is  first  secreted  after  parturition,  is  in  a  very  different 
condition  from  ordinary  milk.  It  goes  by  the  name  of  colostrum,  and  is 
of  a  somewhat  viscid  or  stringy  consistence,  something  like  soap  and 
water,  with  a  turbid  and  yellowish  appearance,  and  a  strongly  alkaline 
reaction.  It  contains  more  albumen  than  caseine,  and  hence  undergoes 
coagulation  on  boiling.  Examined  microscopically,  a  number  of  large,  ir- 
regular bodies  are  seen,  which  consist  of  conglomerations  of  small  fat- 
globules  held  together  by  an  amorphous,  somewhat  granular  substance. 
These  are  called  colostrum-corpuscles.  The  secretion  of  the  cow  remains 
in  this  state  for  several  days — it  may  be  for  a  month  after  calving.  Pos- 

down  at  1.08  per  cent,  for  woman's  milk.  This  is  obviously  an  error,  and  it  may  be 
concluded  that  0. 06  is  meant.  These  figures  have  been  taken  above  and  bring  the 
addition  correct. 

*  Traite  de  Chimie  pathologique,  p.  638.     Paris,  1842. 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  119 

sessing  during1  this  time  a  somewhat  sickly  odor  and  purgative  properties, 
it  must  be  regarded  as  in  an  unfit  state  for  human  food. 

A  marked  difference  exists  in  the  quality  of  the  milk  as  regards  the 
amount  of  cream  which  is  obtained  at  the  commencement  and  at  the  end 
of  milking.  It  has  been  ascertained  by  direct  observation,  both  on  the 
Continent  and  in  England,  that  the  latter,  especially  when  intervals  of 
some  duration  are  allowed  to  elapse  between  the  periods  of  milking,  con- 
tains more  than  double,  and  it  may  be  as  much  as  four  times,  the  amount 
of  cream  in  a  given  quantity  of  milk.  This  appears  to  be  due  to  the  fatty 
matter  rising  upward  whilst  the  milk  is  contained  within  the  gland,  just 
as  it  is  known  to  do  after  removal.  In  this  way  the  last  removed  portion, 
consisting  of  that  which  occupied  the  highest  position,  will  contain  the 
largest  amount  of  fatty  matter,  and  may  consist,  in  fact,  of  a  species  of 
thin  cream.  It  is  important  that  this  should  be  known  by  those  who  ob- 
tain the  measure  of  milk  they  require  in  a  separate  vessel  direct  from  the 
cow.  Of  course,  if  a  whole  milking  is  received  into  one  vessel,  a  uniform 
admixture  will  occur  and  an  average  quality  be  yielded. 

According  to  results  obtained  in  a  series  of  observations  conducted 
by  Dr.  Hassall,  it  appears  that  the  afternoon  milk  of  the  cow  is  richer 
both  in  cream  and  curd  (butter  and  caseine)  than  the  morning. 

Evidence  is  not  wanting  to  show,  as  might  be  anticipated,  that  the 
quality  of  the  milk  is  influenced  by  the  nature  of  the  food.  Our  knowl- 
edge is  still  imperfect  regarding  the  precise  effect  exerted  by  different 
alimentary  articles  on  the  amount  of  the  respective  constituent  principles 
of  milk;  but  this  much  has  been  clearly  ascertained,  that  an  insufficient 
diet  quickly  leads  to  its  impoverishment  in  solid  material.  It  is  nothing 
more  than  might  be  expected  that,  to  maintain  the  milk  in  good  condi- 
tion, a  proper  and  sufficient  diet  must  be  supplied;  and  in  the  case  of  the 
cow,  no  food  can  be  considered  equal  to  that  which  is  yielded  by  the 
fresh  pasture  of  country  fields,  the  plants  of  which  give  a  richness,  sweet- 
ness, and  agreeable  aroma,  which  cannot  be  supplied  by  any  other  mode 
of  feeding. 

That  milk  is  susceptible  of  being  in  a  marked  degree  influenced  by 
special  ingesta,  is  a  fact  with  which  most  people  are  acquainted,  and  many 
familiar  illustrations  of  it  can  be  adduced.  It  is  known,  for  instance, 
that  the  color  may  be  modified  by  mixing  saffron  or  madder  with  the 
food;  the  odor,  by  the  consumption  of  plants  belonging  to  the  cabbage 
and  onion  tribes;  and  the  taste,  by  the  ingestion  of  a  bitter  article  such 
as  wormwood.  Milk  also  is  known  to  acquire  poisonous  properties  from 
the  nature  of  the  herbage  in  certain  localities,  without  the  animals  them- 
selves (cows,  goats,  etc.)  being  poisoned,  just  as  has  been  previously  men- 
tioned may  happen  in  the  case  of  meat.  This  is  noticed  to  occur  abroad, 
and  especially  in  Malta  and  in  some  of  the  districts  of  North  America.  A 
further  illustration  of  the  influence  exerted  by  food  is  afforded  by  the  fact 
that  the  milk  of  meadow-fed  cows,  and  likewise  the  cream  which  rises 
from  it,  is  liable  to  acquire  a  marked  unpleasant  flavor  in  the  autumn 
from  the  fallen  and  decayed  leaves  which  may  happen  to  be  consumed  by 
the  animal. 

Suckling  mothers  have  to  practice  self-denial  in  eating  and  drinking 
for  the  sake  of  the  ease  and  comfort  of  their  infants.  Experience  teaches 
them  that  by  partaking  of  fruit  and  green  vegetables,  or  anything  of  a 
sour  or  acid  nature,  their  milk  is  apt  to  acquire  griping  and  purging 
properties. 

The  medical  practitioner  is  likewise  well  aware  that  medicinal  agents 


120  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

produce  their  effect  upon  the  milk.  Infants  may  be  salivated,  purged, 
and  narcotized  by  mercury,  drastic  purgatives,  and  opiates  respectively, 
administered  to  the  mother.  Sometimes,  also,  medicines  are  purposely 
given  to  influence  the  child  through  the  medium  of  the  milk,  instead  of 
being  administered  directly  to  the  infantile  patient. 

Lastly,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  violent  exercise  and  certain  mental 
states  are  known  to  communicate  pernicious  properties  to  the  milk.  An 
instance  is  quoted  by  Payen  in  which  the  milk  of  a  woman,  the  subject  of 
nervous  attacks,  became,  in  less  than  two  hours  after  each  paroxysm,  mu- 
cilaginous like  the  white  of  egg. 

Milk  appears,  also,  sometimes  to  acquire  specially  deleterious  proper- 
ties from  a  peculiar  change  taking  place,  attended  with  the  development 
of  a  low  form  of  vegetable  growth.  Dr.  Parkes  observes  that  "  Profes- 
sor Mosler  has  directed  attention  to  the  poisonous  effects  of  '  blue  milk,' 
that  is  to  say,  milk  covered  with  a  layer  of  blue  substance,  which  is,  in 
fact,  a  fungus,  either  the  Didium  lactis  or  Penicillium,  which  seems  to 
have  the  power,  under  certain  conditions,  of  causing  the  appearance  in 
the  milk  of  an  aniline-like  substance.  The  existence  of  this  form  of  fun- 
gus was  noted  by  Fuchs  as  long  ago  as  1861.  Milk  of  this  kind  gives  rise 
to  gastric  irritation  (first  noted  by  Steinhof ) ;  and,  in  four  cases  noted  by 
Mosler,  it  produced  severe  febrile  gastritis. 

*'  Milk  which  is  not  blue,  but  which  contains  large  quantities  of  Didi- 
um, appears  from  Hessling's  observations  to  produce  many  dyspeptic 
symptoms,  and  even  cholera-like  attacks,  as  well  as  possibly  to  give  rise 
to  some  aphthous  affections  of  the  mouth  in  children."  * 

In  a  foot-note,  it  is  stated  that  "  blue  milk  is  given  by  feeding  cows 
with  some  vegetable  substances,  as  Myosotis  palustris,  Polygonum  avic- 
ulare  and  Fagopyrum,  Mercurialis  perennis,  and  other  plants  (Mosler), 
but  this  is  different  from  the  blue  color  referred  to  above."  f 

There  are  certain  derivatives  from  and  modifications  of  milk,  viz., 
cream,  skimmed  milk,  buttermilk,  curds,  whey,  condensed  milk,  butter, 
and  cheese,  which  will  now  receive  consideration. 

Cream. — Cream  consists  mainly  of  the  fatty  matter  of  milk,  which, 
by  virtue  of  its  lightness,  rises  to  the  surface,  the  milk  being  allowed  to 
repose  for  some  time  for  the  purpose.  It  contains  some  of  the  watery 
liquid  part  of  the  milk  which  holds  in  solution  the  other  constituents. 
The  composition  of  cream  will  necessarily  vary  a  great  deal  according  to 
its  purity,  or  the  manner  in  which  its  collection  by  skimming  is  effected. 
The  following  is  the  composition  given  in  Dr.  Letheby's  table: 

Composition  of  Cream. 

Nitrogenous  matter,  .         .         .         .         .         .         .2.7 

Fatty  matter, 26.7 

Lactine,      .........       2.8 

Saline  matter, 1.8 

Water, 66.0 

100.0 

*  Practical  Hygiene,  third  edition,  p.  239. 

f  Although  not  strictly  falling  within  the  scope  of  this  work,  it  may  here  be  men- 
tioned that  some  recent  outbreaks  of  typhoid  fever  have  been  very  distinctly  traced 
to  the  milk  consumed.  It  does  not  appear  that  the  milk  has  originally  possessed  nox- 
ious properties,  but  has  acquired  them  by  admixture  with  polluted  water  before  dis- 
tribution to  the  consumer. 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  121 

In  the  six  analyses  made  by  Mr.  Wanklyn,  and  introduced  into  his 
•work  on  "  Milk  Analysis,"  the  amount  of  fat  varied  from  14.1  to  43.90 
per  cent. 

Devonshire,  or  clotted  cream,  differs  from  ordinary  cream  in  being  of  a 
solid  consistence.  The  difference  is  produced  by  its  being  collected  from 
milk  which  has  been  previously  heated  just  to  the  point  of  simmering.  A 
scum  forms,  and  is  associated  with  the  fatty  matter  that  subsequently 
rises. 

Skimmed  milk. — Skimmed  milk  is  the  residue  of  milk  from  which 
cream  has  been  collected.  It  is  simply  milk  deprived  of  a  certain  amount 
of  its  fatty  constituent.  Being  less  rich  than  ordinary  milk,  it  sometimes 
forms  a  useful  aliment  for  a  weak  stomach. 

Composition  of  Skimmed  Milk. 

Nitrogenous  matter,   . 4.0 

Fatty  matter, 1.8 

Lactine, 5.4 

Saline  matter,      .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .0.8 

Water, 88.0 


100.0 

buttermilk. — When  butter  is  prepared  directly  from  milk,  a  thin 
residuary  liquid  is  yielded,  which  is  known  by  the  name  of  buttermilk. 
It  contains  a  less  amount  of  fatty  matter  than  skimmed  milk.  Mixed 
with  other  food  it  is  by  no  means  an  insignificant  article  of  nourishment, 
containing,  as  it  does,  the  nitrogenous  matter,  sugar,  saline  matter,  and  a 
small  portion  of  the  fatty  matter  of  the  milk.  It  is  extensively  used  by 
the  peasantry  in  some  localities,  and  when  not  so  employed  is  turned  to 
account  for  feeding  swine. 

Composition  of  ^Buttermilk. 

Nitrogenous  matter,   .         .         .         .         .         .         .4.1 

Fatty  matter,      .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .0.7 

Lactine, 6.4 

Saline  matter,     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .0.8 

Water, 88.0 


100.00 

Curd. — The  essential  basis  of  curd  is  caseine;  but,  as  this  principle 
undergoes  coagulation  during  the  transformation  of  milk  into  curds  and 
whey,  it  entangles  and  carries  with  it  the  suspended  milk-globules.  Curd, 
therefore,  consists  of  the  nitrogenous  portion  of  milk  mixed  with  the 
chief  part  of  its  fatty  element.  It  constitutes  the  basis  of  cheese. 

Whey. — This  forms  the  opalescent  liquid  left  from  the  separation  of 
the  curd;  it  contains  the  lactine  and  salts  of  the  milk,  and  likewise  re- 
tains a  little  caseine  and  fatty  matter.  It  is  of  some  value,  but  not  much, 
in  an  alimentary  point  of  view.  It  is  frequently,  however,  used  to  ad- 
vantage in  the  sick  room  as  a  drink  in  febrile  and  inflammatory  diseases, 
and  possesses  sudorific  and  diuretic  properties.  It  is  prepared  by  the 
addition  of  various  agents  to  milk,  and  is  designated  according  to  the 


122  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

agent  employed,  as,  for  instance,  rennet  whey,  white-wine  whey,  cream 
of  tartar  whey,  tamarind  whey,  alum  whey,  etc. 

Condensed  milk. — Milk  is  now  to  be  obtained  in  a  condensed  and  pre- 
served state.  It  is  sold  in  hermetically  sealed  tins,  and  thus  circumstanced 
mav  be  kept  ready  for  use,  whenever  required,  for  years.  It  is  found  in  a 
syrupy  or  semi-liquid  state,  miscible  with  water,  and  will  remain  good  for 
some  days  after  the  tin  is  opened.  The  process  of  preservation,  it  appears, 
was  first  successfully  carried  out  in  America,  and  there  the  "  plain  con- 
densed milk,"  or  milk  simply  reduced  from  four  volumes  to  one,  and  sub- 
jected to  a  process  of  superheating,  is  sold  as  well  as  condensed  milk 
to  which  cane-sugar  has  been  added  to  assist  in  its  preservation.  In 
England  there  are  three  kinds  of  condensed  milk  supplied  to  the  pub- 
lic— that  of  the  Anglo-Swiss  Company,  which  is  prepared  at  Cham,  in 
Switzerland  (London  office,  38  Leadenhall  street);  that  of  the  Aylesbury 
Company,  which  is  prepared  at  Aylesbury,  Buckinghamshire  (London 
office,  96  Leadenhall  street);  and  that  of  Messrs.  Crosse  &  Blackwell. 
Each  contains,  according  to  a  report  in  Food,  Water,  and  Air  for  Octo- 
ber, 1872,  genuine  condensed  milk  in  a  perfect  state  of  preservation, 
with  the  addition  only  of  cane-sugar.  *  The  following  are  the  results 
furnished  in  the  "  Report "  alluded  to  of  the  respective  analyses  of  the 
three: 

Condensed  Milk. 
Anglo-Swiss.  Ayleabury.          Blackwelfk 

Caseine,         .        .         .  18.52  17.20  16.30 

Fatty  matter,        .<       .  10.80  11.30  9.50 

Sugar  of  milk,       .         .  16.50  12.00  17.54 

Cane-sugar,  .         .         .  27.11  29.59  27.06 

Ash,     ....  2.12  2.24  2.39 

Phosphoric  acid,  .         .  649  .67  .708 

Water,  ....  24.30  27.00  26.50 


100.000  100.00  100.000 

Lubig's  food  for  infants. — This  constitutes  a  food,  devised  upon  chem- 
ical principles,  to  form  an  appropriate  substitute  for  woman's  milk.  The 
name  of  the  originator  has  been  sufficient  to  carry  it  into  extensive  use  in 
Germany,  and  it  has  also  been  made  widely  known  in  England.  It  is 
composed  of  malt-flour,  wheat-flour,  cow's  milk,  bicarbonate  of  potash, 
and  water,  in  such  proportions  as  to  give  a  representation  of  woman's 
milk  as  regards  the  relation  of  nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous  princi- 
ples. The  following  is  described  as  the  easiest  and  most  simple  way  of 
making  the  food: 

Take  half  an  ounce  of  wheat-flour,  half  an  ounce  of  malt-flour,  and 

*  Amongst  the  correspondence  contained  in  the  Lancet  for  November  2  and  9, 
1872,  some  remarks  are  to  be  found  regarding  the  employment  of  condensed  milk  as  an 
article  of  food  for  infants  brought  up  by  hand.  Whilst  it  is  admitted  that  infants  take 
it  readily  on  account  of  its  sweetness,  grow  plump,  and  appear  to  thrive  remarkably 
well  upon  it,  it  is  alleged  that  the  appearance,  which  depends  simply  upon  an  accumula- 
tion of  fat,  is  delusive,  and  that  they  in  reality  possess  so  little  power  that  they  become 
prostrated  by  diarrhoea  and  other  affections,  and  rapidly  sink  in  a  manner  that  is  not 
observed  under  other  modes  of  feeding.  The  evidence  at  present  adduced  can  only 
be  looked  upon  as  suggestive,  but  the  matter  is  an  important  one,  and  worthy  the  con- 
sideration of  those  whose  field  of  observation  affords  them  an  opportunity  of  obtaining 
and  furnishing  trustworthy  information  on  the  point. 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  123 

seven  and  a  quarter  grains  of  crystallized  bicarbonate  of  potash,  and  after 
well  mixing  them  add  one  ounce  of  water,  and  lastly  five  ounces  of  cow's 
milk.  Warm  the  mixture,  continually  stirring,  over  a  very  slow  fire  till 
it  becomes  thick.  Then  remove  the  vessel  from  the  fire,  stir  again  for 
five  minutes,  put  it  back  on  the  fire,  take  it  off  as  soon  as  it  gets  thick, 
and,  finally,  let  it  boil  well.  It  is  necessary  that  the  food  should  form  a 
thin 'and  sweet  liquid  previous  to  its  final  boiling.  Before  use  it  requires 
to  be  strained  through  a  muslin-  or  fine  hair-sieve,  to  separate  fragments 
of  husks  that  may  be  present. 

To  avoid  the  trouble  of  weighing,  it  is  mentioned  that  as  much  wheat 
flour  as  will  lie  on  a  table-spoon  corresponds  with  an  ounce,  and  that  a 
moderate  table-spoon  of  malt-flour  corresponds  with  half  an  ounce. 

It  is  malt  made  from  barley  that  is  to  be  used,  and  a  common  coffee-mill 
answers  the  purpose  of  grinding  it  into  flour,  which  is  to  be  cleaned  from 
the  husk  by  a  coarse  sieve. 

The  bicarbonate  of  potash  is  added  to  neutralize  the  acid  reaction  of 
the  two  kinds  of  flour,  and  also  to  raise  the  amount  of  alkali  in  the  food 
to  the  equivalent  of  that  in  woman's  milk. 

The  ferment  contained  in  the  malt  leads,  during  the  exposure  to  the 
warmth  employed  in  the  process  of  preparation,  to  the  conversion  of  the 
starch  of  both  the  flours  into  dextrine  and  sugar,  the  latter  of  which  gives 
the  sweet  taste  that  is  acquired.  The  newly  formed  products,  also,  being 
soluble,  accounts  for  the  mixture  being  thin,  and  it  is  a  point  contended 
for  by  Liebig,  that  principles  in  this  state  tax  the  digestive  and  assimila- 
tive powers  of  the  infant  much  less  than  starch. 

ESTIMATION  OF  THE  QUALITY  OF  MILK. — The  quality  of  milk  may 
be  judged  of  by  its  specific  gravity  and  the  amount  of  cream  contained  in 
it.  No  special  skill  is  required  for  the  determination  of  these  points,  and 
hence  the  examination  may  be  conducted  by  any  one  possessing  an  ordi- 
nary amount  of  intelligence.  The  results  given,  if  placed  together,  will 
enable  a  pretty  accurate  conclusion  to  be  drawn,  but  should  something 
more  precise  than  this  be  required,  recourse  must  be  had  to  chemical 
analysis,  which  can  only  be  performed  by  skilled  hands. 

Specific  gravity. — The  specific  gravity  is  ascertained  by  weighing,  or 
more  readily  by  means  of  an  instrument  known  as  the  hydrometer,  which 
when  applied  to  the  examination  of  milk  falls  under  the  name  of  lactom- 
eter. The  ordinary  sp.  gr.  of  good  genuine  cow's  milk  may  be  said  to 
be  about  1030  at  60°  Fahr.  It  varies,  however,  within  a  range  usually 
of  two  or  three  degree  over  and  about  four  degrees  under,  and  is  more 
frequently  under  than  over. 

The  addition  of  water  lowers  the  sp.  gr.,  and  thus  is  afforded  one 
means  of  detecting  this  adulteration.  An  excess  of  cream  also  lowers 
the  sp.  gr.,  on  account  of  the  lightness  of  the  fatty  matter,  so  that  cau- 
tion is  necessary  in  dealing  with  the  evidence  afforded  by  the  sp.  gr.  In 
a  sample  of  milk  examined  by  Dr.  Hassall,  containing  26  per  cent,  of 
cream  (the  usual  quantity  is  from  5  to  10  per  cent.),  the  sp.  gr.  was  found 
to  be  1019,  and  in  another,  containing  80  per  cent.,  as  low  even  as  1008; 
and  that  this  was  due  to  the  cream,  was  proved  by  the  fact  that  the  same 
samples,  when  skimmed,  showed  a  sp.  gr.  of  1027  and  1026  respectively. 
These  form  extreme  and  exceptional  cases,  but  it  often  occurs  that  milk 
which  is  only  fairly  rich  in  cream  will  show  a  sp.  gr.  of  1026  or  1027  be- 
fore being  skimmed,  and  1030  or  1031  afterward.  It  is  better,  therefore, 
to  get  rid  of  this  modifying  element,  and  to  submit  the  milk,  after  being 


124  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

skimmed,  to  examination,  and  if  there  be  then  a  lower  sp.  gr.  than  about 
1027  or  1028,  it  may  be  fairly  surmised  that  water  has  been  added. 

JDr.  Hassall  even  recommends  that  the  influence  of  all  the  fatty  mat- 
ter, and  the  caseine  as  well,  should  be  eliminated,  and  that  the  whey 
should  form  the  liquid  submitted  to  examination,  a  few  drops  of  acetic 
acid  being  used  to  effect  the  separation.  He  gives  the  result  of  the  ex- 
amination of  the  whey  derived  from  forty-two  samples  of  genuine  milk, 
and,  whilst  considerable  variation  was  noticeable  in  the  sp.  gr.  of  the 
milk  itself,  only  a  slight  variation  was  observed  in  that  of  the  whey,  the 
limits  of  the  range  being  1025  and  1028. 

Effect  Produced  on  the  Sp.  Gr.  of  Milk  by  Dilution  with  Water  (Hassall). 

Sp.  gr. 

Pure  milk, ,  .         .  1030 

Milk  diluted  with  about  15  per  cent,  of  water, .         .  1026 

"  "  20       "  "  .  1023 

"  "  35       "  "  .         .  1018 

"  "  45       "  "  .  1015 

Skimmed  milk,  .......  103] 

Skimmed  milk  diluted  with  10  per  cent,  of  water,     .  1027 

"  "  20       "  "       .  1025 

"  "  30       "  "      .  1021 

"  "  40       "  "      .  1019 

"•  "  50       "  "  1016 

Whey, 1029 

Whey  diluted  with  10  per  cent,  of  water,  .         .         .  1025 

"  "          20       "  "  ...  1022 

"  "          30       "  "  ...  1020 

"  "         40       "  "  ...  1017 

"  "          50       "  "  ...  1014 

In  an  examination  conducted  in  my  own  laboratory,  the  following  are 
the  specific  gravities  that  were  given  by  admixtures  of  definite  propor- 
tions of  milk  of  a  sp.  gr.  of  1030  and  water: 

Milk.     Water.  Sp.  gr.  of  specimen.         Sp.  gr.  of  the  whey. 

100+0  .  .  .  .  1030  1027.4 

95+5  .  .  .  .  1027.5  1025.8 

90+10  .  .  .  .  1026  1024 

85+15  .  .  .  .  1024  1022.5 

80+20  .  .  .  .  1022.4  1020.6 

75+25  .  .  .  .  1021.4  1019 

70+30  .  .  .  .  1019.6  1017.8 

65+35  .  .  .  .  1018.4  1016 

60+40  .  .  .  .  1017  1014.6 

55+45  .  .  .  .  1015.3  1013.3 

50+50  .  .  .  .  1014  1012 

40+60  .  .  .  .  1011  1009 

For  estimating  the  amount  of  cream,  the  appliances  known  as  the 
creamometer  and  the  lactoscope  have  been  devised. 

The  creamometer,  or,  as  it  is  often  badly  named,  lactometer,  consists  of 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  125 

a  long  glass  tube  or  vessel  graduated  into  100  measures.  The  vessel  is 
filled  to  0°  at  the  top  of  the  graduated  scale  and  placed  aside  for  the 
cream  to  rise.  The  thickness  of  the  layer  can  then  be  read  off  in  per- 
centages. The  amount  of  cream  varies  considerably  in  different  samples 
of  genuine  milk,  and  no  precise  limits  can  be  given.  It  may  be  said, 
however,  that  if  found  below  5  per  cent.,  a  suspicion  of  adulteration  with 
water  may  be  reasonably  entertained.  The  average  appears  to  be  about 
8  or  9  per  cent.,  but  it  may  amount  to  and  even  considerably  exceed  20 
per  cent. 

A  popular  notion  is  entertained  that  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity 
of  warm  water  to  milk  increases  the  amount  of  cream  yielded.  The  no- 
tion, however,  has  been  shown  by  observation  to  be  entirely  erroneous. 
It  evidently  arose  from  the  circumstance  that  the  addition  of  water,  by 
diminishing  the  sp.  gr.  of  the  milk,  facilitates  and  expedites  the  ascent, 
but  ultimately  the  product  is  even  less. 

Lactoscope. — A  more  scientific  and  precise  way  of  estimating  the 
amount  of  fat  in  milk  is  by  the  use  of  an  instrument  called  the  lactoscope 
This  measures  the  degree  of  opacity  of  the  liquid,  and,  as  the  opacity  of 
milk  is  due  to  the  fatty  matter,  it  affords  an  indication  of  the  amount 
that  is  present.  The  lactoscope  of  Donne,  the  original  inventor  of  the 
instrument,  consisted  of  an  arrangement  for  increasing  or  diminishing 
the  thickness  of  the  layer  of  milk  placed  between  two  glass  plates^  and 
according  to  the  thickness  required  to  obscure  the  light  of  a  candle, 
looked  at  through  the  apparatus,  a  measure  was  furnished  of  the  amount 
of  fat,  which  could  be  read  off  from  an  index  adjusted  for  the  purpose. 

The  lactoscope  of  Donne  has  been  improved  upon  by  Vogel,  whose 
very  simple  contrivance  affords  an  easy  and  speedy  means  for  closely  de- 
termining the  amount  of  fatty  matter  suspended  in  any  given  specimen 
of  milk.  The  apparatus  consists  of  a  half-moon-shaped  trough,  with  two 
parallel  sides  formed  of  flat  glass  plates,  one-fifth  of  an  inch  distant  from 
each  other;  a  glass  cylinder  on  a  foot  and  with  a  spout,  graduated  to  100 
c.c. ;  and  a  small  pipette,  graduated  in  cubic  centimetres  divided  into 
halves.  In  conducting  the  examination  the  measure  is  filled  to  100  c.c., 
with  water,  and  then  a  few  cubic  centimetres,  say  3,  of  milk  are  dropped  in 
from  the  graduated  pipette.  The  mixture  is  well  shaken,  and  the  trough 
afterward  filled  with  it.  A  candle  is  placed  about  three  feet  from  the 
trough,  and  the  flame  looked  at  through  the  diluted  milk,  the  back  of 
the  observer  being  directed  toward  the  window  of  the  room.  If  the  can- 
dle-flame is  clearly  seen,  the  mixture  is  to  be  returned  to  the  measure, 
and  more  milk  added  to  it  from  the  pipette,  and  then  to  be  tried  again 
in  the  trough.  This  is  to  be  repeated,  adding  each  time  either  one  or 
half  a  c.c.,  until  the  candle-flame  becomes  obscured.  From  the  quantity 
of  milk  required  to  be  added  to  the  100  c.c.,  of  water  to  produce  this  ef- 
fect, the  amount  of  fatty  matter  can  be  calculated,  the  following  formula 
having  been  found,  by  comparing  the  results  obtained  with  those  yielded 
by  chemical  analysis,  to  give  the  information  required.  Let  23.2  be  di- 
vided by  the  number  of  cubic  centimetres  of  milk  employed,  and  0.23  be 
added,  and  the  product  will  give  the  percentage  amount  of  fat.  Sup- 
pose, for  instance,  6  c.c.,  of  milk  to  have  been  required,  then  the  fat  will 
amount  to  4.09  per  cent.  Thus: 

23.2 

h0.23=4.09 


126 


A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 


The  following  table  gives  the  results  worked  out,  and  will  enable  the 
percentage  of  fat  to  be  at  once  read  off: — 


C.  C.  of  milk 
employed. 
1        .          . 
1.5    . 
2 

Percentage  of  fat 
in  the  milk. 
.   23.43 
.  15.46 
,         .   11.83 

C.C.  of  milk 
employed. 
14     . 
15     . 
16    . 

Percentage  of  fat 
in  the  milk. 
.      1.88 

.     1.78 
.     1.68 

2.5    . 
3      . 
35. 

.     9.51 
.     7.96 
6.86 

17    . 
18    . 

19    . 

.     1.60 
.     1.52 
.     1.45 

4      . 
4.5   . 
5 

.     6.03 
.     5.38 

.     4.87 

20    . 
22    . 
24    . 

.     1.39 
.     1.28 
.     1  19 

5.5   . 
6      . 

.     4.45 
.     4.09 

26    . 
28    . 

.     1.12 

.     1.06 

6.5   . 

9 

7.5    . 

.     3.80 
.     3.54 
.     3.32 

30    . 
35    . 
40    . 

.     1.00 
.     0.89 
.     0.81 

8      . 

.     3.13 

45     . 

.     0.74 

8.5   . 
9      . 
9.5   . 

.     296 

.     2.80 

.     2.77 

50    . 
55    . 

60    . 

.     0.69 
.     0.65 
.     0.61 

10      . 
11      .. 

.     2.55 
.     2.43 

70    . 
80    . 

.     0.56 
.     0.52 

12      .. 
13 

.     2,16 
.     2.01 

90    . 

100    . 

.     0.48 
.     0.46 

BUTTEK. — Butter  is  the  fatty  portion  of  milk,  and  is  obtained  by  the 
process  of  churning,  either  cream  or  the  milk  itself  being  subjected  to 
the  operation.  The  effect  of  churning  is  to  cause  the  milk-globules  to 
run  together  or  coalesce,  and  thus  to  become  incorporated  into  a  solid 
mass.  This  is  supposed  to  be  brought  about  by  the  mechanical  rupture, 
in  the  first  place,  of  the  envelopes  of  the  globules,  the  contents  of  which 
are  then  permitted  to  become  agglomerated;  and,  it  is  found  by  ex- 
perience that  the  process  is  facilitated  by  being  conducted  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  about  60°  Fahr.  When  the  butter  is  formed,  it  is  removed  from 
the  churn  and  well  kneaded  and  washed  with  water,  to  remove  as  much 
as  possible  of  adhering  caseine  and  other  ingredients  of  the  milk;  and  the 
more  completely  this  is  effected  the  better  will  the  butter  afterward 
keep.  More  or  less  salt  is  added  to  promote  still  further  its  power  of 
keeping,  and  the  quantity  is  regulated  according  as  the  butter  is  to  be 
eaten  fresh  or  to  be  preserved  for  future  consumption. 

The  pure  fatty  matter  of  butter  is  composed  of  a  mixture  of  several 
fatty  principles.  Six  have  been  enumerated  by  Chevreul,  viz.:  Marga- 
rine (pahnitine),  oleine  (butyroleine),  capryline,  butyrine,  caprine,  caproine 
(capronine). 

These  are  neutral  fats,  and  are  resolvable  into  glycerine  and  margaric 
(palmitic),  oleic,  caprylic,  butyric,  capric,  and  caproic  acids  respectively: 
the  first  two  acids  being  of  a  fixed,  and  the  last  four  of  a  volatile  nature. 
It  is  to  the  latter  agents  that  the  characteristic  taste  and  smell  of  butter  are 
due,  although  they  are  present  only  in  small  amount.  According  to 
Bromeis,  98  per  cent,  of  butter  (the  pure  fat)  is  composed  of  margarine 
(palmitine)  and  oleine  (68  per  cent,  of  the  former  and  30  per  cent  of 
the  latter),  and  the  remainder  of  the  volatile  fatty  acid  compounds. 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  127 

Such  is  the  composition  of  the  pure  fatty  matter  of  butter.  Butter, 
however,  as  it  is  obtained  and  furnished  for  consumption,  contains  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  other  matter,  but  the  fat  ought  to  amount  to  from  86  to 
92  per  cent.  Caseine  is  present  to  the  extent  of  from  3  to  5  per  cent, 
only  in  good  specimens.  In  a  bad  sample  there  may  be  considerably 
more.  Some  of  the  watery  portion  of  the  milk  is  retained,  and  with  it 
the  constituents  that  are  held  in  solution.  The  water  should  not  amount 
to  more  than  from  about  5  to  10  per  cent.,  but  it  is  sometimes  found 
in  considerably  larger  quantity.  The  practice  of  beating  up  the  butter 
with  water  before  being  put  into  the  scales  forms  a  process  which 
tells  in  favor  of  the  retail  dealer.  A  description  of  butter  known  as 
"  Bosh "  has  been  found  to  contain  a  proportion  of  water  amounting 
in  some  cases  to  more  than  a  third  of  the  article  (Hassall).  Salt  is  pres- 
ent as  an  admixture  in  all  butters.  In  fresh  butter  the  average  amount 
ranges  from  0.5  to  2  per  cent.  In  salt  butter  the  quantity  should  not 
exceed  8  per  cent. 

Butter  may  be  separated  from  the  above-mentioned  adventitious  in- 
gredients by  applying  heat  so  as  to  melt  it.  The  fatty  matter  rises  in  a 
pure  state  to  the  surface,  leaving  a  watery  liquid  containing  the  other 
principles  present  below.  Its  flavor,  however,  is  much  deteriorated  by 
the  process,  for  the  agreeable  taste  belonging  to  fresh  butter  is  in  great 
part  due  to  the  natural  accessory  matter  present.  It  is  true  butter  has  a 
peculiar  odor  and  flavor  which  are  given  to  it  by  its  volatile  fatty  acid 
compounds,  and  these  will  be  retained  in  the  melted  article;  but  there  are, 
besides,  sapid  qualities  belonging  to  fresh  butter  which  are  due  to  other 
ingredients  derived  from  the  milk  which  yielded  it.  It  is  well  known  that 
the  taste  of  butter  is  much  influenced  by  the  nature  of  the  food  upon 
which  the  cow  is  kept,  and  that  a  delicate  and  agreeable  aroma  is  given 
by  some  pastures  which  is  not  afforded  by  others.  A  decidedly  unpleas- 
ant flavor  (which,  as  previously  mentioned,  may  be  likewise  perceptible  in 
the  milk  and  cream)  is  also  sometimes  noticeable  in  the  butter  made  in  the 
autumn,  and  at  other  times  of  the  year,  arising  from  the  fallen  and  de- 
cayed leaves  which  the  cow  may  happen  to  have  consumed  with  its 
food. 

Fresh  butter,  especially  in  hot  weather,  is  very  prone  to  undergo 
change,  and  in  the  course  of  a  short  time  to  become  rancid.  This  arises 
from  the  nitrogenous  matter  of  the  milk  with  which  the  butter  is  impreg- 
nated acting  as  a  ferment  and  leading  to  the  liberation  of  the  fatty  acids. 
The  more  completely  butter  is  deprived  of  this  adventitious  matter  by 
washing,  the  better  is  it  found  afterward  to  keep;  and,  if  it  be  completely 
deprived  of  it  by  melting  and  agitation  with  boiling  water  it  will  bear 
preservation  for  a  considerable  period,  but  the  process  involves  a  loss  of 
the  agreeable  flavor  which  belongs  to  the  article  in  the  fresh  state.  When 
butter  has  become  rancid  it  may  also  be  rendered  again  eatable  by  melt- 
ing it  and  shaking  it  repeatedly  with  boiling  water  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
moving the  free  fatty  acids;  and,  if  the  melted  butter  be  then  poured  into 
ice-cold  water,  it  is  stated  to  assume  the  appearance  of  fresh  butter.  The 
addition  of  salt  to  butter  checks  the  decomposition  of  the  caseine  that 
may  be  present,  and  thence,  also,  the  change  of  the  butter  itself.  It  is 
upon  this  principle  that  salt  is  used  as  a  preservative  agent,  and  sugar  en- 
joys a  similar  capacity.  Butter  laid  in  syrup  is  said  to  keep  even  better 
than  salted  butter.  Exclusion  from  air  affords  another  means  of  preserv- 
ing butter,  and  simply  covering  it  with  water  renewed  every  day  will 
suffice  to  keep  it  good  for  a  week  and  upward.  Instead  of  water  a  weak 


128  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

solution  of  tartaric  acid  has  been  recommended  by  Breon,  and,  according 
to  Payen,  is  far  more  efficacious.  Payen  states  that  some  butter  upon 
which  the  process  was  tried  with  a  view  of  testing  its  efficacy  was  found 
to  have  retained  its  freshness  at  the  end  of  two  months  under  the  existence 
of  a  temperature  of  from  60°  to  68°  Fahr. 

Butter  is  a  form  of  fatty  matter  less  likely  than  most  others  to 
disagree  with  the  stomach.  This  applies  to  butter  in  a  perfectly  fresh  or 
unchanged  state;  when  rancid  or  when  the  fatty  acids  have  been  liber- 
ated by  exposure  to  heat,  like  all  fatty  matter  in  a  similar  state,  it  is  very 
apt  to  occasion  gastric  derangement. 

CHEESE. — Cheese  consists  of  the  caseine  of  milk  with  a  varying  admix- 
ture of  butter,  according  to  the  manner  in  which  it  has  been  prepared. 
The  caseine  is  coagulated  usually  by  the  employment  of  rennet  (an  arti- 
cle obtained  from  the  fourth  or  digesting  stomach  of  the  calf),  but  some- 
times by  the  agency  of  an  acid.  In  being  precipitated  the  caseine  entan- 
gles and  carries  with  it  the  suspended  fat-globules  (butter)  of  the  milk. 
After  coagulation  has  been  effected  the  curd  is  collected  and  subjected  to 
pressure  in  a  mold,  of  the  future  form  of  the  cheese,  to  deprive  it  as  far  as 
possible  of  the  liquid  portion  of  the  milk,  or  whey.  It  is  kept  in  the 
mould  until  it  has  acquired  sufficient  consistence  to  hold  together,  and 
is  then  removed  and  exposed  on  shelves  in  a  cool  and  airy  situation. 
Here  it  is  kept  for  a  considerable  time  for  the  process  of  ripening  to 
occur.  Salt  is  applied  to  the  surface,  and  frequent  turning  has  to  be 
performed.  Changes  occur  attended  with  the  development  of  various 
volatile  fatty  acids,  and  the  cheese  passes  from  a  comparatively  odorless 
and  insipid  state  to  the  condition  well  known  to  belong  to  the  ripened 
article.  The  larger  the  quantity  of  fatty  matter,  or  butter,  present,  the 
larger  is  the  capacity  for  the  production  of  the  volatile  fatty  acids,  and 
the  more  strongly  marked  do  the  odor  and  flavor  become.  The  caseine, 
however,  appears  also  to  undergo  change,  and  to  contribute  to  the  pro- 
duction of  these  characters.  If  circumstances  exist  which  permit  the 
change  still  further  to  proceed,  an  advance  to  ordinary  putrefaction  oc- 
curs, accompanied  with  the  evolution  of  ammonia.  In  this  pronounced 
state  of  decay  the  taste  and  smell  may  be  such  as  to  be  actually  offensive, 
and  the  article  may  acquire  a  highly  irritating,  and  even,  as  experience 
has  shown,  poisonous  properties. 

Various  qualities  of  cheese  are  met  with,  and  they  are  generally 
known  in  commerce  by  the  names  of  the  localities  producing  them.  The 
quality  depends  upon  the  amount  of  fatty  matter  present  in  the  milk  from 
which  the  cheese  is  made.  In  the  richest  cheeses,  as  Stilton  and  double 
Gloucester,  cream  is  added  to  the  milk.  Cheshire  cheese  is  made  from 
unskimmed  milk;  single  Gloucester,  Chester,  and  American,  from  milk 
with  a  little  cream  removed;  and  Dutch,  Parmesan,  Suffolk,  and  Somerset- 
shire, from  skimmed  milk.  Cream  cheese  consists  of  the  fresh  curd  which 
has  been  moderately  pressed.  It  is  eaten  without  being  allowed  to 
ripen. 

Fatty  matter  gives  softness  and  richness  to  the  cheese,  but,  at  the 
same  time,  renders  it  more  prone  to  change  and  decay  on  keeping.  It  is 
the  poor  and  close  cheese,  such  as  is  made  from  skimmed  milk,  as  the 
Dutch,  Parmesan,  etc.,  which  is  found  to  keep  the  best.  Parmesan,  par- 
ticularly, is  characterized  by  its  power  of  keeping;  and  after  having  been 
kept  for  some  time  it  becomes  of  a  hard  and  somewhat  horny  consistence, 
and  requires  grating  to  place  it  in  a  suitable  condition  for  Consumption. 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES. 


129 


Composition  of  Cheese  (from  Parkes  *). 


Nitrogenous  matter, 
Fatty  matter, 
Saline  matter, 
Water,       .         . 


33.5 

24.3 

5.4 

36.8 

100.0 


Composition  of  Cheddar  Cheese  (from  Letheby). 

Nitrogenous  matter,  .         .         .         .         .         .         .28.4 

Fatty  matter, 31.1 

Saline  matter,     ........        4.5 

Water,       .    ' 36.0 


100.0 


Composition  of  Skim   Cheese  (from  Letheby). 

Nitrogenous  matter.  ....... 

Fatty  matter,     ........ 

Saline  matter,    ........ 

Water, 


44.8 
6.3 
4.9 

44.0 

100.0 


Composition  of  Various  Kinds  of  Cheese  (Pay en  f ). 


Hoquefort. 

Gruyere. 

Dutch. 

Neufchatel 
(fresh). 

Nenfchatcl 
(matured). 

Nitrogenous  matter,  .... 
Fatty  matter,  

26.52 
30.14 

31.5 
24.0 

29.43 
27.54 

8.00 
40.71 

13.03 
41.91 

Saline  matter,  

5.07 

3.0 

0.51 

3.63 

Non-nitrogenous  matter  and  loss, 
Water,  .  .  

3.72 
34.55 

1.5 

40.0 

6.93 
36.10 

15.80 
36.58 

6.96 
34.47 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00  % 

100.00 

Camembcrt. 

Brie. 

Chester. 

Parmesan. 

Nitrogenous  matter,       .... 
Fatty  matter,        

18.90 
21.05 

18.48 

25.73 

25.99 
26.34 

44.08 
15.95 

Saline  matter,      

4.71 

5.61 

4.16 

5.72 

Non-nitrogenous  matter  and  loss, 
Water,       

4.40 
51.94 

4.93 
45.25 

7.59 
35.92 

6.69 
27.56 

100.00  § 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

*  Practical  Hygiene,  3d  ed.,  p.  165. 

f  Substances  Alimentaires,  p.  197  et  seg.    Paris,  1865. 

j  Total  according  to  the  figures  given,  101.60. 

§  Total  according  to  the  figures  given,  101.00. 


130  A    TKEATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

On  account  of  its  richness  in  nitrogenous  matter  cheese  constitutes 
an  article  of  considerable  dietetic  value.  Amongst  the  poorer  inhabitants 
of  rural  districts  it  enters  as  an  important  aliment  into  the  daily  diet, 
serving  to  supply  the  nitrogen  which  is  deficient  in  the  bread  or  other 
kind  of  vegetable  food  which  is  employed  as  the  staple  article  of  sub- 
sistence. By  the  less  indigent  classes,  where  the  meat  consumed  suffices 
to  supply  the  nitrogen  required,  cheese  is  rather  employed  as  a  condi- 
ment, or  relish,  than  as  a  direct  article  of  nourishment,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose it  is  the  more  tasty  kind  of  cheese  that  is  selected,  of  which  only  a 
small  quantity  is  eaten,  and  this  at  the  end  of  the  repast. 

The  digestibility  of  cheese  varies  much  according  to  its  nature.  The 
poorer  and  closer  kinds  of  cheese,  those  which  contain  the  largest  propor- 
tion of  caseine,  require  strong  digestive  power  for  their  solution.  The 
softer,  stronger-tasted,  and  more  friable  kind  of  cheese,  however,  is  by 
no  means  similarly  difficult  of  digestion,  and  it  may,  indeed,  taken  in 
small  quantity,  aid  the  digestion  of  other  food  by  its  stimulant  action  on 
the  stomach.  Toasted  cheese,  no  matter  of  what  kind,  for  in  all  the  con- 
sistence becomes  close  by  toasting — is  one  of  the  most  indigestible  articles 
that  can  be  eaten. 

Cheese,  especially  the  richer  kinds,  is  very  liable  to  form  the  seat  of 
growth  of  certain  animal  and  vegetable  organisms.  The  larvre,  or  mag- 
gots, of  a  fly  (Piophila  casei),  constituting  what  are  known  as  hoppers  or 
jumpers,  flourish  upon  it.  Another  animal  frequently  met  with  is  the 
cheese  mite  or  Acarus  domesticus.  It  exists  in  great  numbers,  and  is  so 
small  that  its  form  is  only  distinctly  to  be  perceived  by  the  microscope. 
The  mould  of  cheese  is  composed  of  minute  vegetable  organisms  belong- 
ing to  the  tribe  of  fungi,  blue  mould  being  formed  b'y  the  Aspergillus 
glaucus,  and  red  mould  by  the  Sporendonema  casei. 

Cheese  is  also  liable,  as  has  been  mentioned  to  occur  likewise  with 
meat,  to  undergo  a  modified  form  of  decay,  attended  with  the  develop- 
ment of  poisonous  properties.  Instances  of  cheese-poisoning  have  been 
chiefly  observed  in  Germany,  but  some  cases  have  also  been  recorded  as 
having  been  met  with  in  Cheshire.  The  symptoms  produced  have  very 
much  resembled  those  arising  from  sausage-poisoning,  viz.,  gastro-intes- 
tinal  irritation  with  great  depression,  and  have  shown  themselves  within 
half  an  hour  or  a  few  hours  after  the  cheese  has  been  eaten.  According 
to  Westrumb,  poisonous  cheese  presents  no  peculiarity  in  its  appearance, 
taste,  or  smell;  but  Htinefeld  says  that  it  is  yellowish  and  tough,  with 
harder  and  darker  lumps  interspersed,  and  that  it  has  a  disagreeable 
taste,  reddens  litmus,  and  becomes  flesh-red  instead  of  yellow  under  the 
action  of  nitric  acid.* 


ANIMAL  FOODS  SOMETIMES  BUT  NOT  ORDINARILY  EATEN. 

The  information  contained  in  the  following  pages  has  been  gathered 
from  numerous  sources,  chiefly  works  on  travels,  and  placed  together  in  a 
collected  and  systematic  form.  It  shows  that  an  almost  endless  variety 
of  animals  are  eaten  in  different  parts  of  the  globe,  and  supplies  what  I 
have  been  able  to  learn  has  been  said  regarding  their  edible  qualities.  In 
the  case  of  some  of  them,  their  consumption  occurs  upon  a  sufficiently  ex- 
tensive scale  to  give  them  a  position  of  considerable  importance  in  an 

*  Christison  on  Poisons,  4th  edition,  p.  642. 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  131 

alimentary  point  of  view.  In  that  of  others,  however,  the  fact  of  their 
consumption  cannot  be  looked  upon  as  anything  beyond  a  point  of  curi- 
osity in  dietetics.  The  statements  furnished  are  authenticated  by  refer- 
ence to  the  works  from  which  they  have  been  taken;  but  instead  of 
introducing  and  repeating  the  names  of  the  works  amongst  the  text,  num- 
bers are  employed  and  a  key  to  them  supplied  at  the  end  of  the  section, 
vide  pp.  142,  143.  Where  the  page  and  volume  of  a  work  are  given, 
these  are  placed  after  the  reference  number  within  a  parenthesis. 

CANNIBALISM. — There  is  reason  to  believe  the  practice  of  eating  human 
flesh  has  not  at  all  times  been  confined  to  the  lowest  savages,  but  it  is 
difficult  to  obtain  much  satisfactory  information  respecting  it. 

There  is  little  doubt  that  our  ancestors,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of 
Britain,  were  guilty  of  eating  human  flesh,  and  St.  Jerome  specially 
charges  the  Attacotti,  a  people  of  ancient  Scotland,  with  preferring  the 
shepherd  to  his  flock  01  (vol.  i.,  p.  688). 

There  have  been  numerous  instances  of  cannibalism  among  people  suf- 
fering from  starvation  in  sieges  and  from  shipwreck,  and  the  evidence  is 
tolerably  strong  that  some  men  belonging  to  civilized  races,  living  in  wild 
places,  have  occasionally  decoyed  persons  to  their  dens  and  eaten  them. 
Andrew  Wyntoun,  in  his  rhyming  chronicle,  charges  a  man  who  lived 
early  in  the  fourteenth  century  with  this  crime  49  (vol.  ii.,  p.  236). 

Lindsay,  of  Pitscottie,  also  relates  that  a  man  and  his  wife  and  family 
•were  all  burnt  on  the  east  coast  of  Scotland  for  the  crime  of  eating  chil- 
dren that  they  had  stolen  away  50  (p.  163).  During  the  horrors  of  the  great 
French  Revolution,  the  heart  of  the  Princess  Lamballe  was  plucked  out  of 
her  body  by  one  of  the  mob,  taken  by  him  to  a  restaurant,  and  there 
cooked  and  eaten  M  (vol.  ii.,  p.  564). 

Statements  are  given,  to  the  effect  that  there  is  something  attractive 
in  the  taste  of  human  flesh  to  those  who  have  been  addicted  to  the  revolt- 
ing practice  of  cannibalism. 

In  the  account  mentioned  by  Lindsay  that  has  been  just  referred  to,  it 
is  stated  that  one  of  the  daughters  of  the  man,  when  going  to  the  place 
of  execution,  cried  out,  "  Wherefore  chide  ye  with  me,  as  if  I  had  com- 
mitted ane  unworthy  act  ?  Give  me  credence  and  trow  me,  if  ye  had  ex- 
perience of  eating  men  and  women's  flesh  ye  wold  think  it  so  delicious 
that  ye  wold  never  forbear  it  again  "  "  (vol.  i.,  p.  688). 

In  the  present  day  the  Polynesian  islands  are  the  chief  home  of  such 
cannibalism  as  still  exists  in  the  world.  The  Tannese  say  to  any  one  con- 
demning their  anthropophagous  habits — "  Pig's  flesh  is  very  good  for  you, 
but  this  is  the  thing  for  us."  They  distribute  human  flesh  in  little  bits 
far  and  near  among  their  friends  as  delicate  morsels.  Cannibal  connois- 
seurs, it  is  asserted,  prefer  a  black  man  to  a  white  one,  as  the  latter,  they 
say,  tastes  salt S5  (p.  83). 

Monkeys  are  eaten  by  the  Chinese,1  the  natives  of  Ceylon,'  the  In- 
dians, the  negroes  and  whites  in  Trinidad,'  the  Dyaks  of  Borneo,3  the 
Africans  of  the  Gold  Coast,3  the  aborigines  of  the  Amazon  a  (p.  485),  and 
the  Indians  of  Spanish  Guiana.4  The  flesh  is  said  to  be  palatable.6 

The  Kalong,  or  edible  roussette  (a  species  of  bat),  is  abundant  in  Java, 
and  valued  as  food  by  the  natives.  The  flesh  is  white,  delicate,  and  ten- 
der, but  generally  imbued  with  a  smell  of  musk.4 

For  the  names  of  the  works  which  the  reference  numbers  in  the  above  pages  repre- 
sent, md6  the  key  supplied  at  pp.  142,  143. 


132  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

The  Lion  is  sometimes  eaten  in  Africa,  but  its  flesh  is  not  good*  (p. 
304). 

The  Canadian  Lynx  is  eaten  by  the  Indians,  and  its  flesh  is  said  to  be 
white,  tender,  and  to  resemble  that  of  the  American  hare.4 

Wolves  are  forbidden  among  the  African  Arabs,  but  are  not  un- 
frequently  eaten  by  sick  persons  from  the  belief  that  their  flesh  is  medi- 
cinal '  (p.  51).  The  mountaineers  of  the  American  Sahara  eat  the  small 
prairie  wolf  (can-is  latrans) 8  (p.  80). 

The  Hudson's  Bay  Skunk  is  eaten  by  the  Indians,  who  esteem  its 
flesh  a  great  dainty.4 

The  Otter  is  eaten  by  Laplanders  and  Esquimaux,  but  its  flesh  has  a 
fishy  taste.6 

Cats  are  eaten  by  the  Chinese  *  (vol.  iii.,  p.  761),  and  in  the  Island  of 
Savu  are  preferred  to  sheep  and  goats'  (vol.  iii.,  p.  688).  Five  thousand 
cats  are  said  to  have  been  eaten  in  Paris  during  the  late  siege  10  (p.  299). 
According  to  the  same  authority,  the  cat  is  downright  good  eating.  A 
young  one,  well  cooked,  is  better  than  hare  or  rabbit.  It  tastes  something 
like  the  American  gray  squirrel,  but  is  even  tenderer  and  sweeter  '* 
(p.  219). 

Although  cats,  like  wolves  and  dogs,  are  forbidden  among  the  African 
Arabs,  they  are  not  unfrequently  eaten  by  sick  persons  from  the  belief 
that  their  flesh  is  medicinal 7  (p.  52). 

Dogs  are  eaten  by  the  Chinese,1  4  9  the  New  Zealanders  "  (vol.  ii.,  p. 
17),  the  South  Sea  Islanders,9  and  some  African  tribes.9  One  thousand 
two  hundred  dogs,  it  is  stated,  were  eaten  in  Paris  during  the  late  siege," 
and  the  flesh  fetched  from  two  to  three  francs  per  pound  38  (February  11, 
1871). 

According  to  Pliny,  puppies  were  regarded  as  a  great  delicacy  by  the 
Roman  gourmands.  Young  dogs,  like  cats,  are  not  to  be  eaten  by  the 
African  Arabs,  but  they  are  not  unfrequently  given  to  sick  persons  from 
the  belief  that  their  flesh  is  medicinal.7 

Wild  dogs  are  eaten  by  the  natives  of  Australia  ia  (vol.  ii.,  p.  250),  but 
in  New  Zealand  u  and  the  South  Sea  Islands  9  (vol.  ii,  p.  196)  the  dogs  are 
specially  fed  and  fattened,  and  European  dogs  are  considered  unpalat- 
able." Captain  Cook  looked  upon  a  South  Sea  dog  as  little  inferior  to 
an  English  lamb*  (vol.  ii.,  p.  196).  Fattened  dog's  flesh  is  a  favorite  food 
of  the  Warori,  an  African  tribe  "  (vol.  ii.,  p.  273). 

The  JSear  supplies  food  to  several  nations  of  Europe,  and  its  hams  are 
considered  excellent.5  The  flesh  of  the  brown  or  black  bear,  which  is  eaten 
by  the  common  people  of  Norway,  Russia,  and  Poland,  is  difficult  of  diges- 
tion, and  is  generally  salted  and  dried  before  it  is  used.80  Two  bears 
were  eaten  in  Paris  during  the  siege,10  and  the  flesh  was  supposed  to  taste 
like  pig  14  (February  1,  1871).  The  Indian  tribes  of  the  interior  of  Oregon 
eat  bears15  (vol.  iv.,  p.  452).  The  Polar  bear  is  stated  by  Sir  John  Ross  to 
be  particularly  unwholesome,  although  the  Esquimaux  fed  upon  it,  and 
apparently  without  inconvenience.5 

Tho  Hedgehog  is  considered  a  princel}r  dish  in  Barbary,  and  is  eaten 
in  Spain  *  and  Germany.80  It  is  frequently  eaten  by  the  sick  among  the 
African  Arabs  from  the  belief  that  its  flesh  is  medicinal 7  (p.  62). 

Kangaroos  are  eaten  by  the  aborigines  of  Australia12  (vol.  ii.,  p.  250)  '* 
(p.  67),  and  their  flesh  is  considered  excellent.4  Soup  made  from  the  tail 
is  reputed  to  be  far  superior  to  ox-tail  soup.4  It  is  imported  into  Eng- 

For  the  names  of  the  works  which  the  reference  numbers 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  133 

land  with  the  Australian  meat  in  sealed  tins.  Three  kangaroos  were 
eaten  in  Paris  during  the  siege.10  The  Wombat  is  eaten  by  the  natives  of 
Australia,12  and  its  flesh  is  said  to  be  preferable  to  that  of  all  other  animals 
of  Australia.4  Wallabies  are  eaten  by  the  natives  of  Australia.5 

The  Opossum  is  eaten  in  America,5  Australia,1"  12  5  and  the  Indian 
islands.  Young  ones  are  reared  for  the  table,  and  the  flesh  is  white  and 
well  tasted.5  They  are  considered  by  the  natives  of  South  America 
equally  as  good  for  food  as  the  flesh  of  the  hare  or  rabbit,  especially  the 
Virginian  opossum.60 

The  Bandicoot  is  eaten  by  the  aborigines  of  Australia  16  and  by  the 
lowest  caste  of  Hindoos.4 

The  Seal  is  all  in  all  to  the  Greenlander  and  Esquimaux.4  It  is  eaten 
by  Kamtschatkadales,4  the  inhabitants  of  the  coast  of  Labrador  "  (vol.  i., 
p.  4),  Vancouver's  Island16' (p.  485),  etc.  Its  flesh  is  coarse  and  oily; 
nevertheless,  it  was  formerly  served  up  at  feasts  in  England,  together  with 
the  porpoise.5  The  liver,  when  fried,  is  esteemed  by  sailors  as  an  agreeable 
dish.4  A  seal  eaten  during  the  siege  of  Paris  was  said  to  taste  like  lamb  14 
(February  1,  1871). 

The  Walrus  is  eaten  by  the  Esquimaux19  (p.  485),  and  highly  ap- 
preciated by  Arctic  explorers20  (vol.  ii.,  p.  15). 

The  Whale  is  eaten  largely  by*the  natives  of  Western  Australia, 
New  Zealand,3  the  poorer  sort  of  Japanese21  (vol.  iv.,  p.  35),  the  rude 
littoral  tribes  of  Northern  Asia  and  America,3  the  natives  of  Vancouver's 
Island18  (pp.  53,  61),  and  the  Esquimaux.3  Blubber  is  used  as  food  in 
Vancouver's  Island,18  and  by  the  Esquimaux22  (vol.  i.,  p.  243). 

The  blubber  and  flesh  of  the  Narwhal,  or  sea-unicorn,  is  considered  a 
great  delicacy  by  the  Greenlander.4 

The  flesh  of  the  Porpoise  was  formerly  considered  a  delicacy,  and  re- 
ceipts for  dressing  it  are  to  be  found  in  old  cookery  books.  The  Green- 
lander  esteems  the  flesh  a  great  dainty,  and  quaffs  the  oil  as  the  most 
delicious  of  draughts.4 

The  Manatee,  sea-cow,  or  woman-fish,  a  native  of  the  seas  of  the  West 
Indies  and  South  America,  is  said  to  be  excellent  eating.4  Dr.  Vogel 
found  the  flesh  very  well  flavored,  and  the  fat  like  pork14  (vol.  i.).  Payen 
states  that  the  flesh  is  whitish  and  good  to  eat,  and  that  the  animal's  milk 
has  an  agreeable  flavor.37 

The  Indian  Dugong  is  considered  good  eating.4 

Mice  and  Hats  are  eaten  in  Asia,  Africa,5  Australia12  (vol.  ii.,  p.  250), 
and  New  Zealand11  (vol.  ii.,  p.  17),  and  considered  delicate  morsels.  The 
taste  of  rats  is  pronounced  to  be  somewhat  like  that  of  birds10  (p.  219). 
The  Chinese  eat  them,1  and  to  the  Esquimaux  epicures  the  mouse  is  a 
real  bonne  bouche.3  Rats  and  mice  were  eaten  in  Paris  during  the  siege.1" 

The  Porcupine  is  reckoned  delicious  food  in  America  and  India,  and 
resembles  sucking-pig.5  The  Dutch  and  the  Hottentots  are  fond  of  it,s 
and  it  is  frequently  brought  to  table  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.'0  It  is 
eaten  in  Sicily  and  Malta,60  and  sold  in  the  markets  in  Rome.5 

The  Agoutis,  natives  of  the  West  Indies,  Guiana,  and  Brazil,  at  the 
first  settling  in  the  West  India  Islands  were  exceedingly  numerous,  and 
constituted  a  great  part  of  the  food  of  the  Indian.  The  flesh  is  white 
and  tender,  and  much  esteemed  by  the  natives  when  well  cooked.4 

The  Squirrel  is  eaten  by  the  natives  of  Australia12  (vol.  ii.,  p.  250),  the 
North  American  Indians23  (vol.  ii.,  p.  250),  and  is  a  favorite  dish  in  Sweden 

in  the  above  pages  represent,  vide  the  key  supplied  at  pp.  142,  143. 


134  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

and  Norway.6  The  flesh  is  tender,  and  is  said  to  resemble  that  of  a  barn- 
door fowl.80  It  is  sometimes  eaten  by  the  lower  classes  in  England*  and 
in  the  United  States,  and  is  said  to  make  excellent  pies. 

Several  species  of  Cavia  are  used  as  food  in  Great  Britain,  Brazil, 
and  other  parts  of  South  America,  especially  the  guinea-pig,  the  spotted 
cavy,  the  long-nosed  cavy,  and  the  rock-cavy.60 

The  common  Jerboa  (Dijms  Egyptius)  is  eaten  by  the  Arabs,  who 
esteem  its  flesh  among  their  greatest  dainties.60  The  Alagtaga  (Dipus 
Jaculus)  is  larger  than  the  common  jerboa,  and  called  by  the  Arabs  the 
lamb  of  the  Israelites.  Many  authors  consider  it  to  be  the  coney  of  the 
Scriptures  and  the  mouse  of  Isaiah.4 

The  Marmot  of  the  Alps  affords  nourishment  to  the  poorer  inhabitants 
of  Tyrol,  Savoy,  and  other  parts.  Three  other  species  are  also  eaten,  name- 
ly, the  Maryland  Marmot,  Bobath,  and  the  Cassin  or  Earless  Marmot.80 

The  flesh  of  the  Beaver  is  much  prized  by  the  Indians  and  Canadian  tra- 
ders especially  when  it  is  roasted  in  the  skin  after  the  hair  has  been  singed 
off.4  It  is  also  used  in  South  America,  and  said  to  be  excellent  eating.80 

The  flesh  of  the  Bison  is  the  support  of  many  Indian  tribes;  it  nearly 
resembles  ox-beef,  but  is  said  to  be  of  finer  flavor  and  easier  digestion. 
The  hump  is  baked,  and  eaten  as  a  great  delicacy.5 

The  flesh  of  the  Buffalo  is  eaten  by  the  North  American  Indians24  (p. 
122),  the  Sumatrans25  (p.  56),  and  the  islanders  of  Savu9  (vol.  iii.,  p.  688). 
Catlin  calculates  that  about  250,000  North  American  Indians  subsist 
almost  exclusively  on  this  animal  through  every  part  of  the  year26  (vol.  i., 
p.  122).  The  beef  is  tough,  dark-colored,  and  occasionally  of  a  musky 
flavor.  The  chine  is  esteemed  good,  and  is  eaten  by  the  common  Italians.* 

The  Camel  is  eaten  with  relish  in  Africa,  and  its  milk  is  believed  to 
neutralize  the  injurious  qualities  of  the  date6  (p.  308).  The  flesh  is  alleged 
to  produce  serious  derangement  of  the  stomach  among  the  Arabs27  (vol. 
i.,  p.  76,  note).  A  camel  eaten  during  the  siege  of  Paris  is  said  to  have 
tasted  like  veal14  (Feb.  1, 1871).  Camel's  hump,  which  is  spoken  of  as  fur- 
nishing in  the  desert  a  savory  dish,  is  to  be  procured  in  a  preserved  state 
at  some  of  the  dried  provision  establishments  at  the  west  end  of  London. 

The  flesh  of  the  Llama  is  said  to  resemble  mutton.60 

Captain  Ross  considered  the  flesh  of  the  Musk-  Ox  excellent,  and  free 
from  any  particular  musky  flavor,  though  the  skin  has  a  strong  smell. fr 
When  lean,  however,  some  complain  of  the  flesh  as  smelling  strong.4 

The  Elk  is  eaten  in  Norway,  Lapland,  and  Sweden,  where  its  flesh  is 
much  esteemed.80  The  young  are  said  to  be  particularly  delicious.4  The 
tongue  and  nose  are  considered  great  delicacies.4 

The  Reindeer  is  eaten  in  Siberia2'  (p.  75),  and  is  the  favorite  food  of 
the  Esquimaux19  (p.  485).  It  is  the  principal  nourishment  of  the  Lap- 
landers. The  tongues  are  excellent  when  salted,  and  the  milk  is  sweet 
and  nourishing.60 

The  sinewy  parts  of  stags  are  highly  prized  by  the  wealthy  Chinese" 
(p.  551). 

The  flesh  of  the  Horse  is  eaten  largely  by  various  nations.  The  In- 
dian horsemen  of  the  Pampas  live  entirely  on  the  flesh  of  their  mares,  and 
eat  neither  bread,  fruit,  nor  vegetables31  (p.  120).  Horse-flesh  is  eaten  by 
the  Jakuts  of  Northern  Siberia28  (p.  23),  the  Tartars  and  natives  of  South 
America,6  and  by  the  islanders  of  Savu9  (voL  i.,  p.  688).  Mr.  Bicknell,  in 
his  paper  on  "The  Horse  as  Food  for  Man""  (vol.  xvi.,p.  349),  mentions 

For  the  names  of  the  works  which  the  reference  numbers 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  135 

fifteen  European  states,  besides  France,  where  horse-flesh  is  eaten.  The 
Icelanders  have  practised  hippophagy  since  the  eighth  century.  The  Rus- 
sians have  always  eaten  horses,  and  in  Denmark  the  people  returned 
to  the  custom  of  their  forefathers  in  1807.  Wurtemburg  was  the  first  of 
the  German  States  to  adopt  the  practice,  and  commenced  it  in  1841. 
Bavaria,  Baden,  Hanover,  Bohemia,  Saxony,  Austria,  and  Prussia  fol- 
lowed in  subsequent  years. 

A  Berlin  newspaper  states  that  there  are  at  the  present  time  (1863) 
"  seven  markets  for  horse-flesh  in  that  city,  in  which,  during  the  first  ten 
months  of  1862,  there  were  seven  hundred  and  fifty  horses  slaughtered. 
No  horse  is  allowed  to  be  slaughtered  and  sold  without  the  certificate  of 
a  veterinary  surgeon  "  "  (1863,  p.  142). 

Hippophagy  was  first  advocated  in  France,  in  1786,  by  Geraud,  the  dis- 
tinguished physician. 

A  meeting  was  held  in  1864,  at  the  Acclimatization  Garden  in  Paris, 
for  the  purpose  of  promoting  the  greater  consumption  of  horse-flesh  as  an 
article  of  food33  (1864,  p.  472),  and  a  grand  hippophagic  banquet  was 
celebrated  with  great  eclat  at  the  Grand  Hotel,  Paris,  at  the  commence- 
ment of  1865,  under  the  patronage  of  the  French  Humane  and  Acclima- 
tization Societies32  (1865,  p.  176). 

In  1866  the  first  horse-butcher's  shop  was  opened  in  Paris30  (vol.  xvi., 
p.  349). 

A  correspondent  of  the  Medical  Times  and  Gazette  (Sept.  26,  1867) 
stated:  " In  passing  along  the  quays  on  my  way  to  the  Marseilles  Rail- 
way Station,  I  was  struck  by  the  number  of  stalls  bearing  the  title  '  Bou- 
cherie  Hippophagique,'  'Boucherie  de  Viande  de  Cheval,'  at  La  Villette, 
Paris.  The  attendants  were  very  civil,  and  told  me  that  they  usually  sold 
at  the  rate  of  two  horses  a  day.  Some  of  the  customers  assured  me  that 
the  meat  was  better  than  beef." 

Sixty-five  thousand  horses,  it  is  asserted,  were  eaten  in  Paris  during 
the  siege,  and  the  flesh  was  facetiously  called  "  siege  venison." 

Mr.  Bicknell  says:  "  I  believe  the  only  European  countries  where 
horses  are  not  used  for  food  with  the  open  sanction  of  the  law  are  Hol- 
land, Portugal,  Turkey,  Greece,  Spain,  Italy,  and  the  United  Kingdom. 
Concerning  the  four  first  I  have  no  information,  but  in  Spain  horses  killed 
in  bull-fights  were  eaten  till  quite  recently,  and  during  the  Peninsular  War 
the  Spaniards  commonly  were  hippophagists.  The  southern  Italians  also 
in  several  districts  preserve  strips  of  the  meat  by  drying  them  in  the  sun." 

On  the  6th  February,  1868,  a  memorable  "  Banquet  Hippophagique  " 
was  given  at  the  Langham  Hotel,  under  the  auspices  of  Mr.  Bicknell. 
The  menu  began  with 

"  Le  consomme  de  cheval  a  1'A,  B,  C," 

and  after  comprising  in  appropriate  order  a  full  list  of  choice-sounding 
dishes,  derived  from  various  parts  of  the  horse,  or  prepared  with  u  huile 
hippophagique,"  ended  with 

"  BUFFET." 
"  Collared  horse-head.     Baron  of  horse.     Boiled  withers." 

Notwithstanding  this  example,  horse-flesh  must  still  be  spoken  of  as 
constituting  in  England  only  canine  food. 

in  the  above  pages  represent,  vide  the  key  supplied  at  pp.  142,  143. 


136  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

According  to  Pliny,  the  Romans  at  one  time  ate  the  Ass.  The  wild 
ass  is  still  in  much  esteem  among  the  Persians,  who  consider  it  as  equal 
to  venison.6  One  thousand  donkeys  and  two  thousand  mules  are  re- 
ported to  have  been  eaten  in  Paris  during  the  siege.10  The  flesh  of  the 
latter  is  delicious,  and  far  superior  to  beef;  roast  mule  is,  in  fact,  an  ex- 
quisite dish  sa  (p.  140).  Ass's  flesh  forms  the  basis  of  the  renowned  sau- 
sages of  Bologna37  (p.  36). 

At  a  banquet  given  by  an  Academician  in  Paris,  having  MM.  Velpeau, 
Tardieu,  Latour,  and  other  notabilities  as  guests,  the  "  bifticks "  and 
"  filets  "  prepared  from  the  flesh  of  an  old  she-ass  were  unanimously  pro- 
nounced, it  is  stated,  to  be  more  tender,  succulent,  and  delicate  than 
similar  plats  prepared,  for  comparison,  from  the  horse32  (April  8,  1865). 

The  Collared  Pecari,  or  Tajacu  (Dicotyles  torquatus),  an  inhabitant 
of  South  America,  is  considered  good  eating,  and  its  flesh  greatly  re- 
sembles pork.  Dicotyles  labiatus  is  also  hunted  by  the  natives  of  South 
America  for  food,4  but  the  aborigines  of  the  Amazon,  who  eat  Dicotyles 
torquatus,  will  not  touch  Dicotyles  labiatus*  (p.  485). 

The  Elephant  is  eaten  in  Abyssinia  and  other  parts  of  Africa,  also  in 
Sumatra.5  Some  steaks  that  were  cut  off  Chunee,  the  elephant  that  was 
shot  at  Exeter  Change,  on  being  cooked  were  declared  to  be  "  pleasant 
meat." 6  The  three  elephants  that  were  eaten  in  Paris  during  the  siege 
were  pronounced  a  great  success.  The  liver  was  considered  finer  than 
that  of  any  goose  or  duck14  (February  1,  1871).  Dr.  Livingstone  writes: 
"  We  had  the  foot  cooked  for  breakfast  next  morning,  and  found  it 
delicious.  It  is  a  whitish  mass,  slightly  gelatinous  and  sweet,  like  mar- 
row. A  long  march,  to  prevent  biliousness,  is  a  wise  precaution  after  a 
meal  of  elephant's  foot.  Elephant's  trunk  and  tongue  are  also  good,  and 
after  long  simmering  much  resemble  the  hump  of  a  buffalo  and  the 
tongue  of  an  ox;  but  all  the  other  meat  is  tough,  and  from  its  peculiar 
flavor  only  to  be  eaten  by  a  hungry  man"34  (p.  169). 

Rhinoceros  is  eaten  in  Abyssinia,  and  by  some  of  the  Dutch  settlers 
in  the  Cape  Colony,  and  is  in  high  esteem*  (p.  92). 

The  Tapir. — The  North  American  Indian  compares  the  flesh  of  the 
tapir  to  beef.6  Although  much  esteemed  it  is  considered  by  the  inhabi- 
tants of  South  America  to  be  inferior  to  beef.80 

The  flesh  of  the  Hippopotamus  supplies  a  substantial  meal  to  the 
African,  and  when  young  is  delicate,  but  when  old  is  coarse,  fat  and 
strong,  being  inferior  to  beef.*  The  young  meat  is  much  esteemed  by 
the  Hottentots  and  natives  of  Abyssinia.4  Dr.  Livingstone  writes:  "The 
hippopotamus-hunters  form  a  separate  people,  called  Akombwi  or  Mapo- 
dzo,  and  rarety — the  women,  it  is  said,  never — intermarry  with  any  other 
tribe.  The  reason  for  their  keeping  aloof  from  certain  of  the  natives  on 
the  Zambesi  is  obvious  enough,  some  having  as  great  an  abhorrence  of  hip- 
popotamus-meat as  Mahommedans  have  of  swine's  flesh  "  34  (p.  39).  The 
hippopotamus  that  was  killed  and  partly  burnt  in  the  fire  at  the  Crystal 
Palace,  a  few  years  back,  was  eaten  by  Dr.  Crisp  and  some  of  his  friends, 
who  reported  that  the  flavor  of  the  flesh  was  excellent,  and  its  color 
whiter  than  any  veal I4  (vol.  i.,  p.  240). 

The  Earth  Hog  ( Orycteropus  Capensis)  is  a  native  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  Although  its  food  (ants)  gives  its  flesh  a  strong  taste  of 
formic  acid,  it  is  relished  both  by  the  Hottentots  and  Europeans.  The 
hind  quarter  is  especially  esteemed  when  cured  as  ham.4 

For  the  names  of  the  works  which  the  reference  numbers 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  137 

The  Armadillo  is  eaten  in  South  America,  and  its  flesh  is  fat  and  ex- 
cellent.5 The  hunters  roast  it  in  its  shell.4 

Sloths  are  eaten  by  the  natives  of  Australia12  (vol.  ii.,  p.  250). 

The  entrails  of  animals  are  consumed  by  the  natives  of  Australia18  (p. 
67),  and  the  Hottentots  consider  them  to  be  most  exquisite  eating36  (pp. 
47,  200).  Dr.  Livingstone  writes:  "  It  is  curious  that  this  is  the  part  that 
wild  animals  always  begin  with,  and  that  it  is  also  the  first  choice  of  our 
men  " 34  (p.  194). 

The  Zulus  are  so  fond  of  carrion,  or  decomposed  flesh  with  worms  in 
it,  that,  according  to  a  letter  of  Bishop  Colenso,  published  in  the  Times, 
they  use  their  word  (ubomi)  representing  it  as  a  synonym  for  their  high- 
est notion  of  happiness36  (p.  424.  October,  1872). 

The  Cuckoo  is  not  an  uncommon  dish  on  the  Continent,  and  the 
Arabs  consider  it  a  great  delicacy.5 

Parrots  and  Cockatoos  are  eaten  by  the  natives  of  Australia12  (vol.  ii., 
p.  250),  and  the  flesh  of  parrots,  when  young,  is  delicate  and  largely 
eaten  in  Brazil.6  Toucans  are  eaten  by  the  aborigines  of  the  Amazon2 
(p.  485),  and  in  Brazil.* 

The  Ostrich  affords  an  abundant  banquet  to  many  savage  nations  of 
Africa,  where  it  is  sometimes  kept  in  a  tame  state  for  breeding.6  Dr. 
Livingstone  writes  that  the  flesh  is  white  and  coarse.  When  in  good 
condition  it  in  some  degree  resembles  that  of  a  turkey40  (p.  156),  but  the 
flesh  is  only  good  when  young,  for  when  it  is  full-grown  the  bird  is  very 
fat.4  Three  ostriches  were  eaten  in  Paris  during  the  siege.10 

The  Spotted  Crake,  or  speckled  water-hen,  is  highly  esteemed  in  France 
for  the  flavor  of  its  flesh,  and  few  birds  can  match  it  in  autumn  as  a  rich 
morsel  for  the  table.4 

The  Crane  was  eaten  by  the  Romans  (Horace,  Epod.  ii.),  and  it  is 
mentioned  in  England  as  being  served  up  as  a  sumptuous  dish  at  splen- 
did entertainments  as  early  as  the  Norman  Conquest,  and  as  late  as  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.  At  the  Enthronization  Feast  of  George  Nevil, 
Archbishop  of  York,  6  Edward  IV.,  there  were  204  cranes,  204  bitterns, 
and  400  heronshaws4i  (vol.  ii.,  p.  171). 

The  JBustard  is  good  eating,  and  much  esteemed  in  some  places.4 

The  Albatross  is  eaten  by  the  aborigines  of  New  Zealand*  (vol.  iii.,  p. 
447);  its  eggs  are  considered  excellent.4 

The  Cormorant. — The  Manx,  like  the  Scotch,  make  a  rich  soup  out  of 
the  blood  of  this  bird42  (vol.  ii.,  p.  220). 

The  flesh  of  the  Gull  is  indifferent  eating,  but  it  is  often  brought  to 
market  in  Roman  Catholic  countries  during  Lent.4  The  eggs  of  the 
Xenia  ridibunda  are  well  flavored,  and  the  young  birds  were  at  one  time 
in  high  repute  in  this  country  at  the  tables  of  the  wealthy.4 

The  Pea-fowl  is  occasionally  eaten,  and  its  flesh  is  reputed  to  be  good, 
but  the  beauty  of  the  peacock's  plumage  renders  it  too  valuable  a  bird  to 
form  an  ordinary  article  of  food.  In  olden  times  the  peacock  occupied 
its  place  at  the  table  as  one  of  the  dishes  in  the  second  course  at  every 
great  feast. 

The  Pelican  is  eaten  by  the  natives  of  Australia12  (vol.  ii.,  p.  251). 

Penguins  are  eaten  by  the  aborigines  of  New  Zealand*  (vol.  iii.,  p. 
447). 

Sloans  were  eaten  by  the  ancients,  and  often  appeared  of  old  at  great 
banquets  in  England.  They  are  eaten  by  the  natives  of  Australia12  (vol. 

in  the  above  pages  represent,  vide  the  key  supplied  at  pp.  142,  143. 


138  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

ii.,  p.  251),  and  the  flesh  of  the  cygnet,  which  is  said  to  have  a  flavor  re- 
sembling both  the  goose  and  the  hare,  is  still  considered  a  delicacy  in 
Europe.4 

lairds'  Nests  of  a  special  kind  are  an  article  of  food  much  prized  in 
China,  on  account  of  the  nutritive  properties  which  they  are  supposed  to 
possess.  They  are  of  a  gelatinous  nature,  and  chiefly  used  for  making 
soup.  They  are  furnished  by  several  species  of  swallow,  and  are  found 
in  the  caverns  on  the  sea-shore  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago.  It  has  been 
ascertained  that  they  in  great  part  consist  of  a  peculiar  mucus  which  this 
bird  secretes  and  discharges  from  its  mouth  in  great  abundance.  The 
nests  adhere  to  the  rock,  and  are  collected  after  the  young  are  fledged, 
with  the  help  of  ladders  or  ropes.  The  cleansing  of  the  nests  for  the 
markets  is  a  long  and  tedious  process,  and  a  number  of  persons  are  em- 
ployed at  Canton  in  conducting  the  operation*7  (p.  162).  The  prepared 
article,  which  has  the  appearance  of  dried  gelatinous-looking  fragments, 
is  to  be  purchased  in  some  of  the  London  shops. 

Lizards  are  eaten  by  the  Chinese*  (vol.  iii.,  p.  761),  the  Bushmen*  (p. 
38),  and  the  natives  of  Australia13  (vol.  ii.,  p.  250). 

The  Iguana  inhabits  South  America  and  the  West  Indies,  where  it 
is  esteemed  a  delicate  food,4  although  it  has  been  usually  considered 
unwholesome89  (vol.  ix.,  p.  724).  Its  eggs  are  nutritious  and  agree- 
able.80 Amblyrhynchus,  a  genus  of  lizard  resembling  the  iguana,  found 
in  the  Galapagos  Islands,  is  esteemed  by  the  natives  a  delicate  kind  of 
food.4 

The  crested  Jlasilisk,  which  is  upwards  of  three  feet  in  length,  is  eaten 
by  the  inhabitants  of  Amboynaand  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago. 
Its  flesh  is  as  white  and  delicate  as  that  of  a  chicken.4 

Snakes  are  eaten  by  the  Chinese,1  the  natives  of  Australia12  (vol.  ii.,  p. 
250),  and  by  those  of  many  other  countries,  but  the  flesh  is  reckoned 
unwholesome,  and  liable  to  occasion  leprosy3  (p.  197).  A  nutritious 
broth  for  invalids  is  made,  in  some  places,  from  the  flesh  of  the  poisonous 
viper39  (vol.  ix.,  p.  724). 

Land  Tortoises  are  eaten  by  the  natives  of  the  Amazon2  (p.  485),  o.1" 
India,4  of  South  Africa,40  and  by  the  North  American  Indians4*  (part  1, 
p.  65).  Payen  considers  the  flesh  of  the  tortoise  a  wholesome  food,37  and 
Dr.  Livingstone  found  it  a  very  agreeable  dish40  (p.  135).  It  is  said  to 
resemble  veal.40 

The  flesh  of  the  Marine  Turtle  is  largely  eaten  and  highly  esteemed 
where  the  animal  is  captured,  besides  yielding  in  this  country  the  choicest 
of  soups. 

The  Fresh  Water  Turtle,  abounds  in  the  marshes  of  Provence,  on  the 
shores  of  the  Rhone,  and  in  Sardinia,37  and  is  eaten  by  the  inhabitants, 
as  it  is  by  the  natives  of  Australia12  (vol.  ii.,  p.  250).  The  flesh  of  the 
Trionyx  Ferox  is  considered  very  delicate  food,  and  on  the  coasts  of 
North  America  it  is  angled  for  with  a  hook  and  line  baited  with  small 
fish.* 

The  Crocodile  is  eaten  and  relished  by  the  natives  of  parts  of  Africa* 
(p.  379)  and  Australia.3  Dr.  Livingstone  writes:  "To  us  the  idea  of 
tasting  the  musky-scented,  fishy-looking  flesh  carried  the  idea  of  canni- 
balism." 34  (p.  452).  The  eggs  are  dug  out  of  the  ground  and  devoured 
by  the  natives.  Dr.  Livingstone  says  of  them:  "In  taste  they  resemble 
hens'  eggs,  with  perhaps  a  smack  of  custard,  and  would  be  as  highly  rel- 

For  the  names  of  the  works  which  the  reference  numbers 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES. 

ished  by  whites  as  by  blacks,  were  it  not  for  their  unsavory  origin  in 
men-eaters  "  34  (p.  443). 

Frogs  are  eaten  by  the  Chinese9  (vol.  iii.,  p.  761),  the  natives  of  Aus- 
tralia12 (vol.  ii.,  p.  250),  and  many  other  countries.  The  Rana  esculent  a, 
is  highly  prized  in  France  for  its  hind  legs,  which  form  the  part  eaten, 
and  these  may  be  seen  sometimes  skewered  together  in  the  windows  of 
some  of  the  provision  establishments  in  Paris. 

Attempts  have  been  made  at  different  times  to  acclimatize  the  Rana 
esculenta  in  England,  and  apparently  with  some  success  in  Cambridge- 
shire, where  it  is  said  their  very  remarkable  and  sonorous  croak  has  pro- 
cured for  them  the  name  of  the  "  Cambridgeshire  nightingales"  81  (vol. 
x.,  pp.  483,  520).  The  Rana  taurina,  or  bull-frog,  is  a  native  of  North 
America,  and  is  thought  by  the  Americans  to  rival  turtle39  (vol.  ix.,  p. 
724).  This  large  eatable  frog  has  been  recently  introduced  into  France 
by  the  Societe  d' Acclimatisation.37  A  large  frog  called  Matlamttilo  is 
eaten  by  the  South  Africans,  which,  when  cooked,  looks  like  a  chicken4* 
(p.  42). 

The  Toad  is  eaten  by  the  negroes5  (p.  439),  and  a  species  called  Rana 
bombina  is  eaten  in  some  places  like  a  fish39  (vol.  ix.). 

The  Axolotl  of  Mexico  is  esteemed  an  agreeable  article  of  food,  dressed 
like  stewed  eels.4 

The  Mud  J£el  (Lepidosiren)  is  eaten  by  the  natives  of  the  river  Gambia. 
It  has  a  rich,  oily  flavor,  and  when  fried  tastes  like  an  eel.3 

The  flesh  of  the  Sicord-fish  (Ziphias  platypterus  of  Shaw)  was  known 
in  early  times  as  an  article  of  food,  and  its  fame  is  not  undeserved.  The 
flesh  near  the  vertebrae  is  pale  salmon-colored,  and  any  epicure  of  fish 
might  be  recommended  to  try  a  cutlet  from  it.  Lower  down  it  is  red 
and  like  coarse  beef43  (new  series,  vol.  vii.,  1873,  p.  32). 

A  species  of  Scarits,  or  parrot-fish,  was  highly  esteemed  by  the  Ro- 
man epicures,  and  the  Greeks  still  consider  it  to  be  a  fish  of  exquisite 
flavor.  * 

Sharks  are  eaten  by  the  Gold  Coast  negroes1  (pp.  220,  224)  and  the 
natives  of  New  Zealand11  (vol.  ii.,  p.  43),  but  not  by  the  natives  of  Western 
Australia.3  The  natives  of  the  Polynesian  Islands  feast  on  them  in  a  raw 
state,  and  gorge  themselves  so  as  to  occasion  vomiting.* 

Dr.  Hector  writes  as  follows  of  edible  sharks:  "The  Maoris  are  large 
consumers  of  sharks,  or  mango,  as  they  term  them,  of  various  species,  but 
chiefly  the  Smooth-hound  (Mustellus  antarcticus),  Dog-fish  of  two  species 
(Scyttium  laticeps  and  Acanthias  vulgaris),  and  the  Tope  ( Galeus  canis). 
All  of  these  may  be  seen  at  certain  seasons,  at  any  Maori  settlement  by 
the  sea-side,  hanging  on  poles  to  dry  in  thousands,  and  rendering  the 
neighborhood  extremely  unpleasant.  The  species  most  valued  is,  how- 
ever, the  smooth-hound,  which  is  the  only  shark  that  is  properly  edible, 
as  it  lives  on  shell-fish  and  crabs,  and  has  the  same  clean-feeding  habits 
as  the  skate.  In  the  Hebrides  and  north  of  Scotland  the  flesh  of  this 
harmless  little  shark  is  considered  to  be  a  great  delicacy,  but  I  have 
never  heard  of  its  being  eaten  by  the  white  settlers  in  the  colony  "  "  (p. 
120).  The  fins  of  sharks  are  highly  prized  by  the  wealthy  Chinese"  (p. 
551). 

Spiders  are  eaten  by  the  Bushmen,  and  by  the  inhabitants  of  New 
Caledonia'  (p.  315). 

Several  species  of  Beetles  are  eaten  by  women  of  different  nations,  iu 

in  the  above  pages  represent,  vide  the  key  supplied  at  pp.  142,  14B. 


140  A   TKEAT1SE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

the  belief  that  they  will  cause  them  to  grow  fat  and  become  prolific  in 
•childbearing. 

The  Blaps  sulcata  is  eaten,  cooked  with  butter,  by  the  Egyptian 
women,4  who  also  eat  the  Scarabceus  sacer  to  make  themselves  be- 
come prolific48  (vol.  iii.,  p.  129).  The  women  of  Arabia  and  Turkey  eat 
a  species  of  tenebrio  fried  in  butter,  to  make  themselves  plump 3B 
^vol.  iii.). 

Grasshoppers  are  eaten  by  the  Bushmen3  (p.  38). 

Locusts  are  eaten  in  great  quantities,  both  fresh  and  salted39  (vol.  ix., 
p.  727).  They  have  a  strongly  vegetable  taste,  the  flavor  varying  with 
the  plants  on  which  they  feed.  Dr.  Livingstone  considered  them  palata- 
ble when  roasted40  (p.  42).  They  are  eaten  by  the  Persians,  Egyptians, 
and  Arabians,48  the  Bushmen,3  and  North  American  Indians43  (part  1,  p. 
65),  and  by  many  others.  Diodorus  Siculus  and  Ludolphus  both  refer  to  a 
race  of  people  in  ^Ethiopia  supporting  themselves  upon  locusts.48  Ludol- 
phus remarks:  "  For  it  is  a  very  sweet  and  wholesome  sort  of  dyet,  by 
means  of  which  a  certain  Portuguez  garrison  in  India,  that  was  ready 
to  yield  for  want  of  provision,  held  out  till  it  was  relieved  another 
way."  Madden  states  in  his  "  Travels ":  "The  Arabs  make  a  sort  of 
bread  of  locusts.  They  dry  them  and  grind  them  to  powder,  then  mix 
this  powder  with  water,  forming  them  into  round  cakes,  which  serve  for 
bread." 

White  Ants  are  eaten  by  the  natives  of  Australia12  (vol.  ii.,  p.  250), 
and  by  those  on  the  banks  of  the  Zonga,  where  they  are  highly  appreci- 
ated'4 (p.  465). . 

Bees  are  eaten  by  various  peoples  48  (vol.  iii.),  and  the  Moors  in  West 
Barbary  esteem  the  honeycomb,  with  young  bees  in  it,  as  delicious;  but 
by  one  witness  it  has  been  spoken  of  as  insipid  to  his  palate,  and  as  hav- 
ing sometimes  given  him  heartburn3'  (vol.  ix.,  p.  727). 

Moths  of  several  varieties  are  eaten  by  the  natives  of  Australia18  (vol. 
ii.,  p.  250);  one  species,  called  Bugong,  is  said  to  be  more  prized  by  the 
Australian  than  any  other  sort  of  food.  The  bodies  of  these  insects,  it  is 
stated,  are  large,  and  contain  a  quantity  of  oil;  they  are  sought  after  as 
a  luscious  and  fattening  food.12  48 

The  Cicada,  an  insect  of  the  homopterous  group,  was  eaten  by  the 
Greeks,4  and  Pinto  mentions  a  people  who  used  Flies  as  an  article  of 
food.4' 

The  Larvae  of  Ants  are  eaten  by  the  Bushmen"  (p.  38).  Scopoli 
speaks  of  the  larvae  of  the  Musca  jmtris  as  a  dainty.48  ^Elian  mentions 
the  circumstance  of  an  Indian  king  treating  some  of  his  Grecian  guests 
with  the  larvae  of  an  insect  instead  of  food.48  The  larvae  of  the  Cerambyx 
heros  is  believed  to  be  the  Cossus  of  the  ancients,  by  whom  it  was  consid- 
ered a  great  dainty.4 

Caterpillars  were  eaten  by  the  ancient  Romans,  and  are  in  high  esti- 
mation among  the  natives  of  South  Africa48  40  (p.  42). 

Grubs  of  all  kinds  are  eaten  by  the  natives  of  Australia12  6  (p.  67), 
and  the  chrysalis  of  the  Silkworm"'™  eaten  by  the  Chinese.48 

The  Cuttlefish  is  used  as  food  in  some  parts  of  Europe;4  and  a  bi- 
valve allied  to  the  oyster,  called  Anomia  ephippium,  which  is  found  on 
the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  is  considered  not  inferior  to  the  common 
oyster.8* 

The  Vineyard  Snail  (JETelix  pomatia)  is  used  as  food  in  many  parts  of 


For  the  names  of  the  works  which  the  reference  numbers 


ALIMENTARY  SUBSTANCES.  141 

Europe  during  Lent.4  It  is  reared  and  fattened  with  great  care  in  some- 
cantons  in  Switzerland  as  an  article  of  luxury,  and  exported  in  a  pickled 
state.  Many  other  snails  are  eaten  by  the  poor,  and  none  are  known  to- 
be  hurtful39  (vol.  ix.,  p.  727).  The  common  Garden  Snail  (Helix  as- 
persa)  is  used  in  some  parts  as  a  cure  for  diseases  of  the  chest.*  Snails- 
on  the  Continent,  and  even  slugs  in  China,  have  a  reputation  for  delicacy 
of  eating  and  nutritive  power.46 

The  common  Sea-  Urchin,  or  sea-egg  (Echinus  sphcera),  is  much  sought 
after  as  food  in  some  parts  of  Europe  during  the  latter  part  of  summer, 
at  which  time  it  is  almost  filled  with  eggs.4  It  is  also  eaten  by  the  inhab- 
itants of  Otaheite9  (vol.  ii.,  p.  154). 

Holothurioe  (sea-cucumbers)  are  eaten  largely  by  the  Chinese,1  the  na- 
tives of  the  Indian  Archipelago,4  the  Australian4  and  South  Sea  Islands47 
(vol.  ii.,  p.  568).  They  are  also  taken  on  the  coast  of  Naples  and  eaten 
by  the  poorer  inhabitants.4 

Earth-eating  may  be  appropriately  referred  to  here,  as  some  kinds  of 
earth  used  as  food  in  certain  localities  have  been  found  to  consist  in  part 
of  the  remains  of  minute  animal  organisms. 

Humboldt,  on  his  return  from  the  Rio  Negro,  saw  a  tribe  of  Ottomacs- 
who  lived  principally  during  the  rainy  season  upon  a  fat,  unctuous  clay 
which  they  found  in  their  district64  (pp.  143-4).  This  appears  to  have- 
consisted  of  a  red,  earthy  matter  (hydrous  silicate  of  alumina)  called  bole. 
It  is  also  eaten  by  the  Japanese  after  being  made  into  thin  cakes  called 
tanaampo,  which  are  exposed  for  sale,  and  bought  by  the  women  to  give 
themselves  slenderness  of  form.4  Ehrenberg  found  that  this  earth  con- 
sisted for  the  most  part  of  the  remains  of  microscopic  animals  and  plants- 
which  had  been  deposited  from  fresh  water. 

A  kind  of  earth  known  as  bread-meal,  which  consists,  for  the  most 
part,  of  the  empty  shells  of  minute  infusorial  animalcules,  is  still  largely 
eaten  in  Northern  Europe;  and  a  similar  substance,  called  mountain- 
meal,  has  been  used  in  Northern  Germany  in  times  of  famine  as  a  means 
of  staying  hunger.  The  Wanyamwezi,  a  tribe  living  in  Central  Africa, 
eat  clay  in  the  intervals  between  meals,  and  prefer  the  clay  of  ant-hills'* 
(vol.  ii.,  p.  28).  The  colored  inhabitants  of  Sierra  Leone  also  devour  the 
red  earth  of  which  the  ant-hills  are  composed"  (vol.  xix.,  p.  72).  John- 
ston asserts  that  the  African  earth  did  not  injure  the  negroes,  but  that 
when  they  were  carried  as  slaves  to  the  West  India  Islands  they  were 
found  to  suffer  in  their  health  from  the  clay  they  there  used  as  a  substi- 
tute" (vol.  ii.,  p.  201). 

It  has  been  found  that  much  of  the  clay  eaten  by  many  of  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  torrid  zone  is  mere  dirt,  and  has  no  alimentary  value.  The 
Agmara  Indians  eat  a  whitish  clay,  which  is  rather  gritty,  and  has  been 
shown  by  careful  analysis  to  be  destitute  of  any  organic  matter  which 
might  afford  nutriment14  (vol.  i.,  p.  370).  One  of  the  earliest  notices  of 
the  practice  of  dirt-eating  is  given  by  Sir  Samuel  Argoll,  with  respect  to 
Virginia,  in  1613.  "In  this  journie,"  he  says,  "  I  likewise  found  a  myne, 
of  which  I  have  sent  a  triall  into  England;  and  likewise  a  strange  kind 
of  earth,  the  virtue  whereof  I  know  not,  but  the  Indians  eate  it  for 
Physicke,  alleging  that  it  cureth  the  sicknesse  and  paine  of  the  belly."  5T 
In  Guinea  the  negroes  eat  a  yellowish  earth  called  cavuac.  In  the  West 
Indies  a  white  clay  like  tobacco-pipe  clay  is  eaten,  and  this  the  eaters 
prefer  to  spirits  or  tobacco"  (vol.  vii.,  p.  550).  In  1751  a  species  of  red 

in  the  above  pages  represent,  vide  the  key  supplied  at  pp.  142,  143. 


142  A    TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

earth,  or  yellowish  tufa,  is  reported  to  have  been  still  secretly  sold  in  the 
markets  of  Martinique.66 

So  widely  spread  is  the  depraved  appetite  for  dirt-eating,  or  "  geo- 
phagie,"  that  it  is  alleged  to  be  one  of  the  chief  endemic  disorders  of  all 
tropical  America.  The  victims  of  the  practice  never  appear  to  be  able 
to  free  themselves  from  the  habit.  Children,  it  is  said,  acquire  it  almost 
from  the  breast,  and  "  women,  as  they  lie  in  bed  sleepless  and  restless, 
will  pull  out  pieces  of  mud  from  the  adjoining  walls  of  their  rooms  to 
gratify  their  strange  appetite,  or  will  soothe  a  squalling  brat  by  tempting 
it  with  a  lump  of  the  same  material."69  Officers  who  have  Indian  or 
half-bred  children  in  their  employ  as  servants  sometimes  have  to  use  wire 
masks  to  keep  them  from  putting  the  clay  into  their  mouths.59  A  negro 
addicted  to  this  propensity  is  considered  to  be  irrevocably  lost  for  any 
useful  purpose,  and  seldom  lives  long08  (vol.  vii.,  p.  550).  It  is  impossi- 
ble to  keep  the  victim  from  obtaining  the  injurious  substance.  Children 
who  commence  the  practice  early  frequently  decline  and  die  in  two  or 
three  years,  and  dropsy  usually  appears  to  be  the  prominent  cause  of  dis- 
solution. In  other  cases  they  may  live  to  middle  age,  but  sooner  or  later 
dysentery  supervenes,  and  proves  fatal.  Dr.  Gait  speaks  of  having  him- 
self seen  a  Mestize  soldier  sinking  from  dysentery  with  a  lump  of  clay 
stuffed  in  his  sunken  cheeks  half  an  hour  before  his  death.6' 


KEY  TO  THE  REFERENCE  NUMBERS  CONTAINED  IN  THE  PRECEDING  PAGES  ON 
EXCEPTIONAL,  ANIMAL  FOODS. 

I  Bowring  (Sir  John),  The  Population  of  China.     (Statistical  Society's  Journal,  vol. 

xx.,  pp.  41-53.) 

'2  Wallace  (A.  R.),  Narrative  of  Travels  on  the  Amazon  and  Rio  Negro.  London, 
1843. 

3  Simmonds  (P.  L.),  The  Curiosities  of  Food  ;  or,  the  Dainties  and  Delicacies  of  Differ- 
ent Nations  obtained  from  the  Animal  Kingdom.  London,  1859. 

*  Baird  (W.),  Cyclopedia  of  the  Natural  Sciences.     London,  1858. 

5  Webster  (T.),  An  Encyclopaedia  of  Domestic  Economy.     London,  1844. 

c  Daumas  (General),  The  Horses  of  the  Sahara  and  the  Manners  of  the  Desert.  Trans- 
lated by  James  Hutton.  London,  1863. 

7  Lyon  (G.  F.),  A  Narrative  of  Travels  in  North  Africa  in  1818-20.     London,  1821. 

8  Burton  (R.  F.),  The  City  of  the  Saints,  and  Across  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  Cali- 

fornia.    London,  1861. 

9  Cook's  (Captain)  First  Voyage.     (Hawkesworth's  Voyages,  3  vols.     London,  1773.) 
10  Sheppard  (N.),  Shut  up  in  Paris.     London,  1871. 

II  Dieffenbach  (E.),  Travels  in  New  Zealand.     2  vols.     London,  1843. 

'•'  Eyre  (E.  J.),  Journal  of  Expeditions  of  Discovery  into  Central  Australia  in  1840-41. 

2  vols.     London,  1845. 
la  Burton  (R.  F. ),  The  Lake  Regions  of  Central  Africa  :  a  Picture  of  Exploration.     2 

vols.     London,  1860. 

14  Food  Journal     London. 

15  Wilkes  (C.),  Narrative  of  the  United  States  Exploring  Expedition,  1838-42.     5  vols. 

London,  1845. 

6  Dawson,  (R.),  Present  State  of  Australia.     1830. 

17  Hind  (H.  Y.),    Explorations  in  the  Interior  of  the  Labrador   Peninsula.     2  vols. 

London,  1863. 

18  Sproat  (G.  M.),  Scenes  and  Studies  of  Savage  Life.     London,  1868. 

19  Lubbock  (Sir  John),  Prehistoric  Times,  as  Illustrated  by  Ancient  Remains,  and  the 

Manners  and  Customs  of  Modern  Savages.     London,  1869. 
•°  Kane  (E.  K.),  Arctic  Explorations:  the  Second  Grinnell  Expedition  in  Search  of 

Sir  John  Franklin,  1853-55.     2  vols.     Philadelphia,  1856. 
81  Thunberg  (C.  P.),  Travels  in  Europe,  Africa,  and  Asia,  1770-79.     4  vols.     London, 

1795. 
ss  Richardson  (Sir  John),  Arctic  Searching  Expedition.     2  vols.     London,  1851. 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  143 

43  Schoolcraft  (H.  R.),  Historical  and  Statistical  Information  Respecting  the  History, 

Condition,  and  Prospects  of  Indian  Tribes  of  the  United  States.     3  vols.     Phila- 
delphia, 1851-53. 

44  Sullivan  (E.),  Rambles  and  Scrambles  in  North  and  South  America.     London,  1852. 
25  Marsden  (W. ),  The  History  of  Sumatra.     London. 

56  Catlin  (G.),  Letters  on  North  American  Indians.     2  vols.     1842. 

51  Tennent  (Sir  Emerson),  Ceylon :  an  Account  of  the  Island.  Physical,  Historical,  and 

Topographical.  2  vols.  London,  1859. 
28  Wrangeli  (F.  von),  Narrative  of  an  Expedition  to  the  Polar  Sea  in  1820-23.  Edited 

by  Lieut. -Col.  Edward  Sabine.     London,  1844. 
48  Barrow  (Sir  John),  Travels  in  China.     London,  1806. 

30  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Arts.     London. 

31  Head  (Sir  F.  B.),  Journeys  across  the  Pampas.     1828. 
3-  Medical  Times  and  Gazette.     London. 

33  Sarcey  (F. ),  Paris  during  the  Siege.     London,  1871. 

34  Livingstone  ( Dr. ),  Narrative  of  an  Expedition  to  the  Zambesi  and  its  Tributaries, 

1858-64.     London,  1865. 

35  Kolben  (P.),  Present  State  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.     London,  1731. 
*'  Quarterly  Review.     London. 

37  Payen  (A.),  Precis  Theorique  et  Pratique  des  Substances  Alimentaires.  Paris,  1865. 

38  The  Lancet.     London. 

39  Encyclopedia  Britanuica.     Seventh  Edition.     21  vols.     Edinburgh,  1842. 

40  Livingstone  (Dr.),  Missionary  Travels  and  Researches  in  South  Africa.     London, 

1857. 
•*'  Archasologia.     Published  by  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.     London. 

42  Teignmouth  (Lord),  Sketches  of  the  Coasts  and  Islands  of  Scotland  and  the  Isle  of 

Man.     2  vols.     London,  1836. 

43  Loskiel  (G.  H. ),  History  of  the  Mission  of  the  United  Brethren  among  the  Indians 

in  North  America.     3  parts.     London,  1 794. 

44  Simpson  (Sir  George),  Narrative  of  a  Journey  Round  the  World  during  the  Years 

1841  and  1842.  2  vols.  London,  1847. 
46  Fishes  of  New  Zealand  :  Notes  on  the  Edible  Fishes.  By  James  Hector,  Geological 

Survey  Department.  Wellington,  1872. 
46  Letheby  (Dr.),  On  Food  :  Cantor  Lectures.  London,  1870. 

41  Scherzer  (K.),  Narrative  of  the  Circumnavigation  of  the  Globe  in  the  Austrian  Fri- 

gate "  Novara"  in  1857-59.     3  vols      London,  1861-63. 

48  Transactions  of  the  Entomological  Society.     London. 

49  Andrews  of  Wyntown.  — The  Orygynal  Cronykil  of  Scotland.     With  Notes  by  David 

Macpherson.     2  vols.     London,  1795. 
80  Robert  Lindsay  of  Pitscottie.— The  Chronicles  of  Scotland.  Edited  by  J.  G.  DalyelL 

Edinburgh,  1814. 
61  Chambers  (R.),  The  Book  of  Days.     2  vols      Edinburgh. 

82  Chambers1  Encyclopaedia.     10  vols.     London,  1868. 

83  Turner  (Rev.  George),  Nineteen  Years  in  Polynesia.     London,  1861. 

84  Humboldt  (Alexander  von),  Views  of  Nature.     Translated  by  E.  C.  Otte  and  H.  G. 

Bonn.     London,  1850. 
66  Journal  of  the  Statistical  Society.     London. 

86  Johnston  (J.  F.  W.),  Chemistry  of  Common  Life.    Revised  by  G.  H.  Lewes.  2  vols. 

London,  1859. 

87  Argoll  (Sir  Samuel),  Touching  his  Voyage  to  Virginia,  1613.   (Purchas  his  Pilgrimes, 

vol.  iv.,  p.  1765.) 

88  Encyclopedia  Metropolitana.     25  vols.     London,  1845. 

89  Gait  (Dr. ),  Medical  Notes  of  the  Upper  Amazon.     Published  in  the  American  Jour- 

nal of  the  Medical  Sciences,  and  quoted  in  the  Lancet,  December  14,  1872. 
*°  Forsyth  (J.  S.),  Dictionary  of  Diet.     London,  1835. 
tl  Nature.     A  Weekly  Periodical.     London. 
*"*  Transactions  of  Royal  Society  of  Arts  and  Sciences.     Mauritius. 


144  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 


VEGETABLE  ALIMENTARY  SUBSTANCES. 

Although  vegetable  substances  differ  so  much  physically,  and  in  some 
respects,  also,  chemically  s  from  the  components  of  animal  beings,  they  are 
susceptible  of  conversion  into  these  components,  and,  alone,  contain  all 
that  is  absolutely  requisite  for  the  support  of  animal  life.  A  more  com- 
plex elaborating  system,  however,  is  required  to  fit  them  for  appropria- 
tion than  is  the  case  with  animal  substances,  and  accordingly  it  is  found 
that  the  digestive  organs  of  the  herbivora  are  developed  upon  a  larger 
and  higher  scale  than  those  of  the  carnivora. 

The  vegetable  products  that  form  even  common  articles  of  food  are 
exceedingly  varied  and  numerous.  To  attempt  to  arrange  them  under 
any  strict  classification  would  only  lead  to  embarrassment,  and  often  in- 
volve practical  inconvenience.  It  will  be  sufficient  for  the  purposes  of 
description  to  distribute  them  into  the  following  general  group:  farina- 
ceous seeds;  oleaginous  seeds;  tubers  and  roots;  herbaceous  articles;  sac- 
charine and  farinaceous  preparations. 

FARINACEOUS  SEEDS. 

These  rank  first  in  importance  amongst  vegetable  alimentary  products. 
They  are  alike  plentifully  yielded,  of  easy  digestion,  and  of  high  nutritive 
value.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  to  find  that  the  farinaceous  seeds 
form  the  largest  and  the  most  widely  consumed  portion  of  our  vegetable 
food.  Of  the  farinaceous  seeds,  those,  as  wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye,  rice, 
maize  or  Indian  corn,  etc.,  derived  from  the  Cerealia — a  tribe  of  grasses — 
take  the  first  place  as  articles  of  food;  and  next  follow  those  derived  from 
the  Leguminosce,  or  pulse  tribe,  as,  for  instance,  peas,  beans,  and  lentils. 
Some  other  farinaceous  seeds  will  be  mentioned  as  employed,  but  they  are 
of  far  less  significance  in  an  alimentary  point  of  view. 

THE  CEREALIA. 

The  various  cereal  grains  agree  in  their  genera,  composition,  but  dif- 
ferences exist  in  the  relative  amounts  of  the  constituent  principles,  which 
give  them  different  degrees  of  alimentary  value. 

The  principles  enumerated  are: 

First. — Nitrogenous  compounds,  consisting  of  glutine,  albumen,  case- 
ine,  and  fibrine,  with  an  active  principle,  chiefly  encountered  in  the  cor- 
tical part  of  the  grain,  which,  like  diastase,  possesses  the  power  of  con- 
verting starch  into  sugar.  The  material  known  as  gluten,  as  will  be  more 
particularly  mentioned  farther  on,  comprises  a  mixture  of  glutine,  caseine, 
and  fibrine. 

Second. — Non-nitrogenous  substances,  as  starch,  dextrine,  sugar,  and 
cellulose. 

Third. — Fatty  matter,  including  a  volatile  oil,  which  constitutes  the 
source  of  the  odorous  quality  possessed  by  the  grain. 

Fourth. — Mineral  substances,  comprising  phosphates  of  lime  and 
magnesia,  salts  of  potash  and  soda,  and  silica. 

The  following  table  represents  the  relative  amounts  of  the  constituent 
principles  contained  in  various  kinds  of  grain  in  a  dry  state,  according  to- 
the  analyses  of  Payen:  * 


*  Substances  Alimentnires,  p.  205.     Paris,  1865. 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES. 


145 


Composition  of  Various  Cereal  Grains  in  a  Dry  State  *  (Payen). 


Hard  wheat. 
Venezuela. 

Hard  wheat. 
Africa. 

Hard  wheat. 
Taganrog. 

Semi-  hard 
wheat. 
Jirie. 

White  or 
soft  wheat. 
Tuielie. 

Nitrogenous  matter,    . 

22.75 
58.62 
9.50 
3.50 
2.61 
3.02 

19.50 
65.07 
7.60 
3.00 
2.12 
2.71 

20.00 
63.80 
8.00 
3.10 
2.25 
2.85 

15.25 
70.05 
7.00 
3.00 
1.95 
2.75 

12.65 
76.51 
6.05 
2.80 
1.87 
2.12 

Dextrine,  etc.,  

Fatty  matter,    

Mineral  matter,       .      ... 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00  1 

Bye. 

Barley.  , 

Oats. 

Maize. 

Kice. 

Nitrogenous  matter,     . 
Starch,   

12.50 
64.65 
14.90 

12.96 
66.43 
10.00 

14.39 
60.59 
9.25 

12.50 
67.55 
400 

7.55 
88.65 
1.00 

Cellulose,     

3.10 

4.75 

7.06 

5.90 

1.10 

Fatty  matter,    

2.25 

2.76 

5.50 

8.80 

0.80 

Mineral  matter,       .  *  . 

2.60 

3.10 

3.25 

1.25 

0.90 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00| 

100.00 

100.00 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  preceding  table  that  different  kinds  of  wheat 
differ  considerably  in  composition,  and  particularly  so  in  the  amount  of 
nitrogenous  matter  and  starch  they  contain,  the  two  standing  in  an  in- 
verse ratio  to  each  other.  But  more  will  be  said  regarding  this  farther 
on.  Oats  are  rich  in  nitrogenous  matter,  fat,  and  salts.  Maize  contains 
a  fair  amount  of  nitrogenous  matter,  but  is  poor  in  salts.  It  further  stands 
out  from  all  the  rest  by  virtue  of  the  large  amount  of  fatty  matter  pres- 
ent. Barley  occupies  a  mean  position  Avith  reference  to  all  the  constitu- 
ents. Rice  is  characterized  by  richness  in  starch  and  poorness  in  nitro- 
genous matter,  fatty  matter,  and  salts.  The  knowledge  thus  supplied  is 
of  considerable  value  in  relation  to  the  employment  of  the  several  kinds 
of  grain  as  articles  of  food. 

'WHEAT. — Wheat  may  be  said  to  form  the  most  useful  article  of  vege- 
table food,  and  hence  it  is  one  of  the  most  extensively  and  widely  cuki- 
vated  of  the  cereal  grains. 

As  supplied  for  use,  wheat  consists  of  the  grain  deprived  of  the  husk 
with  which  it  was  originally  invested.  Each  grain  is  composed  of  a  hard, 
colored,  tegumentary  portion,  and  a  central,  easily  pulverizable.  white  sub- 
stance, which  yields  the  product  constituting  flour. 

*  In  an  ordinary  state  grain  contains  from  11  to  18  per  cent,  of  water, 
f  Deviation  from  the  correct  total  of  +  2.0.     Possibly  an  error  in  the  amount  of  the 
starch. 

|  Deviation  from  the  correct  total  of  +  0.04.  - 
10 


146  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

The  tegumentary  portion  consists,  externally,  of  an  exceedingly  hard 
layer,  which  is  of  a  dense,  ligneous  nature,  and  so  coherent  that  it  pre- 
sents itself  under  the  form  of  scales  when  wheat  is  subjected  to  the  or- 
dinary process  of  grinding.  This  constitutes  the  greater  bulk  of  bran, 
and  is  of  a  perfectly  indigestible  nature,  and,  therefore,  useless  as  an  ar- 
ticle of  nutrition.  Moreover,  it  acts,  to  some  extent,  as  an  irritant  to  the 
alimentary  canal,  and  thus,  whilst  of  service,  retained  with  the  flour,  in 
cases  where  constipation  exists,  it  should  be  avoided  in  irritable  states  of 
the  bowel,  and  also  by  those  who  work  hard,  for  with  these  it  is  liable  to 
hurry  the  food  too  quickly  through  the  alimentary  tract,  and  occasion 
waste  by  promoting  its  escape  without  undergoing  digestion  and  absorp- 
tion. 

Farther  in,  the  cortex  is  softer  and  more  friable.  This  part  goes 
•with  the  pollard  obtained  in  the  process  of  dressing  ilour.  It  forms  the 
portion  of  the  grain  which  is  the  richest  in  nitrogenous  matter,  fat,  and 
salts.  It  possesses,  therefore,  a  high  alimentary  value.  Amongst  the 
nitrogenous  matter  in  this  situation,  a  peculiar  soluble,  active  principle 
is  contained,  called  cerealine,  which  resembles  diastase  in  being  endowed 
with  the  power  of  converting  starch  into  sugar. 

Cerealine  has  been  represented  as  leading,  by  a  metamorphosing  influ- 
ence exerted  during  the  occurrence  of  fermentation,  to  the  development 
of  the  dark  color  and  marked  taste  belonging  to  brown  bread;  and  it  is 
said  that  if  the  bread  be  made  in  such  a  way  that  the  cerealine  is  not  af- 
forded the  opportunity  of  exerting  this  action,  the  product,  although  de- 
rived from  the  external  as  well  as  the  central  part  of  the  grain,  has  neither 
the  high  color  nor  the  strong  taste  of  ordinary  brown  bread. 

The  central  white  substance  of  the  grain  is  chiefly  composed  of  starch; 
but  nitrogenous,  fatty,  and  saline  matters  are  also  all  present  to  some 
extent.  The  nitrogenous  matter  consists  of  several  principles.  There  is 
albumen,  mucine  or  caseine,  fibrine,  and  glutine.  What  is  called  gluten 
— the  ductile,  tenacious,  raw  material  left  when  flour  is  kneaded  with 
water,  and  afterwards  washed  to  remove  the  starch — does  not  represent  a 
simple  or  pure  nitrogenous  principle.  It  is  called  crude  gluten,  and  is  re- 
solvable into  Liebig's  vegetable  fibrine,  mucine,  and  glutine.  The  albu- 
naen  of  the  flour  is  not  present  in  it.  This  latter  principle,  being  soluble 
in  water,  is  carried  away  with  the  starch  in  the  process  of  -washing. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  external  part  of  the  grain  is  richer  than  the 
central  in  nitrogenous  matter.  This  remark,  however,  is  not  to  be  taken 
as  applying  to  gluten.  Gluten,  indeed,  preponderates  in  the  central  fa- 
rinaceous part,  the  nitrogenous  matter  of  the  exterior  being  principally 
composed  of  vegetable  fibrine. 

It  is  to  gluten — and  this  exists  to  a  special  extent  in  wheat — that 
wheaten  flour  owes  its  aptitude  for  being  made  into  bread.  This  sub- 
stance, by  virtue  of  its  tenacity,  and  its  susceptibility  of  solidification  by 
heat,  is  capable  of  entangling  gas  generated  or  incorporated  amongst  it, 
and  then  becoming  fixed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  furnish  a  light,  spongy, 
or  porous  article  like  well-made  bread. 

As  regards  sugar  as  a  constituent  of  wfaeaten  flour,  Payen  remarks 
that,  whilst  some  authorities  have  affirmed  that  it  is  present,  others  have 
declared  that  they  have  been  unable  to  discover  it.  On  both  sides,  he 
says,  truth  exists,  and  that  it  depends  on  the  harvesting,  grinding,  and 
keeping  of  the  wheat  and  flour,  whether  sugar  is  present  or  not.  It  arises 
from  the  action  of  the  diastase-like  principle  contained  in  the  grain  on 
the  starch  and  dextrine;  and  according  as  the  circumstances  are  favor- 


ALIMENTAKY    SUBSTANCES.  147 

able  or  unfavorable  for  the  change,  so  will  be  the  analytical  result 
obtained. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  wheat  met  with  in  commerce,  and  the  table 
given  at  p.  145  shows  that  a  considerable  difference  may  exist  in  the 
chemical  composition  of  the  article.  The  difference  depends  upon  the 
variety  of  the  plant  that  has  yielded  the  grain,  and  also  upon  the  climate 
and  soil  where  it  has  grown.  What  is  called  hard  wheat  is  the  richest  in 
gluten.  It  is  produced  in  the  warm  countries  of  the  south,  and  upon  the 
most  fertile  soils.  The  grain  is  characterized  by  a  horny,  semi-transpar- 
ent appearance  and  hardness  throughout.  It  is  drier,  keeps  better,  and 
gives  a  larger  amount  of  product  in  the  mill,  but  a  less  white  flour,  than 
other  kinds  of  wheat.  It  is  this  form  of  wheat  that  is  employed  for  mak- 
ing macaroni,  vermicelli,  and  such-like  preparations.  White  or  soft 
wheat  presents  a  more  farinaceous  condition;  it  is  more  easily  ground 
and  yields  a  whiter  and  finer  flour.  With  less  gluten,  it  contains  a  larger 
proportion  of  starch,  and,  therefore,  forms  the  most  suitable^ind  of  wheat 
for  the  extraction  of  this  latter  principle  as  an  article  for  domestic  use. 
It  is  the  intermediate,  or  semi-hard  wheat,  which  is  the  best  for  the  use 
of  the  baker.  In  Payen's  table  the  nitrogenous  matter  in  dried  wheat 
ranges,  it  may  be  seen,  from  12  to  22,  and  the  starch  from  58  to  76  per 
cent. 

Wheat  is  but  very  rarely  used  in  the  entire  state  as  an  article  of  food. 
It  forms,  however,  a  constituent  of  what  is  called  frumenty,  which  consists 
of  wheat-grains  boiled  in  milk.  There  is  also  a  Yorkshire  dish  made  with 
wheat  and  raisins  boiled  in  milk  (Forsyth).  For  ordinary  alimentary  pur- 
poses wheat  is  subjected  to  grinding,  and  usually  afterward  separated 
into  flour,  pollard,  and  bran,  the  flour  being  appropriated  to  our  use,  and 
the  other  products  employed  as  food  for  the  lower  animals. 

Meal  is  the  simple  product  of  grinding,  and,  therefore,  contains  all  the 
elements  of  the  grain.  It  is  from  this  that  brown  bread  is  made.  If  not 
used  in  this  way  (and,  as  is  well  known,  it  is  only  exceptionally  that  it  is) 
it  is  submitted  by  the  miller  to  bolting,  sifting,  or  dressing,  to  separate 
the  flour  from  the  coarser  particles — forming  pollard  and  sharps;  and 
these,  again,  from  the  coarsest  of  all—forming  bran.  Flour,  also,  is  pro- 
duced or  "  dressed  "  of  different  degrees  of  fineness,  to  m*eet  the  demand 
of  the  consumer.  The  finer  the  flour  is  dressed,  the  whiter  the  bread 
that  it  produces.  In  fine  flour,  however,  there  is  an  exclusion  of  every- 
thing exeeptthe  strictly  farinaceous  central  part  of  the  grain;  and  as  this 
contains  the  least  amount  of  nitrogenous  matter,  the  eye  is  gratified  at 
the  sacrifice  of  this  material.  A  coarser  flour,  although  yielding  a  less 
white  bread,  contains  a  larger  proportion  of  nitrogenous  matter,  and  thus 
is  better  adapted  to  meet  our  requirements;  for,  even  under  all  circum- 
stances, the  farinaceous  element  is  out  of  proportion  to  the  nitrogenous, 
looked  at  in  relation  to  the  demand  existing  in  the  case  of  each  for  the 
purposes  of  life.  Processes  have  been  proposed  for  converting  more  of 
the  grain  into  flour  than  by  the  ordinary  plan  of  grinding.  They  are  re- 
ferred to  in  connection  with  the  subject  of  bread  at  p.  149. 

Medium  wheat  usually  yields  from  72  to  80  per  cent,  of  good  flour 
(Payen),  and  from  about  5  to  10  per  cent,  of  bran.  The  miller  sometimes 
tries  to  increase  the  yield  of  flour  by  grinding  with  the  stones  set  closely, 
but  it  is  at  the  expense  of  the  quality  of  the  flour,  for  the  starch-granule 
becomes  thereby  bruised  and  damaged,  and  it  is  found  to  be  deteriorated 
for  the  purpose  of  bread-making.  Bakers  prefer  a  flour  which  feels  a  little 
harsh  between  the  finger  and  thumb,  instead  of  soft  and  smooth. 


148  A    TKEATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 


Composition  of  Flour. 

From  Letheby's  table        p 

of  analyses.  L  ayei 

Nitrogenous  matter,        V        «•       .     10.8  14.45 

Carbohydrates,          .         ,         .•        .     70.5  68.48 

Fatty  matter,   .         .         .•  -      .         .2.0  1.25 

Mineral  matter,         .         .         .         .       1.7  1.60 

Water,     .         .      -'V;>      .       ;.         .     15.0  14.22 


100.0  100.00 

The  amount  of  gluten  in  wheaten  flour,  according  to  Dr.  Letheby, 
ranges  from  8  to  15  per  cent.,  the  average  being  about  11. 

Cones,  or  cones  flour,  is  the  name  applied  to  the  flour  of  a  particular 
species  of  wheat  called  "revet."  It  is  used  by  bakers  for  dusting  the 
dough  and  the  boards  upon  which  the  loaves  are  made,  to  facilitate  the 
manipulation  by  preventing  adhesion.  It  appears,  from  the  analyses  of 
Dr.  Hassall,  to  be  extensively  adulterated  with  the  flour  of  rice  and  other 
cereals,  and  sometimes  even  not  to  contain  a  particle  of  wheaten  flour. 
Thus  adulterated,  it  can  be  sold  at  a  lower  price  than  ordinary  flour,  and 
it  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that,  besides  being  used  for  the  purpose 
named,  it  frequently  finds  its  way  into  the  constitution  of  the  loaf,  while 
it  affords  an  opportunity  of  adulterating  without  appearing  upon  the  face 
of  it  to  do  so. 

Flour  is  one  of  the  most  useful  alimentary  materials  at  our  disposal, 
and  is  turned  to  account  in  a  variety  of  ways.  It  is  not  consumed  in  the 
raw  state.  Puddings,  pastry,  cakes,  bread,  biscuits,  and  other  variously 
named  articles  of  less  note,  are  made  from  it.  Bread  and  biscuits,  about 
which  more  will  be  said  farther  on,  are  both  nutritive  and  digestible. 
Cakes,  besides  flour,  contain  butter,  eggs,  sugar,  and  sometimes  other 
adjuncts.  They  are  rich,  and  apt  to  upset  the  stomach.  Pastry,  on  ac- 
count of  the  effect  of  the  oven  on  the  fatty  matter  present,  is  also  apt  to 
give  rise  to  stomach  derangement.  Puddings  (flour-puddings  only  are 
here  spoken  of)  are  not  objectionable  in  the  same  way,  but  are,  neverthe- 
less- trying  to  the  digestive  powers.  Being  of  a  more  or  less  close  con- 
sistence, they  offer  considerable  resistance  to  the  penetration  and  action 
of  the  gastric  juice,  and  thus  may  engage  the  stomach  for  some  time  in 
the  process  of  digestion,  and  give  rise  during  the  while  to  the  sensation 
which  is  well  known  to  be  occasioned  by  an  indigestible  substance,  and 
which  is  described  as  a  sense  of  weight  or  heaviness  at  the  stomach. 

Baked  flour. — Flour,  after  exposure  to  heat,  is  more  digestible  than 
when  in  the  raw  state.  The  starch-granules  become  ruptured,  and  a 
portion  of  the  starch  transformed  into  dextrine.  The  albumen  is  acted 
upon,  and  converted  into  the  coagulated  form.  It  is  hence  advantageous 
that  flour  should  be  consumed  (as  it  only  is)  after  having  been  subjected 
in  some  way  or  other  to  the  influence  of  heat.  It  is  sometimes  prepared 
for  use  by  simply  putting  it  into  a  basin,  introducing  it  into  an  oven,  and 
baking.  Another  process,  acting  in  a  similar  way,  is  to  place  it  in  a 
basin,  tie  it  over  with  a  cloth,  and  immerse  it  in  a  saucepan  of  water  kept 
boiling  for  some  time.  The  water  does  not  penetrate,  but  from  the  effect 
of  the  heat  the  flour  collects  into  a  hard,  solid  mass,  which  requires  to  be 
scraped  or  grated  for  use.  Thus  prepared,  it  is  often  employed  as  an 
article  of  food  for  infants. 


ALIMENTARY   SUBSTANCES.  149 

Bread. — Of  all  articles  of  vegetable  food,  bread  must  be  considered 
as  the  most  important  to  us.  It  constitutes  a  product  of  art,  and 
amongst  all  civilized  people  the  process  of  manufacture  is  known  and  put 
into  practice,  evidently  on  account  of  the  favorable  state  in  which  the  ele- 
ments of  food  are  placed  for  undergoing  digestion.  It  is  only  from  some 
kinds  of  grain  that  bread  can  be  made,  and  no  bread  is  equal  to  that  pre- 
pared from  wheaten  grain.  The  amount  of  gluten  present,  for  which 
this  kind  of  grain  is  distinguished,  gives  it  the  property  required  for 
yielding  a  light  and  spongy  form  of  bread,  and  it  is  to  this  lightness  or 
sponginess  that  bread  owes  its  easy  digestibility;  for,  according  to  its 
porosity  so  is  the  facility  with  which  it  is  penetrated  and  acted  upon  by 
the  secretion  of  the  stomach. 

The  first  requisite  toward  the  manufacture  of  bread  is  that  the  grain 
should  be  reduced  to  a  pulverized  condition.  By  the  ordinary  process  it 
is  ground  in  a  whole  state  and  converted  into  meal.  This  may  be  used 
for  making  bread — as  is  the  case  in  what  we  call  "  brown  bread  " — but, 
as  a  rule,  the  flour  is  separated  and  this  only  employed.  Other  processes 
have  been  proposed,  with  the  view  of  obtaining  a  larger  yield  of  ilour.  To 
some  extent  the  plan  has  been  adopted  of  decorticating  the  grain  and  then 
reducing  the  remainder  into  flour.  By  such  a  method  some  of  the  inner 
layers  of  the  tegumentary  portion  are  retained  with  the  farinaceous  sub- 
stance of  the  centre.  There  is  also  "  whole-wheat  flour  "  to  be  obtained. 
The  bran,  after  separation,  is  ground  and  then  mixed  with  the  flour,  for  it 
does  not  answer  to  attempt  to  thoroughly  reduce  the  whole  together.  It 
seems  that  the  starch-granules  ought  not  to  be  broken  up,  and  that  by 
too  much  crushing  or  friction  they  become  damaged,  thereby  leading  to 
a  bad  flour  for  bread-making  purposes  being  produced.  When  too  closely 
ground,  bakers  speak  of  the  flour  as  "killed,"  from  its  virtue  being  found 
to  be  partially  destroyed.  The  avowed  object  of  deviating  from  the  old- ' 
fashioned  plan  is  to  give  the  flour,  and  consequently  the  bread  made  from 
it,  a  higher  nutritive  value,  the  outside  part  of  the  grain  being  that  which, 
as  previously  stated,  is  richest  in  nitrogenous,  fatty,  and  mineral  matters. 
Liebig  expatiates  strongly — particularly  on  account  of  the  loss  of  phos- 
phates— upon  the  ill-judged  custom  of  preferring  white  bread.  It  is  true, 
if  bread  were  our  sole  article  of  sustenance,  the  rejection  of  the  princi- 
ples contained  in  the  outer  part  of  the  grain  would  be  a  serious  error  in 
dietetics;  but  if  other  food  be  taken  which  furnishes  a  free  supply  of 
them,  as  is  actually  the  case  with  a  mixed  diet,  there  is  nothing  to  condemn 
as  erroneous.  It  must  not  be  considered,  because  we  do  not  consume  the 
bran  and  pollard  of  the  meal  ourselves,  that  their  constituents  are  thereby 
wasted  or  lost  to  us.  Employed,  as  such  articles  are,  as  food  for  other 
animals,  we  may  in  reality,  although  indirectly,  get  their  elements  in  as- 
sociation with  other  matter.  Looked  at  in  this  way,  it  being  granted  that 
animal  food  is  taken,  we  are  at  liberty,  if  our  inclination  so  dispose  us, 
without  incurring  any  charge  of  wastefulness,  to  select  one  part  of  the 
grain  for  ourselves  and  allow  the  other  to  pass  to  the  lower  animals. 
Whether  the  result  of  habit  or  not,  it  must  certainly  be  owned  that,  with 
the  generality  of  persons,  bread  made  from  ordinary  flour  is  more  pleasing 
to  the  eye  and  agreeable  to  the  palate  than  bread  made  from  the  whole 
constituents  of  the  grain. 

Bread  is  a  firm  and  porous  substance,  which  is  easy  of  mastication, 
and  which,  whilst  preserving  a  certain  amount  of  moisture,  is  not  wet  or 
clammy.  To  convert  flour  or  meal  into  a  substance  of  this  kind  consti- 
tutes the  art  of  bread-making.  A  paste  or  dough  is  made  by  manipula- 


150  A   TREATISE   ON   FOOD   AND    DIETETICS. 

tion,  either  by  kneading  with  the  hands  or  by  machinery,  with  the  requisite 
quantity  of  water.  Porosity  is  given  by  intimate  incorporation  with  car- 
bonic acid  gas — either  generated  within,  as  by  fermentation,  or  the  use  of 
one  or  other  form  of  "baking-powder;"  or  supplied  from  without,  as  by 
Dr.  Dauglish's  process.  The  gluten  present,  by  virtue  of  its  tenacity, 
holds  the  vesicles  of  gas  and  allows  a  spongy  mass  to  be  formed.  Whilst 
in  this  state,  solidification  is  effected  by  the  aid  of  heat  applied  in  the 
process  of  baking,  and  thus  is  formed  a  permanently  vesiculated  or  por- 
ous article.  Such,  in  a  few  words,  constitutes  the  rationale  of  the  process 
of  bread-making. 

When  the  carbonic  acid  gas  is  generated  by  fermentation,  the  product 
is  called  "  leavened  bread,"  but  there  is  no  material  difference  between 
bread  formed  in  this  way  and  that  produced  by  the  other  processes.  Va- 
rious kinds  of  ferment  are  employed,  as,  for  instance,  brewer's  yeast  or 
barm;  German  yeast;  baker's  or  patent  yeast,  which  is  prepared  from  an 
infusion  of  malt  and  hops  set  into  fermentation  by  a  little  brewer's  or  Ger- 
man yeast,  and  added  to  some  boiled  and  mashed  potatoes  mixed  with 
flour,  to  feed  the  growth  of  the  ferment  and  increase  the  product;  or 
leaven,  which  is  old  dough  in  a  state  of  fermentation.  In  each  case  the 
active  agent  of  the  ferment — that  is,  the  growing  vegetable  cells  form- 
ing the  yeast-fungus,  or  Torula  cerevisice — effects  the  conversion  of  sugar 
into  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid  gas.  This  takes  place  at  the  expense  of  the 
sugar  contained  in,  and  derived  from,  the  starch  of  the  flour,  but  in  baker's 
yeast  the  potato  introduced  furnishes  additional  material  for  the  growth 
of  the  Torula.  Used  in  this  way,  the  potato  is  not  to  be  looked  upon 
in  the  light  of  an  adulterant. 

The  usual  practice  in  making  bread  by  fermentation  is  to  mix  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  the  flour  with  the  ferment,  some  salt,  and  lukewarm 
water.  These  are  kneaded  into  a  stiff  paste  or  dough,  which  is  placed 
aside  in  a  warm  situation  for  an  hour  or  two.  The  mass  gradually  swells 
up  from  the  evolution  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  or,  as  the  baker  terms  it,  the 
sponge  rises.  When  the  sponge  is  in  active  fermentation  it  is  thoroughly 
kneaded  with  the  remainder  of  the  flour,  salt,  and  water,  and  again  set 
aside  for  a  few  hours  in  a  warm  situation.  Fermentation  extends  through- 
out the  whole,  and  at  the  proper  moment  the  dough  is  made  into  loaves 
and  introduced  into  the  oven.  Herein  constitutes  some  of  the  chief  points 
in  the  baker's  art.  Unless  fermentation  has  been  allowed  to  proceed  far 
enough,  a  heavy  loaf  is  the  result;  and  if  allowed  to  proceed  too  far,  an 
objectionable  quality  is  given  to  the  bread  by  the  commencement  of  an- 
other, viz.,  the  acid  fermentation.  Time  also  must  not  be  allowed  for  the 
dough  to  sink  before  being  made  into  loaves  and  baked.  Under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  heat  of  the  oven  an  expansion  of  the  entangled  vesicles  of 
gas  ensues,  and  occasions  a  considerable  further  rising  of  the  dough;  and 
with  the  subsequent  setting  of  the  substance  of  the  loaf  a  permanently 
vesiculated  mass  is  formed. 

A  special  aroma  or  flavor  is  communicated  to  the  bread  by  the  differ- 
ent kinds  of  ferment.  The  best  flavored  breadj  I  am  informed  by  an  ex- 
perienced West-end  baker,  is  made  with  the  employment  of  brewer's 
yeast. 

Instead  of  by  fermentation,  vesiculation  may  be  effected  by  carbonic 
acid  gas  disengaged  by  incorporating  carbonate  of  soda  or  ammonia  with 
the  dough,  and  adding  muriatic,  tartaric,  or  phosphoric  acid.  "Baking- 
powders  "  act  in  this  way,  and  consist  for  the  most  part  of  tartaric  acid 
and  carbonate  of  soda  as  their  basis.  The  employment  of  this  process  in- 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  151 

volves  no  loss  of  any  portion  of  the  flour,  but  it  does  not  produce  an 
agreeably  tasted  bread,  and  has  not  been  therefore  found  to  supersede 
the  old  process  of  fermentation. 

Another  plan  for  vesiculating  bread  has  been  recently  introduced,  and 
is  known  as  Dr.  Dauglish's  process,  the  product  being  called  "  aerated 
bread."  The  flour  is  introduced  into  a  strong,  air-tight  iron  receiver,  and 
afterward  mixed  by  mechanical  means  with  water  impregnated  with  car- 
bonic acid  gas  under  a  high  pressure.  Through  an  opening  below,  which 
can  be  enclosed  when  the  operation  of  mixing  is  complete,  the  dough  is 
forced  out  by  the  pressure  existing  within,  and  with  a  suitable  contriv- 
ance may  be  received  and  conveyed,  under  the  form  of  loaves,  to  the  oven, 
without  being  touched  by  the  hands.  Vesiculation  is  produced  by  the 
expansion  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas  with  which  the  dough  is  throughout 
intimately  incorporated — such  expansion  occurring  with  the  removal  of 
the  pressure;  and,  still  further,  from  exposure  to  the  heat  of  the  oven. 
This  process,  it  will  be  seen,  involves  the  employment  only  of  the  three 
essential  ingredients  of  bread — flour,  water,  and  carbonic  acid  gas;  but, 
as  with  other  kinds  of  bread,  some  salt  is  also  added.  Nothing  occurs  to 
produce  a  change  of  any  portion  of  the  flour,  except  such  as  is  induced 
by  the  action  of  the  heat  in  baking.  The  product  represents  the  purest 
form  of  bread,  if  simplicity  of  composition  is  to  be  taken  as  a  criterion. 
As  regards  taste,  however,  it  possesses,  without  there  being  anything 
objectionable,  a  distinct  character  of  its  own,  and  there  is  an  absence  of 
the  agreeable  flavor  belonging  to  good  bread  of  the  fermented  kind.  It 
may  be  remarked  that  it  keeps  sweet  and  good  much  longer  than  fer- 
mented bread. 

In  the  manufacture  of  bread  a  certain  amount  of  salt  is  generally 
added.  It  improves  the  flavor,  and  gives  greater  whiteness  and  firmness 
to  the  article. 

Alum,  also,  if  it  is  not  now,  owing  to  the  stringency  of  a  recent  Act 
of  Parliament,  was  formerly  frequently  employed;  but  this  constitutes 
an  imposition,  for  the  object  of  its  use  is  to  cause  bread  made  from  bad 
or  deteriorated  flour  to  resemble  that  made  from  good.  It  affords  no 
advantage  in  the  case  of  good  flour,  but  enables  bread  to  be  made  from 
flour  that  could  not  otherwise  be  used.  It  checks,  it  is  said,  an  excess  of 
fermentation,  to  which  there  is  a  tendency  with  bad  flour;  augments  the 
whiteness  of  the  product;  and,  by  strengthening — that  is,  giving  in- 
creased consistence  or  tenacity  to — the  gluten,  favors  the  production  of  a 
light  and  firm  loaf.  Such  are  described  as  the  effects  of  alum  on  bread; 
but  the  question  maybe  asked:  Is  such  bread  to  be  considered  as  whole- 
some ?  In  the  first  place,  alum,  or  whatever  it  may  be  changed  into  or 
whatever  the  combination  formed  with  the  flour  under  the  agency  of  the 
heat  employed  in  baking,  is  not  a  natural  article  for  ingestion.  Its  prop- 
erties are  not  such  as  to  be  likely  to  occasion  any  immediate  or  strong 
effect,  and  it  cannot  be  said  that  a  deleterious  action  is  to  be  brought 
home  to  it  in  a  precise  or  definite  manner;  but  it  is  believed  to  be  capa- 
ble of  producing  dyspepsia  and  constipation.  "  Whatever  doubts,"  says 
Pereira,*  "  may  be  entertained  regarding  the  ill  effects  of  alum  on  the 
healthy  stomach,  none  can  exist  as  to  its  injurious  influence  in  cases  of 
dyspepsia."  It  is  possible,  where  ill  effects  have  been  assigned  to  alum, 
that  they  may  have  been  sometimes  due  to  the  bad  quality  of  the  flour, 
which  the  alum  has  been  used  to  disguise. 

*  Treatise  on  Food  and  Diet,  p.  311.     1843. 


152  A   TREATISE    ON   POOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

Lime-water,  it  is  asserted,  substituted  for  a  portion  of  the  water  used 
in  making  the  dough,  may  be  employed  with  advantage,  instead  of  alum, 
for  improving  .the  product  from  an  inferior  quality  of  flour. 

The  amount  of  bread  produced  from  a  given  quantity  of  flour  varies  with 
the  amount  of  water  present.  "  Bread,"  says  Dr.  Letheby,*  "  should  not 
contain  more  than  3G  to  38  per  cent,  of  water,  and  the  other  constituents, 
excepting  salt,  should  be  the  same  as  of  good  flour. 

"In  practice,  100  pounds  of  flour  will  make  from  133  to  137  pounds 
of  bread,  a  good  average  being  13G;  so  that  a  sack  of  flour  of  280  pounds 
should  yield  ninety-five  four-pound  [quartern]  loaves.  The  art  of  the 
baker,  however,  is  to  increase  this  quantity,  and  he  does  it  by  hardening 
the  gluten  through  the  agency  of  a  little  alum,  or  by  means  of  a  gummy 
mixture  of  boiled  rice,  three  or  four  pounds  of  which  will,  when  boiled 
for  two  or  three  hours  in  as  many  gallons  of  water,  make  a  sack  of  flour 
yield  100  four-pound  loaves.  But  the  bread  is  dropsical,  and  gets  soft 
and  sodden  at  the  base,  where  it  stands." 

An  evaporation  of  water  occurs,  and  causes  bread  to  lose  weight  on 
keeping.  The  loss  proceeds  most  actively  whilst  hot  from  the  oven,  and 
the  baker  sometimes  endeavors  to  check  it  by  throwing  sacks,  or  some- 
thing of  the  kind,  over  the  loaves;  but  the  crust  thereby  suffers  in  crisp- 
ness. 

Composition  of  Bread  (Letheby 's  table). 

Nitrogenous  matter,  .         .         .         .         .         .         .8.1 

Carbohydrates,  ........     51.0 

Fat  matter, 1.6 

Mineral  matter, .         .......       2.3 

Water,    ; 37.0 


100.0 

New  bread  is  selected  by  many  in  preference  to  stale.  It  is,  however, 
much  less  digestible,  and  where  weakness  of  stomach  exists,  is  apt  to  ex- 
cite derangement.  It  is  its  lightness  or  porosity  which  gives  to  bread  its 
property  of  easy  digestibility,  and  with  stale  bread  its  firmness  and  fria- 
bility allow  this  porosity  to  be  maintained  during  reduction  by  mastica- 
tion. The  softness  of  new  bread,  on  the  other  hand,  renders  it  difficult 
of  mastication,  and  at  the  same  time  favors  its  clogging  together  into  a 
heavy  and  close  mass,  which,  on  arrival  in  the  stomach,  will  be  far  less 
easily  penetrated  and  acted  upon  by  the  digestive  juice.  By  heating  for 
a  short  time  in  an  oven,  stale  bread  may  be  again  brought  into  the  soft 
condition  of  new,  and  will  remain  in  this  state  for  some  hours.  After 
being  thus  rebaked,  however,  it  soon  undergoes  change  and  becomes 
unpalatable. 

Besides  its  physical  condition,  which  renders  bread  a  digestible  article 
of  food,  the  effect  of  the  heat  which  has  been  employed  in  baking  is  to 
increase  the  digestibility  of  the  constituents  of  the  flour.  The  state  of 
the  nitrogenous  compounds  becomes  altered,  the  starch-granules  rup- 
tured, and  some  of  the  starch  transformed  into  dextrine  and  sugar. 

1  he  difference  in  the  nutritive  value  of  brown  bread  as  compared  with 
white  has  been  already  referred  to  (vide  p.  149).  From  the  presence  of 
the  indigestible  particles  of  bran,  brown  bread  acts  to  some  extent  as  an 

*  Lectures  on  Food,  p.  13.     1870. 


ALIMENTAEY    SUBSTANCES.  153 

irritant,  and  thereby  stimulates  the  secreting  structures  and  the  muscular 
walls  of  the  alimentary  canal.  Hence,  the  service  which  it  renders  to 
persons,  particularly  those  of  sedentary  habits,  suffering  from  constipa- 
tion. In  irritable  states  of  the  alimentary  canal  it  should  be  avoided; 
and,  in  the  case  of  those  who  work  hard  or  take  much  exercise,  it  may 
prove  the  source  of  diarrhoea. 

Toast. — It  is  a  frequent  practice  to  cut  bread  into  slices,  and  subject 
it  to  toasting,  and  the  digestibility  is  thereby  increased.  Water  is  driven 
off,  a  little  scorching  of  the  surface  occurs,  and  greater  firmness  is  ac- 
quired. The  toasting  should  be  conducted  so  that  crispness  is  imparted 
throughout  the  whole  thickness  of  the  slice.  If  the  slice  be  thick,  and  a 
mere  scorching  of  the  surface  be  induced,  the  action  of  the  heat  will  give 
increased  softness  to  the  centre  (just  as  rebaking  renders  stale  bread  like 
new)  and  make  it  less  digestible  than  the  bread  from  which  it  was  pre- 
pared. Buttered  toast,  like  any  article  saturated  with  fatty  matter,  offers 
considerable  resistance  to  digestion,  and  is  exceedingly  apt  to  disagree 
where  delicacy  of  stomach  exists. 

Musks. — These  consist  of  tea-cakes,  which  are  made  from  flour,  butter, 
milk,  and  sugar,  cut  into  slices,  and  the  slices  placed  on  tins  and  intro- 
duced for  a  few  minutes  into  a  sharp  oven.  They  are  turned  so  as  to 
produce  a  little  scorching  of  both  surfaces,  and  afterward  put  into  a  dry- 
ing oven  for  three  or  four  hours  in  order  to  drive  off  all  the  moisture. 

Pulled  bread. — For  making  pulled  bread  the  crumb  of  a  new  loaf — 
the  crust  being  sacrificed  for  the  purpose — is  torn  or  drawn  out  -with  the 
hands,  and  treated  exactly  in  the  same  way  as  rusks.  It  constitutes  a 
very  digestible  form  of  bread,  and  is  well  adapted  for  the  dyspeptic. 

Tops  and  bottoms. — Tops  and  bottoms  are  pretty  largely  used  as 
food  for  infants.  They  are  made  in  the  same  way  as  rusks;  the  form, 
indeed,  constitutes  the  only  essential  difference  between  the  two.  Small, 
square-shaped  cakes  are,  in  the  first  place,  made  like  the  tea-cake,  from 
flour,  butter,  milk,  and  sugar,  but  usually  with  rather  less  of  the  last  in- 
gredient. These  are  then  cut  in  half — hence  the  name,  tops  and  bottoms 
— and  baked  and  dried. 

Muffins. — Flour,  water,  and  yeast  are  mixed  into  a  liquid  paste  or 
batter.  This  is  poured  into  a  hoop  resting  on  a  hot  tin  and  baked.  For 
eating  they  are  cut  in  half,  toasted,  and  buttered. 

Crumpets. — The  only  difference  between  muffins  and  crumpets  is,  that 
the  latter  are  half  the  thickness  of  the  former.  They  are  toasted  and 
buttered  whole  for  the  table.  Both  are  very  trying  articles  to  the 
stomach. 

Cracknels. — The  process  for  making  cracknels  is  somewhat  peculiar. 
A  dough  is  formed,  composed  of  flour,  butter,  eggs,  and  sugar,  and  rolled 
into  sheets.  They  are  then  cut  into  the  appropriate  shape,  and  put  into 
boiling  water.  They  sink,  and  become  hardened  by  the  coagulation  of 
the  albumen  that  occurs.  In  the  course  of  a  little  time  they  expand,  and, 
becoming  lighter,  rise  to  the  surface,  and  are  skimmed  off.  They  are  then 
immersed  in  cold  water,  and  afterward  placed  in  tins,  and  baked  in  a 
sharp  oven. 

Ginger-bread. — The  ingredients  of  ginger-bread  are  flour,  treacle, 
butter,  alum,  and  common  potashes.  Its  porosity  or  lightness  is  due  to 
the  liberation  of  carbonic  acid  from  the  last-named  substance  by  the 
glucic  and  melassic  acids  of  the  treacle.  By  some  makers,  ground  ginger 
or  sliced  candied  orange-peel  is  introduced.  Additional  lightness  is  also 
sometimes  given  by  the  employment  of  some  form  of  baking-powder. 


154  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

Biscuits. — Biscuits  are  a  useful  wheaten  product,  on  account  of  their 
property  of  keeping,  which  is  owing  to  their  being  dried  as  well  as  baked. 
Some  biscuits  are  made  from  flour  and  water  only,  or  flour,  water,  and  a 
very  little  butter  to  diminish  the  hard  and  flinty  character  which  they 
otherwise  possess.  Such  is  the  composition  of  sailors'  biscuits,  and  noth- 
ing is  employed  to  give  them  lightness.  Other  biscuits  are  made  with 
the  addition  of  milk,  and  some  with  the  addition  of  sugar  also;  and  light- 
ness may  be  given  either  by  a  baking-powder  or  the  carbonate  of  ammo- 
nia, which,  being  a  volatile  salt,  is  dissipated  with  the  heat  of  the  oven, 
and  in  escaping  raises  the  dough.  There  are  also  various  fancy  biscuits, 
each  kind  containing,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  ingredients,  some  special 
article.  Plain  biscuits  constitute  an  easily  digestible  form  of  food.  Bis- 
cuit-powder is  often  advantageously  used  in  combination  with  milk  where 
solid  food  cannot  be  borne.  It  also  furnishes  an  excellent  and  nourishing 
form  of  food  for  infants. 

Passover  cakes  belong  to  the  biscuit  class.  They  may  be  looked  upon, 
in  reality,  as  a  very  thin  kind  of  biscuit,  and  are  composed  only  of  flour 
and  water. 

Stale  biscuits,  on  being  moistened  and  rebaked,  are  restored,  like  stale 
bread,  to  the  condition  of  new. 

Composition  of  Biscuit  (Letheby's  table). 

Nitrogenous  matter, 

Carbohydrates,    ........ 

Fatty  matter,      ........ 

Mineral  matter,  ........ 

Water, 

100.0 

Semolina. — This  substance  forms  a  granular  preparation  of  the  heart 
of  the  wheat-grain.  It  is  made  from  the  hard  wheats,  which  are  rich  in 
gluten.  The  grinding  is  performed  with  the  mill-stones  sufficiently  apart 
to  leave  the  product  in  a  granular  form,  instead  of  reducing  it  to  the 
state  of  flour.  It  forms  a  digestible  and  nourishing  article  of  food,  and 
is  useful  for  adding  to  broths,  soups,  milk,  etc.  It  likewise  may  be  made 
into  a  light  and  nutritious  pudding. 

Soujee  and  Manna-croup  are  also  names  by  which  this  granular  prep- 
aration of  wheat  is  known.  The  Semoule  of  the  French  is  likewise  of 
the  same  nature.  It  constitutes  the  coarse,  hard  granules  which  are  a 
product  of  the  grinding  of  the  hard  wheats,  and  are  retained  in  the  bolt- 
ing machine  after  the  fine  flour  has  passed  through.  On  account  of  the 
resistance  which  the  hard  wheats  offer  to  reduction,  these  granules  have 
escaped  being  crushed  between  the  mill-stones.  As  the  product  fetches 
a  higher  price  than  flour,  the  skilful  miller  so  adjusts  his  mill-stones  as 
to  obtain  as  large  an  amount  as  possible. 

The  Iious-kous,  Couscous,  or  Couscousou,  of  the  Arabs,  which  forms 
a  national  food  in  Algeria,  further  constitutes  a  granular  preparation  of 
wheat.  It  is  cooked  and  eaten  in  a  variety  of  ways. 

Macaroni,  Vermicelli,  and  Italian  or  Cagliari  paste. — Italian  wheat 
and  some  other  kinds  which  are  rich  in  gluten  are  employed  for  making 
the  above-named  preparations,  which  are  consumed  very  largely  in  Italy. 
The  flour  is  made  into  a  stiff  paste  with  hot  water,  and  then  pressed 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  155 

through  holes  or  moulds  in  a  metal  plate,  or  else  stamped  so  as  to  give  the 
desired  form,  and  afterwards  dried.  They  are  all  highly  nutritious,  but 
from  their  closeness,  where  much  thickness  of  substance  exists,  as,  for 
example,  with  pipe  macaroni,  are  not  so  easy  of  digestion  as  many  other 
of  the  wheaten  preparations. 

Such  are  the  alimentary  products  of  wheat  in  ordinary  use  amongst 
us.  Wholesome  and  most  useful  articles  under  ordinary  circumstances, 
they  sometimes  acquire  properties  which  render  them  obnoxious,  upon 
which  point  a  few  remarks  will  now  be  offered. 

Wheat  is  liable  to  be  attacked  by  the  weevil,  a  little  insect  which  con- 
sumes the  farinaceous  centre  of  the  grain.  The  Acarus  farinas,  or  flour 
mite,  a  microscopic  animalcule,  may  also  be  encountered.  Beyond  dete- 
riorating the  wheat  for  alimentary  purposes,  however,  it  cannot  be  said 
that  any  harm  is  produced  by  these  animals. 

Certain  low  forms  of  parasitic  vegetable  growth  also  become  developed 
upon  wheat.  There  is  the  rust,  or  smut,  with  which  the  wheat  of  our 
own  country  is  frequently  liable  to  be  attacked.  This  gives  unpleasant 
characters  to  the  flour  and  bread,  but  has  not  been  ascertained  to  produce 
any  specific  deleterious  effects  upon  the  animal  system.  In  some  localities 
abroad,  the  cereal  grains,  and  amongst  them  occasionally  wheat,  but 
most  particularly  rye,  become  infested  with  a  species  of  fungus,  which 
grows  in  such  a  way  as  to  present  the  appearance  of  a  spur.  WThat  is 
alluded  to  here  is  the  ergotized  or  spurred-corn,  which  is  well  known  to 
exert  a  poisonous  action  upon  animal  beings,  the  symptoms  produced 
being  of  a  two-fold  nature,  viz.,  those  of  deranged  nervous  action,  ter- 
minating fatally,  it  may  be,  in  convulsions,  on  the  one  hand;  and  of  de- 
fective nutrition,  attended  with  dry  gangrene  of  the  extremities,  on  the 
other. 

In  connection  with  this  subject,  it  maybe  mentioned  that  wheat  and 
other  corn  may  be  rendered  poisonous  by  the  accidental  presence  of  the 
seeds  of  the  Lolium  temulentum,  ®r  Darnel  grass,  which  has  been  allowed 
by  the  slovenly  farmer  to  overrun  his  fields.  Christison  *  says  the  Loliutn 
temulentum  is  the  only  poisonous  species  of  the  natural  order  of  the 
grasses.  The  seeds  appear  to  be  powerfully  narcotic,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  possess  acrid  properties.  "  Headache,  giddiness,  somnolency, 
delirium,  convulsions,  paralysis,  and  even  death,"  are  effects  that  have 
been  observed  to  arise  from  their  habitual  consumption  as  an  accidental 
ingredient  of  bread.  Vomiting  and  purging  are  also  symptoms  that  have 
been  sometimes  produced. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  wheat  and  other  grain  may  possess  dele- 
terious properties  attributable  to  being  gathered  in  an  unripe  state. 
Local  outbreaks  of  illness  have  been  ascribed  to  this  cause  in  France. 
Dr.  Christison  considers  that  the  subject  requires  further  inquiry,  and  re- 
marks that,  although  grain  is  often  cut  down  in  an  unripe  state  in  various 
districts  of  our  own  country,  he  has  never  heard  that  any  disease  has  been 
produced  by  its  consumption. 

Wheat,  flour,  and  bread  may  pass  into  an  unwholesome  state  as  a  re- 
sult of  being  kept.  Under  the  presence  of  moisture,  they  are  prone  to 
undergo  change,  and  to  acquire  a  more  or  less  strongly  marked  acid 
character.  Bread  made  from  old  and  bad  flour  may  be  quite  sour  to  the 
taste;  and,  although  some  persons  may  become  accustomed  to  such  bread, 
and  may  eat  it  without  any  ill  consequences  arising,  yet  with  others,  who 

*  On  Poisons,  4th  edition,  p.  944.     1845. 


156  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

are  unused  to  it,  it  may  give  rise  to  severe  irritation  of  the  alimentary 
canal,  manifested  by  gastric  derangement,  griping,  and  diarrhoea.  Good 
bread  is  only  slightly  acid  at  first,  but  if  kept  and  allowed  to  remain 
moist,  it  becomes  decidedly  so  in  the  course  of  a  little  time. 

Bread  also  becomes  the  seat  of  development  of  certain  species  of 
fungi  (Penicillium  o'idium,  etc.) — in  other  words,  becomes  mouldy — on 
keeping,  and  the  more  quickly  so  in  proportion  as  it  contains  water.  The 
same  likewise  happens  with  wheat  and  flour  under  the  presence  of  mois- 
ture. The  existence  of  this  low  form  of  vegetable  growth  renders  the 
articles  pervaded  dangerous  for  use.  They  are  liable  to  produce  injurious 
and  even  fatal  consequences.  Dr.  Christison  states  that  on  the  Conti- 
nent repeated  instances  have  occured  of  severe  and  even  dangerous  poi- 
soning by  spoiled  or  mouldy  rye-bread,  barley-bread,  and  wheat-bread; 
and  that  several  instances  have  been  observed  of  horses  having  been 
killed  in  a  short  space  of  time  with  symptoms  of  irritant  poisoning  by  eat- 
ing such  bread  with  their  ordinary  food.  It  has  further  been  noticed 
that  the  consumption  of  mouldy  oats  has  been  followed  by  fatal  conse- 
quences. Dr.  Parkes,*  quoting  from  Professor  Yarnell,  states  that  "six 
horses  died  in  three  days  from  eating  mouldy  oats;  there  was  a  large 
amount  of  matted  mycelium,  and  this,  when  given  to  other  horses  for 
experiment,  killed  them  in  thirty-six  hours." 

In  cities  and  towns  mouldy  bread  is  rarely,  if  ever,  encountered.  The 
daily  supply  of  fresh  bread  that  is  provided  removes  any  necessity  for 
keeping  the  article  sufficiently  long  for  a  state  of  mouldiness  to  be  ac- 
quired. In  outlying  rural  districts,  however,  where  a  batch  of  bread  is 
baked  only  at  somewhat  distant  periods  within  the  household,  time  may 
be  given  before  the  batch  is  exhausted  for  the  last  of  it  to  become  vinny 
or  mouldy,  a  more  or  less  green  color  being  developed,  and  a  ropy 
character  produced. 

Biscuits  and  rusks,  on  account  of  their  dryness,  are  not  prone,  like 
bread,  to  become  unwholesome  from  mouldiness. 

OATS. — The  common  oat  is  derived  from  Avena  sativa.  A  consider- 
able number  of  varieties  of  the  plant  are  cultivated,  yielding  oats,  which 
may  be  arranged  under  the  two  heads  of  white  oats,  and  red,  dun,  or 
black  oats.  Other  species  of  Avena  are  also  cultivated  on  the  Conti- 
nent. Scotland  is  specially  famed  for  the  quality  of  the  oats  it  pro- 
duces, and  here  more  than  half  of  the  cultivated  land  is  devoted  to  their 
growth. 

As  met  with  in  commerce,  oats  consist  of  the  seeds  enclosed  in  their 
paleas  or  husk.  When  deprived  of  its  integument,  the  grain  goes  by  the 
name  of  groats  or  grits,  and  these,  when  crushed,  constitute  Embden 
groats.  They  are  used  for  making  gruel. 

The  husk  amounts  to  from  22  to  28  per  cent.  The  remaining  72  to  78 
per  cent,  comprises  the  kernel  of  the  seed. 

Oatmeal  constitutes  the  product  of  grinding  the  kiln-dried  seeds,  de- 
prived of  their  husk,  or  outer  skin.  It  is  not  so  white  as  wheaten-flour, 
and  its  taste  is  peculiar,  being  at  first  sweet  and  then  rough  and  some- 
what bitter.  It  forms  the  article  used  for  making  porridge.  The  Scotch 
oatmeal  is  ground  coarser  than  the  English,  and  is  the  more  esteemed  of 
the  two. 

In  Germany  and  Switzerland    coarsely  bruised  oatmeal  is  baked  in 

*  Practical  Hygiene,  3d  edition,  p.  223. 


ALIMENTARY   SUBSTANCES.  157 

an  oven  until  it  becomes  of  a  brown  color,  and  is  then  used  to  thicken 
broths  and  soups. 

Sowans,  Seeds,  or  Flummery,  which  constitutes  a  very  popular  article 
of  diet  in  Scotland  and  South  Wales,  is  made  from  the  husks  of  the 
grain.  The  husks,  with  the  starchy  particles  adhering  to  them,  are  sepa- 
rated from  the  other  parts  of  the  grain  and  steeped  in  water  for  one  or 
two  days,  until  the  mass  ferments  and  becomes  sourish.  It  is  then 
skimmed,  and  the  liquid  boiled  down  to  the  consistence  of  gruel.  In 
Wales  this  food  is  called  suean. 

Budrum  is  prepared  in  the  same  manner,  except  that  the  liquid  is 
boiled  down  to  a  sufficient  consistency  to  form,  when  cold,  a  firm  jelly. 
This  resembles  blanc-mange,  and  constitutes  a  light,  demulcent,  and  nu- 
tritious article  of  food,  which  is  well  suited  for  the  weak  stomach. 

Composition  of  Oatmeal  (from  Letheby's  table). 

Nitrogenous  matter,   .......  12.6 

Carbohydrates,   ........  63.8 

Fatty  matter,      .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  5.6 

Saline  matter, .  3.0 

Water,        .      "  .... 15.0 

100.0 

Composition  of  Dried  Oats  (Pay  en). 

Nitrogenous  matter,   .......  14.39 

Starch,         .      Egg     .         ...-•         •          •          •         •  60.59 

Dextrine,  etc.,    .         .     t    .         .....  9.25 

Fatty  matter,      ........  5.50 

Cellulose,  _.     ~\',S",.."t: 7.06 

Mineral  matter, .        -f         ,.-.     ;.          .         .          .         .  3.25 


100.00 

The  nitrogenous  matter  of  the  oat  is  formed  chiefly  of  a  principle  al- 
lied to  caseine,  called  avenine,  which  may  be  thus  obtained  :  Let  oat- 
meal be  washed  on  a  sieve,  and  the  milky  liquid  which  runs  through  be 
allowed  to  repose  to  deposit  the  suspended  starch-granules.  The  super- 
natant liquid,  on  being  heated  to  200°  Fahr.,  throws  down  albumen,  and 
then,  on  the  addition  of  acetic  acid,  a  white  precipitate  falls,  which  con- 
stitutes avenine. 

On  account  of  the  absence  of  gluten,  oatmeal  cannot  be  vesiculated 
and  made  into  bread,  like  wheaten-flour.  It  is  devoid  of  the  tenacity  or 
adhesiveness  which  is  requisite  to  hold  the  vesicles  of  gas  and  give  por- 
osrty  or  lightness  to  the  mass.  It  is,  however,  made  into  thin  cakes,  by 
mixing  into  a  paste  with  water,  and  then  baking  on  an  iron  plate.  Under 
this  form  it  is  consumed  as  a  staple  food  by  a  large  number  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Scotland  (which  is  called,  in  consequence,  "  the  land  of  cakes  "), 
and  also  of  the  North  of  England. 

Besides  being  eaten  in  this  way,  oatmeal  is  also  consumed  as  porridge 
or  stirabout,  as  beef-  and  kale-brose,  and  likewise  as  gruel. 

Porridge  is  made  by  simply  stirring  the  oatmeal  into  boiling  water 
until  it  becomes  of  the  consistence  of  hasty  pudding.  The  water  is  kept 
boiling  until  the  process  is  finished.  It  is  usually  flavored  with  either 
salt  or  sugar,  and  is  frequently  eaten  with  milk  or  treacle. 


158  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

JJrose  differs  from  porridge  in  not  being  boiled  over  the  fire.  JSeef- 
brose  is  made  by  stirring  the  oatmeal  into  the  hot  liquor  in  which  meat  has 
been  boiled.  Jfale-brose  is  similarly  made  from  the  liquor  in  which  cab- 
bage, or  kale,  has  been  boiled. 

Gru#l  is  consumed  in  a  liquid  or  semi-liquid  form.  It  is  prepared  by 
first  mixing  groats  with  a  little  cold  water,  then  pouring  in  the  requisite 
quantity  of  boiling  water,  and  afterward  boiling  for  ten  minutes  and 
well  stirring  all  the  while. 

Oats  form  an  important  and  valuable  article  of  food.  With  a  propor- 
tion of  nitrogenous  matter  which  bears  a  favorable  comparison  with  that 
of  wheat,  they  stand  next  to»maize  amongst  the  cultivated  cereals  in  the 
amount  of  fatty  matter  that  is  present.  The  percentage  of  saline  matter 
is  also  high.  "  Oatmeal,"  says  Dr.  Cullen,  "  is  especially  the  food  of  the 
people  of  Scotland;  and  was  formerly  that  of  the  northern  parts  of  Eng- 
land— counties  which  have  always  produced  as  healthy  and  as  vigorous  a 
race  of  men  as  any  in  Europe."  Scotch  oatmeal  is  considered  preferable 
to  English.  It  possesses  higher  nutritive  value. 

Oatmeal  enjoys  the  reputation  of  exerting  a  slightly  laxative  action, 
and  Dr.  Christison  remarks  that  he  has  in  several  instances  found  it  of 
service  in  relieving  habitual  constipation,  upon  being  taken  at  breakfast 
in  the  form  of  porridge.  It  is  apt  to  disagree  with  some  dyspeptics,  hav- 
ing a  tendency  to  produce  acidity  and  pyrosis,  and  cases  have  been  no- 
ticed amongst  those  who  have  been  in  the  daily  habit  of  consuming  it, 
where  dyspeptic  symptoms  have  subsided  upon  temporarily  abandoning 
its  use. 

Intestinal  concretions,  composed  of  phosphate  of  lime,  agglutinated 
animal  matter,  and  the  small,  stiff,  silky  hairs  existing  at  one  end  of  the 
oat,  with  small  fragments  of  the  husk,  were  formerly  of  not  uncommon 
occurrence  as  a  result  of  the  habitual  consumption  of  oatmeal-food.  Such 
concretions,  however,  are  now  rarely  met  with,  on  account,  it  is  believed, 
of  the  oats  being  more  thoroughly  deprived  of  their  husk  and  better 
cleaned  than  formerly. 

BARLEY. — Barley  is  obtained  from  several  species  of  Hordeum,  the 
favorite  being  Hordeum  distichon,  or  common  summer  barley  of  Eng- 
land, of  which  several  varieties  are  cultivated.  It  is  met  with  in  com- 
merce as  a  grain,  enclosed  in  the  palece  or  husk.  The  product,  when  the 
whole  grain  is  ground,  forms  barley-meal. 

Scotch,  milled,  or  pot  barley,  constitutes  the  grain  deprived  of  its  husk 
by  a  mill. 

Pearl  barley  is  the  grain  deprived  of  the  husk,  and  rounded  and  pol- 
ished by  attrition. 

Patent  barley  forms  the  product  derived  from  grinding  pearl  barley  to 
the  state  of  flour. 

Composition  of  Barley-meal  (from  Letheby's  table). 

Nitrogenous  matter,  .         .         »£•„     .         .         . 
Carbohydrates,  ........ 

Fatty  matter,     .         .         .         .         .         .         . 

Saline  matter,    ........ 

Water,       .         .         .         .         . 

100.0 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  159 

In  the  composition  of  barley,  as  given  by  Payen,  a  marked  discord- 
ancy with  the  above  exists  as  regards  the  nitrogenous  matter,  the  quan- 
tity of  which,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  following  figures,  is  represented  as 
rather  more  than  double: 

Composition  of  Dried  Barley  (Payen). 

Nitrogenous  matter,         ......     12. f!6 

Starch,    .........     66.43 

Dextrine,  etc., 10.00 

Fatty  matter, 2.76 

Cellulose,         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .4.75 

Mineral  matter,       .         .         .         .         .         .         .3.10 


100.00 

The  nitrogenous  matter  of  barley  exists  under  the  form  of  albumen 
•  and  caseine.  There  is  little  or  no  gluten,  and  hence,  like  oatmeal,  it  can- 
not be  made  into  a  vesiculated  bread.  Barley-bread  is,  therefore,  usually 
made  by  mixing  wheaten-flour  with  the  meal.  Barley-cakes  are  eaten 
on  the  score  of  economy  in  some  of  the  agricultural  districts  of  England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland,  and  in  the  north  of  Europe,  but  forfn  a  much  less 
palatable  food  than  that  derived  from  wheaten-flour.  They  are  also  less 
digestible,  and  are  regarded  as  possessing  rather  laxative  properties. 
They  certainly  appear  to  constitute  an  unsuitable  food  in  disordered  con- 
ditions of  the  alimentary  canal. 

Barley-water  is  prepared  from  pearl  barley,  and  forms  a  useful  demul- 
cent and  slightly  nutritive  liquid  for  the  sick-room. 

Malt  is  the  product  yielded  when  barley  has  been  allowed  to  germi- 
nate, and  the  germination  has  been  stopped  at  a  certain  point  by  subject- 
ing the  grain  to  heat  in  a  kiln.  As  a  result  of  the  process,  a  peculiar 
active  nitrogenous  principle,  called  diastase,  is  developed,  which  has  the 
power  of  effecting  the  conversion  of  starch  into  dextrine  and  sugar;  and, 
through  this,  malt  differs  from  barley  in  a  portion  of  the  starch  being 
represented  by  sugar. 

Malt  infused  in  hot  water  yields  Sweet-icort,  which  is  rich  in  saccharine 
matter.  This  is  used  for  making  beer.  Malt  is  also  used  to  some  extent 
as  food  for  cattle,  and  is  thought  to  be  more  easy  of  assimilation  than  the 
urimalted  grain,  but  experience  has  not  shown  that  it  possesses  higher 
fattening  properties. 

Malt  forms  one  of  the  ingredients  of  Liebig^s  Food  for  Infants,  which 
has  been  introduced  as  a  substitute  for  woman's  milk.  The  article  has 
been  referred  to  at  p.  122,  under  the  head  of  milk. 

RYE. — The  common  rye,  or  Secale  cereale,  is  cultivated  extensively  on 
the  Continent,  but  is  little  grown  in  England.  It  is  of  a  hardy  nature, 
and  is  usually  sown  in  ground  where  the  soil  is  too  poor  for  wheat  to 
grow. 

In  external  appearance  the  rye-grain  presents  a  closer  resemblance  to 
wheat  than  any  of  the  other  cereals.  It  is,  however,  darker  in  color  and 
smaller  in  size.  In  the  centre  the  grain  is  white  and  farinaceous,  but  to- 
ward the  exterior  it  is  brownish.  As  met  with  in  commerce,  it  is  de- 
prived of  the  paleas  or  husk,  as  in  the  case  of  wheat.  It  is  ground,  and 
used  under  the  form  of  rye-meal. 


160  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD   AND   DIETETICS. 

Composition  of  Rye-meal  (from  Letheby's  table). 
Nitrogenous  matter,    .         .         •         •        •  •       «         •       8.0 
Carbohydrates,    .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .     73.2 

Fatty  matter .       2.0 

Saline  matter,      .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .1.8 

Water,         .         .         .         .         .     ;  .  .         .     15.0 


100.0 

Composition  of  Dried  Rye  (Payen). 
Nitrogenous  matter,  .         .         .         .         ...    12.50 

Starch,       .........    64.65 

Dextrine,  etc., '.-•.-.    14.90 

Fatty  matter,     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .2.25 

Cellulose,  .    '     .         . 3.10 

Mineral  matter, .         ,         .      <   .         .         .         .         .2.60 

100.00 

• 

The  nitrogenous  matter  of  rye  consists  of  fibrine,  glutine,  and  albu- 
men. From  the  nature  of  its  nitrogenous  matter,  rye  approaches  nearer 
to  wheat  than  the  other  cereal  grains  in  the  aptitude  of  its  flour  for 
making  a  resiculated  bread. 

Rye-bread  was  once  a  common  article  of  food  in  England.  It  forms 
the  dark-colored  and  sour-tasting  bread  which  is  still  extensively  used  in 
the  North  of  Europe.  It  may  be  spoken  of  as  filling  the  place  of  wheaten- 
bread  in  temperate  countries  where  poverty  prevails  and  agriculture  is 
the  least  advanced;  and  in  some  parts  of  Belgium,  Holland,  Prussia, 
Germany,  Russia,  and  other  countries  in  the  north,  rye-bread  is  found  to 
constitute  the  staple  food  of  the  people. 

Rye-bread  falls  but  little  short  of  wheaten-bread  in  nutritive  value. 
Its  color  and  acid  taste,  however,  render  it  disrelishable  to  those  who  are 
unaccustomed  to  it,  and  it  is  only  necessity  that  leads  to  its  consumption. 
Moreover,  it  is  apt  to  occasion  diarrhoaa,  but  custom  soon  overcomes  this 
effect.  On  account  of  its  laxative  action,  it  is  sometimes  taken  to  coun- 
teract habitual  constipation.  Rye  is  imported  into  England  for  malting, 
and  is  so  made  use  of  by  distillers. 

Ergotized  or  Spurred  Rye. — The  cereals  are  subject  to  become  the  seat 
of  growth  of  a  parasitic  fungus,  which  gives  to  the  grain  deleterious  pro- 
perties; and,  of  all  of  them,  rye  is  the  most  prone  to  be  attacked  in  this 
way.  The  affected  grain  undergoes  development,  so  as  to  project  con- 
siderably beyond  the  husk,  and  it  may  attain  upward  of  four  times  its 
size  in  the  ordinary  state.  On  account  of  this  excessive  growth,  it  can 
be  separated  by  sifting  from  the  unaffected  seed,  and,  unless  this  is  done 
to  an  ergotized  crop,  serious  consequences  may  arise  from  its  consumption 
as  food.  At  various  times,  indeed,  the  inhabitants  of  different  parts  of 
the  Continent  have  been  stricken  with  fatal  illness  from  this  cause.  Two 
classes  of  symptoms  are  produced,  denominated  the  convulsive  and  gan- 
grenous forms  of  ergotism.  In  the  one,  the  phenomena  consist  of  weari- 
ness, giddiness,  contraction  of  the  muscles  of  the  extremities,  formication, 
dimness  of  sight,  loss  of  sensibility,  voracious  appetite,  yellow  counte- 
nance, and  convulsions,  followed  by  death;  in  the  other,  there  is  also 
formication,  that  is,  a  feeling  as  if  insects  were  creeping  over  the  skin, 
and  voracious  appetite,  and  with  this  there  occur  coldness  and  insensi- 
bility of  the  extremities,  followed  by  gangrene  (Pereira). 


ALIMENTARY   SUBSTANCES.  161 

CORN  OB  MAIZE. — The  common  maize,  or  Indian  corn  (Zea 
mays),  is  a  native  of  tropical  America,  and  is  now  extensively  cultivated 
in  the  United  States,  Africa,  Asia,  Southern  Europe,  Germany,  and  Ire- 
land. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  the  plant,  as  well  as  a  distinct  and  smaller 
species,  named  Zea  curagua,  which  forms  the  Chili  maize  or  Valparaiso 
corn. 

The  grains  of  maize  are  variously  colored,  hut  those  most  commonly 
met  with  are  yellow.  The  ears  when  nearly  full-grown,  and  whilst  in  a 
succulent  state,  are  a  favorite  delicacy  in  North  America,  where  they  are 
boiled,  and  the  grain  eaten  with  salt  and  butter,  or  cut  off  and  cooked 
with  beans,  forming  "  succotash."  The  succulent  grains,  indeed,  may  be 
made  to  take  the  place  of  young  peas,  and  are  available  for  the  table  when 
the  season  for  peas  is  over.  When  the  ears  are  allowed  to  ripen,  and  the 
grains  are  afterward  deprived  of  their  hull  and  broken,  or  coarsely  ground, 
preparations  are  produced  known  as  hominy,  samp,  or  grits,  according  to 
the  size  to  which  they  are  reduced.  They  are  boiled  in  water,  and  eaten 
like  rice. 

A  small  variety  of  maize,  with  translucent  and  deeply  colored  grains, 
is  specially  denominated  pop-corn.  The  grains  possess  the  property,  when 
gently  roasted,  of  bursting,  turning  inside  out,  and  swelling  to  many 
times  their  original  size.  In  this  condition  they  are  sometimes  sold  in 
London,  and  eaten  by  children  as  a  delicacy,  whilst  in  America  they  are 
consumed  at  table  with  a  little  salt. 

Maize  or  Indian  corn-meal  is  not  adapted  for  making  bread,  on  account 
of  its  deficiency  in  gluten,  without  the  admixture  of  wheaten  or  rye-flour. 
The  common  brown  bread  of  New  England  is  made  from  a  mixture  of  rye- 
and  maize-meal.  Used  alone,  maize-rneal,  like  oatmeal  and  barley-meal, 
is  made  into  a  cake,  and  this,  when  roasted,  is  called  in  Spanish  America 
"  tortilla."  In  the  United  States  it  is  called  "johnny-cake,"  "hoe-cake," 
"pone,"  or  "  Indian  bread,"  It  is  also  frequently  made  into  liquid  dough 
and  baked  in  thin  cakes. 

Maize-meal  is  consumed  in  Ireland  and  some  other  places  principally 
in  the  form  of  porridge,  which  goes  by  the  name  of  "polenta"  in  Italy, 
and  "  mush  "  in  North  America.  Polenta  is  also  the  name  applied  to  the 
maize-meal  of  the  shops.  Maize-porridge  made  with  milk  is  a  favorite 
food  in  British  Honduras,  where  it  forms  what  is  called  "corn  lob." 

The  flavor  of  maize  is  harsh  and  peculiar,  and  disagreeable  to  those 
who  have  been  unaccustomed  to  it.  Treating  the  meal  with  a  weak  solu- 
tion of  caustic  soda  deprives  it  of  this  unpleasantness.  It  also,  however, 
removes  some  of  the  nitrogenous  matter,  and  thus  robs  it  of  a  portion  of 
its  nutritive  value.  Such  constitutes  the  foundation  of  the  process  for 
preparing  the  articles  so  extensively  sold  and  used  under  the  names  of 
Oswego  flour,  Maizena,  and  Corn-flour. 

Composition  of  Indian  Corn-meal  (Letheby's  table). 

Nitrogenous  matter,  .......     11.1 

Carbohydrates,    .         .       '  .         .          .          .  •       .          .65.1 

Fatty  matter,      .         . 8.1 

Saline  matter,     .         .          .         .          .          .          .          .        1.7 

Water,  .         .         ....         .         .         .     14.0 

100.0 
11 


162  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 


Composition  of  Dried  Maize  (Payen). 

Nitrogenous  matter,           ...         .         .         .  12.50 

Starch,      .         .         . 67.55 

Dextrine,  etc.,  .         .         .       V        •         .         .         .  4.00 

Fatty  matter,    .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  8.80 

Cellulose, 5.90 

Mineral  matter,          .         , 1.25 


100.00 
i 

Whilst  containing  an  average  amount  of  nitrogenous  matter,  maize  is 
characterized  and  distinguished,  as  is  shown  by  the  above  analyses,  from 
the  other  cerealia  by  the  large  amount  of  fatty  matter  present.  As  regards 
this  quality,  none  of  the  other  cerealia  exhibit  even  an  approach  to  it. 
On  account  of  the  fatty  matter  present,  maize  acquires,  on  keeping  for 
some  time,  an  unpleasant  rancid  taste,  from  the  usual  change  induced  by 
exposure  to  air. 

Containing,  .as  it  does,  about  the  same  percentage  of  nitrogenous 
matter  as  soft  wheat,  and  upward  of  four  times  the  amount  of  fatty 
matter,  maize  stands  in  a  high  position  as  regards  alimentary  value.  It 
is  largely  used  both  for  feeding  and  fattening  animals;  and  its  fattening 
properties,  as  explained  by  its  composition,  are  superior  to  the  othercere- 
als.  It  is  with  maize  that  the  Strasbourg  geese  are  crammed  for  the  pro- 
duction of  the  "  foie  gras."  Properly  prepared,  it  furnishes  a  wholesome, 
digestible,  and  nutritious  food  for  man;  but  with  those,  it  is  said,  who 
have  been  unaccustomed  to  its  use,  it  is  apt  to  excite  a  tendency  to 
diarrhoaa.  It  is  the  chief  food  of  the  slaves  in  Brazil,  as  it  was  of  those 
in  the  United  States,  and  is  largely  eaten  in  Mexico  and  Peru,  and  by  the 
Indians  of  New  Spain.  Since  its  introduction  into  Europe,  it  has  in  some 
districts  superseded  other  grains,  and  it  is  said  that  twice  as  much  maize 
is  eaten  in  Piedmont  as  wheat-flour.  In  Ireland  it  has  to  a  considerable 
extent  taken  the  place  of  the  potato. 

RICE. — The  common  rice,  or  Oryza  sativa,  is  extensively  cultivated 
in  India,  China,  and  most  other  Eastern  Countries,  the  West  Indies, 
Central  America,  and  the  United  States,  and  also  in  some  of  the  Southern 
countries  of  Europe.  It  is  said  to  supply  the  principal  food  of  nearly 
one-third  of  the  human  race. 

There  is  a  large  number  of  varieties  of  the  plant  cultivated,  and  con- 
siderably more  than  one  hundred  different  kinds  are  grown  in  India  and 
Ceylon.  The  best  rice  imported  into  this  country  is  brought  from  Caro- 
lina and  Patna.  The  fields  in  which  rice  is  raised,  called  paddy  fields,  are 
periodically  flooded  with  water,  as  the  plant  requires  a  constantly  wet 
soil  for  its  growth.  Before  ripening,  the  water  is  drained  off,  and  the 
crop  is  cut  with  a  sickle. 

Paddy  is  the  name  given  to  the  seed  when  enclosed  in  the  paleae  or 
husk.  This  husk  adheres  very  closely,  and  care  has  to  be  exercised  to 
enable  its  removal  to  be  effected  without  damaging  or  breaking  the 
grain.  Special  machinery  is  employed  for  the  purpose.  After  the  husk 
has  been  removed,  the  grain  is  passed  through  a  whitening  machine,  in 
order  to  remove  the  inner  cuticle,  or  red  skin.  When  this  has  been  ac- 
complished, the  product  forms  the  rice  met  with  in  the  shops. 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  163 

Rice  is  consumed  as  food,  both  in  the  state  of  grain  and  ground  into 
flour. 

Composition  of  Mice  (from  Letheby's  table). 

Nitrogenous  matter,  .......  6.3 

Carbohydrates,  ........  79.5 

Fatty  matter, 0.7 

Saline  matter,     .          .         .          .         .          .          .    •  0.5 

Water,        ....                                     .  13.0 

100.0 
Composition  of  Dried  Rice  (Payen). 

Nitrogenous  matter, .......  7.55 

Starch,      ...                  88.65 

Dextrine,  etc.,  ........  1.00 

Fatty  matter, 0.80 

Cellulose, .  1.10 

Mineral  matter,         .......  0.90 


100.0 

Rice  is  characterized  by  the  large  proportion  of  starch,  and  the  small 
proportions  of  nitrogenous,  fatty,  and  mineral  matter  it  contains.  In 
composition  it  must  be  looked  upon  as  presenting  considerable  analogy 
to  the  potato. 

Rice,  like  the  potato,  is  largely  used  for  the  manufacture  of  starch. 
The  process  adopted  is  to  treat  the  flour  with  a  solution  of  caustic  soda, 
which  dissolves  out  the  nitrogenous  matter.  The  starch  is  then  allowed 
to  deposit  itself,  and  is  afterward  washed  and  dried.  From  the  alkaline 
solution  the  nitrogenous  matter  may  be  recovered,  if  desired,  by  the  addi- 
tion of  an  acid.  The  starch-granules  of  rice  are  remarkable  for  the 
smalhiess  of  their  size.  They  form  exceedingly  minute,  irregular-shaped, 
angular  particles. 

Rice  is  too  poor  in  nitrogenous  matter,  fatty  matter,  and  salts  to 
yield  alone  what  is  wanted  in  an  aliment,  unless  consumed  in  very  large 
quantity,  thereby  sacrificing  a  considerable  portion  of  its  starch.  The 
starch,  in  other  words,  is  out  of  proportion  to  the  other  alimentary 
principles,  looked  at  in  relation  to  the  requirements  of  the  system.  As- 
sociated with  other  articles,  to  compensate  for  the  deficiency  in  the  prin- 
ciples named,  rice  constitutes  an  exceedingly  valuable  food.  It  has  the 
advantage  of  possessing  an  easily  digestible  starch -granule  and  hence  is 
found  a  useful  aliment  in  disordered  states  of  the  alimentary  canal.  In 
the  case  of  persons  suffering  from  diarrhoea  or  dysentery,  it  agrees  better 
than  any  other  kind  of  solid  food.  It  certainly  exerts  no  laxative  action, 
as  many  of  the  cereals  do,  and  is  often  regarded,  indeed,  as  having  an 
opposite  effect,  but  probably  it  occupies  simply  a  neutral  position  in  this 
respect. 

Rice  is  best  cooked  by  thoroughly  steaming.  If  boiled  in  water  it 
.loses  a  portion  of  the  already  small  quantity  of  nitrogenous  and  saline 
matter  it  contains.  It  does  not  admit  of  being  made  into  bread,  but  is 
used  for  mixing  with  wheaten-flour  to  furnish  the  very  white  bread  which 
is  in  request  in  Paris. 


164  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

MILLET. — The  common  millet  (Panicum  miliaceum)  is  a  native  of  the 
East  Indies,  but  is  cultivated  in  the  South  of  Europe  and  other  parts  of 
the  world.  Panicum  jumentorum,  or  Guinea  grass,  is  a  native  of  Africa, 
but  is  now  cultivated  in  the  West  Indies  and  America.  There  is  a  very 
large  number  of  varieties  of  millet,  the  grain  of  which  is  mostly  used  as 
food  for  poultry  and  other  domestic  animals.  It  is  sometimes  made  into 
loaves  and  cakes,  and  in  some  places  is  the  principal  food  of  the  in- 
habitants. Its  nutritive  value  is  said  to  be  about  equal  to  rice. 

Dhurra,  Dhoora,  or  Sorgho  grass  (Sorghum),  is  sometimes  called 
Indian  millet,  but  it  belongs  to  a  different  tribe  of  grasses  from  the  true 
millets.  It  is  cultivated  largely  in  Asia  and  Africa,  and,  to  some  extent, 
in  the  South  of  Europe.  The  grain  is  round,  and  a  little  larger  than  a 
mustard-seed.  In  India  it  is  ground  whole  and  made  into  bread.  The 
bread  is  said  to  be  very  good,  and  to  have  been  issued  to  the  English 
troops  in  the  last  Chinese  expedition.  Johnston  describes  the  grain  as 
quite  equal  in  nutritive  value  to  the  average  of  our  English  wheats. 
Letheby  speaks  of  it  as  a  little  more  nutritious  than  rice,  and  as  contain- 
ing, on  an  average,  about  9  per  cent,  of  nitrogenous  matter,  with  74  of 
starch  and  sugar,  2.6  of  fat,  and  2.3  of  mineral  matter. 

Manna-grass  (  Glyceria,  Festuca,  or  Poa  Jiuitans)  constitutes  one  of 
the  meadow-grasses  (floating  meadow-grass),  and  yields  seeds  which  are 
sometimes  consumed  as  human  food.  The  plant  grows  plentifully  in 
marshes  and  on  the  sides  of  ditches  and  stagnant  waters  in  most  parts  of 
Europe,  and  is  also  met  with  in  Asia,  North  America,  and  Australia. 
It  derives  its  name  from  the  sweet  taste  which  the  seeds  possess,  a  char- 
acter which  is  particularly  marked  before  the  plant  has  attained  its  full 
growth.  In  many  parts  of  Poland,  Holland,  and  Germany,  the  seeds,  which 
fall  very  readily,  are  collected  and  used  in  soups  or  consumed  as  gruel 
or  puddings.  They  form  a  very  palatable  and  nutritious  product,  and  are 
sold  under  the  name  of  Polish  manna,  manna  seeds,  and  manna-croup. 

BUCKWHEAT. — Buckwheat,  although  not  a  cereal,  may  be  conveniently 
referred  to  in  connection  with  the  cereal  grains. 

The  common  buckwheat  (Fagopyrum  esculentum),  belonging  to  tha 
order  Polygonacece,  is  a  native  of  Central  Asia,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
introduced  into  Europe  either  by  the  Moors  or  by  the  Crusaders.  In 
France  it  is  called  J3le  Sarrasin,  or  Saracen  wheat,  and  in  Norfolk  and 
Suffolk  it  goes  by  the  name  of  brank.  The  name  buckwheat  is  a  corrup- 
tion of  the  German  Buckweizen  (beech-wheat),  drawn  from  its  resemblance 
to  the  seed  of  the  beech-tree. 

The  plant  grows  very  quickly,  and  yields  abundantly,  but,  as  it  is  de- 
stroyed by  frost,  it  cannot  be  sown  until  the  season  for  cold  weather  has 
passed.  In  England  it  is  principally  cultivated  for  feeding  pheasants 
and  other  game,  but  in  Brittany  it  is  grown  in  place  of  wheatv  No  grain 
is  eaten  so  eagerly  by  poultry,  and  it  is  sometimes  given  to  horses  instead 
of  oats,  or  in  combination  with  them.  The  seed  is  covered  with  a  hard 
rind,  or  thin  shell,  which  has  to  be  removed  before  it  is  fit  for  being  eaten 
by  cattle. 

When  used  for  human  food,  it  is  usually  consumed  as  hasty  pudding 
or  pottage.  The  flour  is  fine  and  white,  but  devoid  of  gluten,  and,  there- 
fore, does  not  make  proper  bread.  It  is  used,  however,  for  pastry;  and 
thin  cakes,  which  are  very  good  eating,  are  largely  made  from  it  in  the 
United  States.  Crumpets  made  from  buckwheat  form  a  favorite  dainty 
with  the  children  in  Holland. 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  165 


Composition  of  Buckwheat  (Payen). 

Nitrogenous  matter, .13.10 

Starch,  etc., 64.90 

Fatty  matter, 3.00 

Cellulose, 3.50 

Mineral  matter,         .                  2.50 

Water,              13.00 


100.00 

QUINOA.  —  Quinoa,  like  buckwheat,  may  also  be  conveniently  consid- 
ered in  association  with  the  cerealia. 

The  quinoa  plant  (  Chenopodium  Quinoa),  belonging  to  the  order 
Chenopodiacece,  which  includes  our  spinach  and  beet,  is  a  native  of  the 
high  table-lands  of  Chili  and  Peru,  where  it  grows  at  an  elevation  of  13,- 
000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  a  height  at  which  barley  and  rye  fail 
to  ripen.  There  are  two  varieties  of  it,  viz.,  the  sweet  and  the  bitter.  It 
is  hardly  known  in  this  country,  but  forms  the  principal  food  of  the  in- 
habitants of  the  locality  in  which  it  grows.  The  leaves  are  used  as 
spinach,  and  the  grain,  called  "  petty  rice,"  is  mixed  with  soup.  Quinoa, 
judging  from  the  subjoined  analysis,  forms  a  valuable  article  of  food  as 
regards  the  possession  of  nutritive  ingredients.  Its  proportion  of  nitro- 
genous matter  is  very  large.  It  is  also  fairly  rich  in  fat,  very  rich  in  salts, 
and  likewise  said  to  be  rich  in  iron  —  the  richest,  indeed,  in  this  respect, 
of  any  vegetable.  It  thus  appears  to  possess  qualities  that  might  render 
it  exceedingly  useful,  in  a  therapeutic  point  of  view.  Its  starch-grains 
are  alleged  to  be  the  smallest  known.  The  meal  can  only  be  made  into 
cakes,  not  into  leavened  bread. 

Analysis  of  Quinoa  (Voelcker). 


Nitrogenous  matter,     ....  22.86  19 

Starch,          .         .         .     ^yv  '     •         •  56.80  60 

Fatty  matter,        .....  5.74  5 

Vegetable  fibre,          ;}  .    .     .         .         .  9.53  — 

Ash,     .....         .         .  5.05 

Water,          .         .         .        '/       .  —  16 


LEGUMINOUS  SEEDS,  OR  PULSES. 

This  group  of  farinaceous  seeds,  which  includes  beans,  peas,  and  len- 
tils, is  characterized  by  the  large  proportion  of  nitrogenous  matter  they 
contain.  In  this  respect  they  stand  strikingly  in  advance  of  the  cerealia, 
for  the  amount  may  be  twice  as  much  as  that  contained  in  an  ordinary 
kind  of  wheat. 

The  form  under  which  the  nitrogenous  matter  is  present  is  chiefly  as 
a  substance  called  legumine,  which  is  a  representation  of  vegetable 
caseine. 

By  virtue  of  their  composition,  the  leguminous  seeds  possess  a  high 
nutritive  value,  and  furnish  a  food  which  is  more  satisfying  than  vege- 


166  A   TREATISE    OX    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

table  food  generally  to  the  stomach,  and  more  closely  allied  in  a  dietetic 
point  of  view  to  the  alimentary  products  supplied  by  the  animal  king- 
dom. They  thereby  furnish  an  advantageous  substitute  for  animal  food 
for  those  who  fast  during  Lent  and  on  maigre  days,  and  it  is  probably 
on  this  account  that  haricots  blanc  and  lentils  are  so  much  more  largely 
consumed  in  France  and  other  Catholic  countries  than  in  England.  Their 
large  amount  of  nitrogenous  matter  adapts  them  for  consumption  in  asso- 
ciation with  articles  in  which  starch  or  fat  is  a  predominating  principle. 
With  rice,  therefore,  they  form  an  appropriate  combination,  and  this  ad- 
mixture is  found  to  constitute  the  staple  food  of  large  populations  in 
India.  Bacon  and  beans  are  also  a  suitable  association,  and  form  a  dish 
which  has  been  of  repute  amongst  us  from  ancient  times. 

As  a  drawback  to  their  high  nutritive  value,  the  leguminous  seeds  must 
be  ranked  as  difficult  of  digestion.  They  require  prolonged  boiling  to  ren- 
der them  tender  and  digestible.  They  are  apt,  besides  lying  heavy  on  the 
stomach,  to  occasion  flatulence  and  colic,  and  the  flatus  is  charged  with  a 
considerable  quantity  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  arising  from  the  sulphur 
which  the  legumine  contains.  They  are  also  regarded  as  stimulating  or 
heating  to  the  system,  and  it  is  on  account  of  this  property  that  a  moderate 
quantity  of  beans  proves  a  serviceable  adjunct  to  the  food  of  the  horse 
during  the  winter  months. 

BEANS. — Beans  are  derived  from  the  Fdba  vulgaris,  a  plant  which  is 
supposed  to  be  a  native  of  the  East,  but  which  has  been  cultivated  in 
Britain  from  time  immemorial.  There  are  several  varieties,  one  of  which 
yields  the  common  horse-bean,  which  is  raised  in  fields;  and  another, 
the  broad-  or  Windsor-bean,  which  is  grown  in  gardens.  The  former 
is  almost  exclusively  employed  as  food  for  cattle.  It  is  but  rarely  used 
as  food  by  man,  and  then  chiefly,  after  grinding,  as  an  adulterant  of 
wheaten-flour,  or  to  give  a  desired  quality  to  the  loaf  made  from  certain 
kinds  of  flour.  The  latter  is  boiled  in  the  young  and  fresh  state,  for  use 
at  the  table  as  a  vegetable.  It  is  also  dried  and  preserved,  whilst  still 
green,  so  as  to  be  available  all  the  year  round.  In  this  condition  it  re- 
quires to  be  soaked  in  water  for  some  hours  before  being  cooked. 

Composition  of  Beans  (Payen). 

TT         K  Broad-  or  Windsor  bean,  dried  in 

•"•        the  green  state  and  decorticated. 

Nitrogenous  matter,  .     30.8  29.05 

Starch,  etc.,      .         .  .     48.3  55.85 

Cellulose,          .         .  .3.0  1.05 

Fatty  matter,  .         .  .1.9  2.00 

Saline  matter,  .         .  .       3.5  3.65 

Water,     .         .         .  .12.5  8.40 


100.0  .  100.00 

Haricots  or  French-beans. — The  common  kidney-bean,  or  French- 
bean  (Phaseolus  vulgaris,)  is  a  native  of  India,  and  was  introduced  into 
England  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  scarlet-runner  (Phaseolus  multi- 
florus),  another  variety  of  the  plant,  is  a  native  of  South  America,  and 
was  introduced  into  England  in  1633.  The  unripe  pods  of  both,  with 
the  young  seeds  in  them,  are  cooked  and  eaten  as  a  green  vegetable  at 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  167 

the  table.     On  the  Continent  the  pods  are  allowed  to  ripen,  and  the  seeds 
form  haricots  blancs,  which  are  consumed  both  in  a  fresh  and  dried  state. 

Composition  of  Haricots  Ulancs  (Payen). 

Nitrogenous  matter,   .......     25.5 

Starch,  etc.,         ........     55.7 

Cellulose,  2-9 

Fatty  matter, 2.8 

Mineral  matter,  .         .         .         .         .          .         .         .3.2 

Water, 9.9 


100.0 

PEAS. — There  are  several  varieties  of  the  pea.  Some,  derived  from 
the  Pisum  arvense,  are  grown  in  fields  by  the  farmer  as  food  for  cattle. 
Others,  forming  the  garden-pea,  are  derived  from  Pisum  sativum,  a  na- 
tive of  the  South  of  Europe,  but  long  known  in  England.  The  more 
choice  kinds  of  the  garden-pea  were  brought  from  Holland,  and  formed 
an  expensive  article  of  food  in  Queen  Elizabeth's  time.  Peas  are  grown 
for  the  ripened  and  dried  seeds,  and  also  for  eating  as  a  succulent  vegeta- 
ble. In  the  latter  case  the  pods  are  gathered  before  they  have  arrived  at 
maturity,  and  the  seeds  separated  and  consumed  in  a  green  state.  There 
is  a  kind  of  pea,  called  sugar-pea,,  the  pods  of  which  are  gathered  young, 
and  cooked  and  eaten  with  the  seeds  in  them,  in  the  same  way  as  French- 
beans. 

Peas,  when  quite  young,  are  tender  and  sweet,  and  far  more  digesti- 
ble, but  less  nourishing,  than  peas  in  the  mature  state.  The  latter,  like 
other  leguminous  seeds,  require  slow  and  prolonged  cooking  to  render 
them  soft  and  digestible.  When  old,  no  amount  of  boiling  will  soften 
them;  indeed,  the  longer  they  are  boiled  the  harder  they  become.  In 
this  condition  they  should  be  soaked  in  water  for  some  time,  and  then 
crushed  and  stewed,  or  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  dried  peas,  to 
render  them  palatable  and  digestible. 

Composition  of  Dried  Peas  (Payen). 

Nitrogenous  matter,   .                ••'.•  •.      .         .         .         .  23.8 

Starch,  etc.,        .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  58.7 

Cellulose,  .........  3.5 

Fatty  matter,     .          .          .      •   I         »         .          .          .  2.1 

Mineral  matter,.          .          .          .          .          ...  2.1 

Water,        .         . 8.3 

The  Sea-pea  (Pisum  maritimum)  is  used  as  an  article  of  food  in  many 
parts  of  Europe,  although  the  seeds  are  bitter  to  the  taste  ("  Baird's  Cyclo. 
of  Natural  Sciences.") 

LENTILS. — Lentils  form  another  alimentary  product  yielded  by  the 
leguminous  tribe,  and  one  of  great  antiquity.  Although  at  present  eaten 
in  some  parts  of  Europe  and  in  Eastern  countries,  they  are  rarely  em- 
ployed as  human  food  in  England.  They  are  derived  from  the  Eroum 
lens,  which  constitutes  a  kind  of  tare. 


168  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 


Composition  of  Lentils  (Pay en). 

Nitrogenous  matter,  .         .         .         .         .         .         .     25.2 

Starch,  etc.,        ...          .          .          .         .       .  ..-      •     56.0 

Cellulose,  .         .  '  \"  .  .2.4 

Fatty  matter, .......       2.6 

Mineral  matter, .         .         .         .         ...         .         .      ^.3 

Water,       .         .         .         ....         .         .         .     11.5 

100.0 

JKevalenta  and  Erocdenta,  articles  which  will  be  referred  to  under  the 
head  of  farinaceous  preparations,  owe  their  chief  composition  to  lentil 
flour. 

Misos,  small  beans  like  lentils,  are  eaten  largely  by  the  Japanese 
("  Thunberg's  Travels,"  vol.  iv.,  p.  35). 

Dolichos  furnish  to  the  poorer  natives  of  India  a  pulse  which  they  use 
extensively  for  their  curries,  etc.  ("Baird's  Cyclo.  of  Nat.  Sci."). 

The  seeds  of  the  Egyptian  white  Lupine  (Lupinus  ternis)  are  used  by 
the  Egyptians  as  an  article  of  food,  although  it  is  difficult  to  rid  them  of 
their  bitter  taste  (''  Baird's  Cyclo.  of  Nat.  Sci."). 

The  Lotus  edulis,  a  native  of  the  South  of  Europe  and  Egypt,  has  the 
taste  of  peas,  and  is  an  article  of  food  in  some  countries.  The  ancient 
Egyptians  ate  it,  as  do  the  Egyptians  of  the  present  day. 

THE  CHESTNUT. — The  Spanish,  or  sweet  chestnut,  is  an  edible,  farina- 
ceous seed,  which  stands  by  itself.  It  is  derived  from  a  stately  tree 
( Castanea  vesca),  which  is  a  native  of  all  the  Southern  parts  of  Europe, 
and  abounds  also  in  North  America.  Besides  starch,  the  chestnut  contains 
about  15  per  cent,  of  sugar.  No  oil  can  be  extracted  from  it  by  pressure. 
It  is  sometimes  eaten  in  the  raw  state,  but  is  more  usually  boiled  or 
roasted.  Even  in  a  cooked  condition  it  is  not  adapted  for  a  weak  stom- 
ach, and  in  the  uncooked  state  it  is  decidedly  indigestible.  It  is  exten- 
sively used  as  an  article  of  sustenance  by  the  lower  classes  in  many  parts 
of  the  European  Continent,  as  in  Italy,  Spain,  Switzerland,  and  Germany, 
and  by  the  Red  Indians  of  North  America  (Food  Journal,  vol.  i.,  p. 
100).  Sometimes  it  is  ground  into  flour  and  made  into  a  kind  of  bread, 
and  in  some  districts  it  is  specially  treated  to  get  rid  of  its  astringent 
and  bitter  qualities.  It  is  largely  imported  into  England  from  Spain  and 
Italy. 

The  seeds  of  some  species  of  the  genus  Cycas  are  used  as  food,  and 
esteemed  as  highly  as  chestnuts.  The  tree  is  found  in  the  temperate  and 
warm  regions  of  Asia  and  America,  and  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
("  Baird's  Cyclo.  of  Nat.  Sci."). 

» 

ACORNS. — Acorns  formed  a  considerable  part  of  the  food  of  man  in 
the  early  ages,  and  they  are  still  used  in  some  countries  as  a  substitute 
for  bread  ("  Baird's  Cyclo.  of  Nat,  Sci.").  Bartholin  says  that  in  Norway 
they  are  used  to  furnish  a  bread.  The  inhabitants  of  Chio  held  out  a 
long  siege  without  any  other  food,  and  during  a  time  of  great  scarcity  in 
France  (1709)  this  production  was  resorted  to  for  sustenance  ("  Forsyth's 
Diet,  of  Diet "). 


ALIMENT  ART    SUBSTANCES.  169 


OLEAGINOUS  SEEDS. 

There  are  various  seeds,  denominated  nuts,  which  are  devoid  of  starchy, 
but  rich  in  oily  matter.  The  starch  of  the  cerealia  appears  to  be  replaced 
by  fat.  They  are  also  rich  in  nitrogenous  matter,  which  exists  under  the 
form  of  albumen  and  caseine.  Thus  constituted,  they  possess  a  high  nu- 
tritive value,  but,  like  all  articles  permeated  with  fatty  matter,  they  are 
difficult  of  digestion  unless  reduced  to  a  minutely  divided  state  before 
being  consumed.  The  reason  of  this  is  easily  given.  Digestion  is  effected 
by  the  agency  of  a  watery  secretion,  and  where  a  substance  is  permeated 
with  oily  matter,  resistance  is  offered  to  the  penetration  of  a  watery 
liquid,  and  it  is  only  by  a  progressive  action  upon  the  surface  that  it  can 
become  attacked.  In  a  minutely  divided  state,  however,  no  such  ob- 
struction is  offered,  and  there  is  now  only  the  richness  belonging  to  an 
article  which  is  largely  impregnated  with  fatty  matter.  In  this  state,  and 
if  the  stomach  be  not  too  delicate  for  them,  they  form  a  highly  advan- 
tageous kind  of  food,  although  amongst  the  human  race  they  enjoy  but  a 
limited  application  as  an  important  or  staple  support.  It  must  further 
be  remarked  that,  on  account  of  their  fatty  constituents,  they  are  prone 
to  become  rancid  in  the  course  of  time  under  exposure  to  air. 

THE  ALMOND. — This  forms  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  oily  seeds. 
It  is  derived  from  the  Amygdalus  communis,  a  small  tree  which  belongs 
to  Barbary  and  Syria,  but  which  is  now  extensively  cultivated  in  the 
Southern  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  also  grown  in  England,  but  the  fruit 
there  does  not  arrive  at  perfection.  The  fruit,  like  the  peach,  apricot, 
plum,  etc.,  belongs  to  the  drupaceous  group.  The  cortical  part  of  it, 
however,  is  fibrous  and  juiceless,  and  not  adapted  for  eating.  It  has  been 
looked  upon,  it  may  be  mentioned,  as  bearing  the  same  relation  to  the 
peach  that  the  sloe  does  to  the  plum,  and  the  crab  to  the  apple.  The 
seed  or  kernel,  situated  within  the  shell,  and  provided  with  an  envelop- 
ing reddish  brown  skin,  is  the  only  edible  portion.  The  skin  possesses  a 
somewhat  rough  and  bitter  taste.  It  is  easily  removed  after  soaking 
for  a  short  time  in  warm  water,  and  the  almond  is  then  spoken  of  as 
blanched.  Apart  from  the  taste,  the  husk  or  skin  is  irritating  to  the 
throat  and  stomach,  and  unpleasant  effects  are  mentioned  as  having  been 
witnessed  in  consequence  of  its  non-removal.  Almonds,  therefore,  should 
always  be  blanched  for  the  table. 

Two  varieties  of  the  almond  are  met  with,  the  sweet  and  the  bitter. 
They  both  yield  by  pressure  an  odorless  fixed  oil,  which  is  of  a  perfectly 
innocent  nature.  The  bitter  almond,  exclusively,  contains  the  principles 
for  the  development  of  poisonous  products.  It  has  been  shown  that 
these  products  do  not  exist  preformed  in  the  seed,  but  are  generated  by 
the  reaction  of  two  principles  when  water  is  added.  It  appears  that  the 
bitter  almond  contains  a  crystallizable  substance,  named  amygdalin, 
which,  by  the  action  of  the  nitrogenous  matter  present,  viz.,  emulsin, 
when  in  contact  with  water,  is  converted  into  a  fragrant  volatile  oil  (the 
essential  oil  of  bitter  almonds),  hydrocyanic  or  prussic  acid,  and  other 
products.  The  sweet  almond  contains  emulsin,  but  no  amygdalin: 
hence  the  innocent  properties  that  belong  to  it. 

Of  the  sweet  almond,  the  Valentia,  Barhary,  Italian,  and  Jordan, 
form  the  varieties  met  with  in  commerce.  The  latter,  imported  from 
Malaga,  are  the  finest.  The  bitter  almond  is  chiefly  brought  from  Moga- 


170  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

doce.  It  is  extensively  used  for  the  extraction  of  the  fixed  oil,  and  when 
the  residue  has  been  mixed  with  water  and  subjected  to  distillation  for 
yielding  the  volatile  oil,  it  is  employed  for  fattening  pigs,  etc. 

Composition,  of  Sweet  Almonds  (Boullay). 

Ernulsin,    .        .......  .  .     24.0 

Fixed  oil,  .     '..         .         .                   .   .      .  .  .     54.0 

Liquid  sugar,    .          ...          .          .  .  .        6.0 

Gum,        .         .         .         .         ,  .                .  4  .       3.0 

Seed-coats,        .         .         .         ,         .         .  ..  .  .       5.0 

Woody  fibre,    .          .          .         ....  .  .4.0 

Water^ 3.5 

Acetic  acid  and  loss,         .         .         .         .  .  .0.5 


100.0 
Composition  of  Bitter  Almonds  (Vogel). 

Volatile  oil  and  hydrocyanic  acid,         .          Quantity  undetermined. 

Emulsin,     .         .         .      i 30.0 

Fixed  oil, ...     28.0 

Liquid  sugar,      .         ...         .         .         .         .       6.5 

Gum,  .........       3.0 

Seed  coats,          .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .8.5 

Woody  fibre,      . 5.0 

Loss, 19.0 


100.0 

The  sweet  almond  is  used  dietetically  in  cookery  and  confectionery, 
and  likewise  as  a  dessert.  For  the  latter  purpose  it  is  employed  both  in 
the  fresh  and  dried  state.  By  baking  for  a  short  time  it  becomes  brittle 
and  easily  pulverizable,  and  is,  doubtless,  thereby  rendered  more  digesti- 
ble. On  account  of  the  demand  for  it  as  an  article  of  food,  its  price  is 
too  high  for  the  extraction  of  oil  to  be  carried  on  from  it  to  any  extent. 
At  my  own  suggestion,  it  has  been  made  into  biscuits  for  the  use  of 
the  diabetic,  and  its  composition  shows  that  it  forms  a  very  suitable 
kind  of  food  for  administration  in  this  complaint.  From  their  richness 
in  nitrogenous  and  fatty  matters,  the  biscuits  might  also  be  advanta- 
geously employed  in  cases  of  defective  nutrition,  where  the  stomach  is 
strong  enough  to  bear  a  food  of  the  kind. 

The  bitter  almond  is  used  to  give  flavor  to  puddings,  sweetmeats, 
and  liqueurs  (macaroons,  ratafia-cakes,  and  noyeau,  owe  their  flavor  to 
this  source),  but  more  often  the  essential  oil,  which  is  frequently  denomi- 
nated Peach-nut  oil)  is  employed  instead.  Both,  but  particularly  the 
latter,  require  to  be  cautiously  dealt  with,  and,  in  proof  of  their  danger- 
ous properties,  it  may  be  stated  that  a  single  drop  of  the  essential  oil  was 
observed  by  Sir  B.  Brodie  to  kill  a  cat  in  five  minutes,  and  twenty  seeds 
have  sufficed,  according  to  Orfila,  to  kill  a  dog  in  six  hours,  when  meas- 
ures were  taken  to  prevent  their  rejection  from  the  stomach  by  vomiting. 
Fatal  results  from  both  have  been  recorded  as  having  occurred  in  the 
human  subject. 

THE  COCOA-NUT. — The  cocoa-nut  is  derived  from  the  Cocos  nucifera, 
a  species  of  palm,  supposed  to  have  been  originally  a  native  of  the  Indian 


ALIMENTARY   SUBSTANCES.  171 

coasts  and  South  Sea  Islands,  but  now  found  in  all  tropical  regions. 
The  tree  grows  to  from  sixty  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  and  bears 
annually  about  eighty  or  a  hundred  nuts.  The  nut  consists  of  a  hard 
shell,  containing  a  white,  fleshy  kernel,  the  central  portion  of  which  re- 
mains unsolidified,  and  yields  the  milky  juice,  which  forms  an  agreeable, 
cooling  beverage.  The  shell  is  surrounded  by  a  thick,  fibrous  husk,  which 
is  turned  to  account  for  the  construction  of  ropes,  matting,  etc.,  and  in  its 
natural  state  the  whole  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  a  man's  head.  The 
fleshy,  edible  portion  contains  about  70  per  cent,  of  a  fixed  fat,  which 
is  extracted  and  used  under  the  name  of  cocoa-nut  oil  or  butter.  Its 
melting  point  is  a  little  over  70°  Fahr. 

The  cocoa-nut  forms  the  chief  food  of  the  inhabitants  of  Ceylon,  the 
South  Sea  Islands,  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  many  other  tropical  coasts 
and  islands.  It  is  not  only  eaten  as  it  comes  from  the  tree,  both  in  the 
ripe  and  unripe  state,  but  is  also  prepared  and  served  in  various  ways. 

THE  WALNUT. — This  is  the  fruit  of  the  Juglans  regia,  a  lofty  tree, 
with  large  spreading  branches,  a  native  of  Persia,  but  long  cultivated  in 
Europe,  and  supposed  to  have  been  introduced  into  Italy  in  the  time  of 
the  Emperor  Tiberius.  The  ripe  fruit  supplies  one  of  the  finest  of  nuts, 
which  in  many  parts  of  France,  Spain,  Germany,  and  Italy,  forms  an  im- 
portant article  of  food  during  the  ripening  season.  English-grown  wal- 
nuts are  considered  the  best,  but  the  supply  from  England  is  not  equal 
to  the  demand,  and  large  quantities  are  imported.  In  the  unripe  state, 
and  before  the  shell  has  formed,  it  is  extensively  used  for  pickling  and 
making  ketchup.  The  walnut  yields,  by  expression,  a  bland,  fixed  oil, 
which  is  consumed  dietetically,  and  also  used  by  painters. 

The  Hickory-nut  is  derived  from  the  Carya  alba,  and  the  Butter-nut 
from  the  Juglans  cinerea,  both  of  which  constitute  species  of  the  walnut 
tribe  of  transatlantic  growth. 

THE  HAZEL-NUT. — The  common  hazel-nut  is  derived  from  the  Corylus 
avellana,  a  native  of  all  the  temperate  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  of 
North  America.  The  plant  named  is  the  parent  of  many  varieties  ob- 
tained by  cultivation.  One  variety,  for  instance,  the  Corylus  tubulosa, 
yields  the  filbert,  and  another,  Corylus  grandis,  the  cob-nut.  Barcelona- 
nuts  are  derived  from  another  variety.  Like  the  hazel-nut  itself,  the 
latter  are  largely  imported  into  England  from  Spain,  and  other  parts  of 
Europe,  having  been  kiln-dried  before  exportation. 

THE  BKAZIL-NUT. — The  Brazil-nut  is  the  product  of  the  juvia  tree — 
Bertholletia  excelsa — large  forests  of  which  exist  on  the  banks  of  the 
Orinoco,  and  in  the  northern  parts  of  Brazil.  The  outer  case  of  the  fruit, 
which  attains  the  size  of  a  man's  head,  is  divided  into  four  cells,  and  each 
of  these  contains  six  or  eight  nuts.  The  kernel  of  the  nut,  which  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  hard  shell,  is  exceedingly  rich  in  oil  and  furnishes  a  large 
quantity  for  extraction.  It  is  highly  esteemed  by  the  natives  of  the  lo- 
calities in  which  it  is  grown,  and  is  largely  exported  from  Para  and  French 
Guiana  for  the  European  market. 

THE  CASHEW-NUT. — The  tree  (Anacardium  occidentale)  which  yields 
the  cashew-  or  acajou-nut,  is  a  native  of  the  West  Indies.  The  fruit  is  a 
kidney  shaped  nut,  about  an  inch  in  length,  with  a  double  shell.  The 
outer  shell  is  ash-colored  and  very  smooth,  and  between  it  and  the  inner 


172  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

one  there  exists  an  acrid,  black  juice.  The  kernel  is  oily,  agreeable  to 
the  taste,  and  wholesome.  It  is  a  common  article  of  food  in  tropical  cli- 
mates, and  is  eaten  in  both  the  raw  and  cooked  states. 

THE  PISTACHIO-NUT. — The  pistachio-nut  tree  is  a  native  of  Persia  and 
Syria,  but  is  now  cultivated  in  the  south  of  Europe  and  north  of  Africa. 
The  nut  splits  into  two  when  ripe,  and  the  kernel  is  of  a  bright  green 
color.  It  is  very  oleaginous,  possesses  a  delicate  flavor,  and  resembles 
the  sweet  almond  in  its  qualities.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  green 
almond.  The  nuts  are  highly  esteemed  in  the  countries  where  they  are 
grown,  but,  as  they  soon  become  rancid,  they  are  not  much  exported. 


TUBERS  AND  ROOTS. 

THE  POTATO. — The  potato  may  be  considered  as  now  occupying  a 
place  next  in  importance  to  the  seeds  of  the  cerealia  as  an  article  of  vegeta- 
ble food,  although  only  of  comparatively  modern  introduction  amongst  us. 

It  is  derived  from  the  Solanum  tuberosa,  a  plant  belonging  to  the 
order  Solanacece,  which,  including,  as  it  does,  the  belladonna,  stramoni- 
um, henbane,  and  tobacco  plants,  furnishes  some  of  the  most  poisonous 
narcotic  products  encountered.  + 

It  is  supposed  to  be  a  native  of  South  America,  and  to  have  extended 
thence  to  North  America.  It  seems  to  have  been  first  brought  to  the 
Continent  of  Europe  by  the  Spaniards,  from  the  neighborhood  of  Quito, 
early  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  to  have  been  then  cultivated  in 
gardens  only  as  a  curiosity.  Its  introduction  into  England  and  Ireland 
came  from  North  America;  and  in  "Gerarde's  Herbal,"  published  in 
1597,  it  figures  under  the  name  of  Batata  Virginiana.  John  Hawkins 
brought  it  to  Ireland  in  1565,  and  Sir  Francis  Drake  to  England  in  1585, 
but  without  its  attracting  much  attention  in  either  case.  The  potatoes 
of  Shakespeare,  it  may  be  mentioned,  are  not  the  same  as  the  potatoes 
under  consideration;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  a  product  of  the  JSatatas 
edulis,  known  by  the  name  of  sweet  potato.  The  potato  was  a  third  time 
imported  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  and,  as  it  then  received  notice  as  an 
article  of  food,  the  credit  is  usually  given  to  him  for  its  introduction 
amongst  us.  In  1663  the  Royal  Society  recommended  that  it  should  be 
more  extensively  planted,  but  it  was  not  grown  in  the  open  fields  in  Eng- 
land till  1684,  and  so  little  was  for  some  time  thought  of  it,  that  Bradley, 
in  1718,  speaks  of  it  as  of  "little  note,"  and  in  the  "  Complete  Gardener" 
of  London  and  Wise,  published  in  1719,  no  mention  at  all  is  made  of  it. 

The  cultivation  of  the  potato  is  now  widely  diffused  over  the  globe, 
and  it  seems  to  thrive  in  most  climates,  but  a  considerable  check  to  its 
prosperous  growth  has  recently  occurred.  In  1845  a  disastrous  and  pre- 
viously unknown  disease  broke  out  amongst  the  crops,  and  has  since  re- 
sisted all  efforts  to  eradicate  it.  The  disease  attacks  the  whole  plant, 
beginning  in  the  leaves  and  proceeding  through  the  stem  to  the  under- 
ground part,  and  in  some  years  produces  such  havoc  as  to  entail  a  very 
heavy  loss.  Indeed,  it  prevails  to  such  an  extent,  and  appears  of  such  an 
inexterminable  nature,  as  justly  to  excite  serious  apprehensions  respect- 
ing the  continuance  of  a  supply  sufficient  to  meet  the  demand  for  general 
consumption.  The  present  aspect,  it  may  be  said,  points  to  the  possi- 
bility of  the  potato  dying  out,  as  an  article  of  every-day  food,  amongst  us. 

The  potato  became  a  popular  food  in  Ireland  earlier  than   in   Eng- 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  173 

land,  and  has  ever  since  held  its  position  there  as  one  of  the  chief  articles 
of  sustenance.  Dr.  E.  Smith  says  that  an  adult  Irishman  will  consume  his 
10£  pounds  of  potatoes  daily,  i.e.,  3%  pounds  at  each  meal,  and  it  has 
been  calculated  that  from  three-fifths  to  four-fifths  of  the  entire  food  of 
the  people  of  Ireland  is  derived  from  the  potato.  Since  the  famine, 
however,  that  arose  at  the  commencement  of  the  failure  of  the  crops  from 
the  disease,  Indian  corn  has  come  into  greatly  increased  use. 

The  part  of  the  plant  used  as  food  constitutes  the  tuber,  which  is  con- 
nected with,  or,  indeed,  forms  an  exuberant  growth  of,  a  portion  of  the 
underground  stem,  with  which  this  plant,  in  common  with  some  others,  is 
provided,  in  addition  to  that  which  grows,  as  usual,  above  ground.  The 
tuber  develops  into  a  thick,  fleshy,  mass,  but  retains  its  buds,  which  here  go 
under  the  denomination  of  eyes,  and  each  of  these  buds  or  eyes  is  capa- 
ble of  independent  growth  in  a  detached  or  isolated  state.  They  are 
used,  in  fact,  under  the  name  of  sets  for  planting  and  raising  a  crop. 

The  potato  tuber  is  surrounded  by  a  thin,  grayish,  epidermic  covering, 
and  beneath  this  is  another  tegumentary  layer,  in  which  coloring  matter 
is  deposited.  The  substance  of  the  potato  is  made  up  of  cells,  penetrated 
and  surrounded. by  a  watery,  albuminous  juice,  and  filled  with  a  number 
of  starch-granules. 

There  are  many  well-known  different  sorts  of  potato  met  with.  They 
are  derived  from  corresponding  varieties  in  the  plant.  In  the  different 
varieties,  notable  differences  in  size,  color,  and  edible  qualities,  are  ob- 
servable. 

Composition  of  the  Potato  (from  Letheby's  table). 

Nitrogenous  matter,  .......  2.1 

Starch,  etc.,     \ 18.8 

Sugar,         .         . 3.2 

Fat,     .                  0.2 

Saline  matter,      ...         .         .         .         .         .  0.7 

Water,        .         .         .        .         .         ...         .         .  75.0 


100.0 
The  analysis  given  by  Payen  stands  as  follows: 

Composition  of  the  Potato  (Payen). 

Nitrogenous  matter,           ......  2.50 

Starch, 20.00 

Cellulose, .         .         .      •  , 1.04 

Sugar  and  gummy  matter,         .....  1.09 

Fatty  matter, 0.11 

Pectates,    citrates,    phosphates,    and    silicates   of  )  ,  ~/, 

lime,  magnesia,  potash,  and  soda,  j 

Water,      .         .         .         ...         .         .         .  74.00 


100.00 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  potato  contains  a  large  percentage  of  starch. 
This,  indeed,  forms  its  characteristic  feature,  and  renders  it  applicable  for 
the  extraction,  that  is  largely  carried  on,  of  starch  for  domestic  and  other 
purposes.  The  starch  obtained  from  it  is  also  used  for  adulterating  the 


174  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

more  expensive  farinaceous  dietetic  preparations,  and  likewise  forms  \vhat 
is  sold  under  the  name  of  British  arrow-root,  tapioca,  etc.  Whilst  less 
expensive,  there  is  nothing  to  show  that  the  starch  of  the  potato  differs 
to  any  sensible  extent,  in  a  nutritive  point  of  view,  from  the  other  starchy 
preparations. 

Potatoes  require  to  be  cooked  to  render  them  fit  for  eating,  and  this 
may  be  effected  by  either  boiling,  steaming,  baking,  or  frying.  The  heat 
employed  coagulates  the  albuminous  juice  contained  within  and  between 
the  cefls.  The  starch-granules  absorb  the  watery  part  of  the  juice,  swell  up, 
and  distend  the  cells  in  which  they  are  lodged.  The  cohesion  of  the  cells 
becomes  destroyed,  and  they  then  easily  separate  from  each  other,  leading 
to  the  potato  easily  breaking  down  into  a  loose,  farinaceous  mass.  When 
these  changes  are  complete,  the  potato  is  spoken  of  as  being  in  a  floury 
or  mealy  condition.  When,  on  the  other  hand,  the  liquid  is  only  par- 
tially absorbed  and  the  cells  imperfectly  separated,  the  potato  remains 
more  or  less  firm,  and  is  spoken  of  as  close,  waxy,  or  watery. 

Steaming  is  a  better  process  for  cooking  potatoes  than  boiling,  on  ac- 
count of  not  being  attended  by  the  loss  that  is  occasioned  by  the  latter. 
When  boiling  is  employed,  the  skin  should  not  be  removed,  as  is  so  often 
found  to  be  the  practice;  for  the  removal  of  the  skin  favors  the  extraction 
of  the  juice  by  the  surrounding  water.  The  waste,  says  Dr.  Letheby, 
when  potatoes  are  cooked  in  their  skins,  only  amounts  to  3  per  cent.,  or 
half  an  ounce  in  the  pound,  whereas  when  they  are  peeled  first  it  is  not  less 
than  14  per  cent.,  or  from  two  to  three  ounces  in  the  pound.  A  little 
salt  added  to  the  water  in  which  potatoes  are  boiled  tends  to  prevent  the 
escape  of  their  saline  constituents. 

The  potato  constitutes  a  wholesome  and  agreeable  article  of  food,  and 
one  of  which  the  palate  does  not  easily  become  fatigued.  The  amount 
of  nitrogenous  matter  it  contains  is  too  small,  however,  to  enable  it  to 
form  a  suitable  food  alone;  but,  with  articles  rich  in  nitrogenous  matter, 
as  meat,  fish,  etc.,  it  supplies  a  useful  and  economical  alimentary  sub- 
stance. By  the  peasantry  in  some  rural  districts  it  is  employed  in  asso- 
ciation with  buttermilk — which,  from  the  caseine  present,  furnishes  the 
requisite  nitrogenous  matter — as  the  chief  means  of  support;  and,  thus 
associated,  a  cheap,  and  experience  shows,  an  efficient  diet  is  provided. 

In  a  floury  or  mealy  state  the  potato  enjoys  easy  digestibility;  but 
in  a  close,  watery,  or  waxy  state,  it  is  very  trying  to  the  digestive  powers, 
and  should,  therefore,  when  in  this  condition,  be  avoided  where  delicacy 
of  stomach  exists.  Young  potatoes  may  be  more  tempting  than  old, 
but,  from  what  has  been  said,  will  be  understood  to  be  indigestible. 

The  potato  has  a  high  repute  for  the  possession  of  antiscorbutic  proper- 
ties. The  concurrent  testimony  of  numerous  observers  points  to  its  form- 
ing a  most  efficient  agent  in  preventing  the  occurrence  of  scurvy.  It  is 
used  successfully  for  this  purpose  on  board  ocean-going  vessels,  and  the 
inquiries  of  the  late  Dr.  Baly  into  the  diseases  of  prisoners  showed  in  a 
conclusive  manner  that  the  addition  of  potatoes  to  the  diet  sufficed  to  ar- 
rest the  prevalence  of  scurvy  in  prisons  where  it  had  before  existed. 

The  potato  is  subject  to  various  diseases,  which  lead  to  an  impairment 
of  its  alimentary  value.  The  most  important,  by  far,  is  the  disease  that 
has  already  been  alluded  to  and  which  is  styled  popularly  "  the  potato  dis- 
ease." Ever  since  1845,  when  it  was  first  noticed,  it  has  been  common,  some 
years  more  so  than  others,  amongst  the  potato  crops,  not  only  in  our  own 
islands,  but  on  the  Continent  of  Europe  and  in  America.  The  disease 
commences  in  the  leaves  of  the  plant,  and  extends  thence  through  the  stem 


ALIMENTARY  SUBSTANCES.  175 

to  the  tubers.  Brown  spots  make  their  appearance  upon  the  surface  of 
the  tuber,  and  then  penetrate  its  substance  and  lead  to  decay.  After  being 
subjected  to  cooking,  the  affected  part  remains  hard,  whilst  the  healthy 
portion  has  become  soft  and  mealy.  If  the  diseased  part  be  cut  away, 
the  remainder  will  be  found  good  and  fit  for  food;  but  considerable  waste 
is  necessarily  thereby  incurred,  and  the  disease  spreads  as  the  potato  is 
kept.  Nothing  has  been  witnessed  to  show  that  any  ill  effects,  either  in 
man  or  amongst  the  lower  animals,  have  been  produced  by  the  incidental 
consumption  of  a  small  quantity  of  the  diseased  part;  but  potatoes  in 
an  advanced  state  of  disease  are  prudently  to  be  regarded  as  unfit  food 
even  for  the  lower  animals. 

Potatoes  become  deteriorated  upon  growing  out  or  germinating.  They 
cease  to  assume  a  mealy  state  on  cooking;  present  a  semi-translucent  ap- 
pearance; and  possess  a  rather  sickly,  sweetish  taste.  It  has  been  assert- 
ed that  a  poisonous  principle,  solanine,  becomes  developed  in  the  buds 
and  shoots  of  potatoes  that  are  allowed  to  grow  out  on  keeping.  No 
conclusive  evidence,  however,  has  been  adduced  to  show  that  the  potato 
acquires  noxious  properties  under  such  circumstances,  and  nothing  is  ever 
heard  of  any  poisonous  effects  arising  from  its  use,  notwithstanding  the 
universal  consumption  that  is  going  on,  and  that  it  is  often  cooked  with- 
out the  aid  of  water,  which  might  have  the  effect  of  dissolving  out  any 
noxious  principle.  If  there  be  at  any  time  a  poison  present,  it  must  be 
either  insignificant  in  amount,  or  be  destroyed  by  the  heat  to  which  the 
potato  is  subjected  before  being  sent  to  the  table. 

Exposure  to  frost  also  seriously  damages  the  potato.  The  effect  pro- 
duced is  of  a  mechanical  nature.  The  watery  juice  contained  in  the  cells 
and  intercellular  spaces  undergoes  expansion  in  the  act  of  freezing,  and 
so  leads  to  a  rupture  and  separation  of  the  cells,  and  in  this  way  a  destruc- 
tion of  the  organization  of  the  tuber.  Its  vitality  becomes  thus  de- 
stroyed, and,  in  consequence,  it  has  no  longer  the  power  to  resist,  when 
thawed,  the  ordinary  changes  of  decomposition:  hence,  putrefaction  oc- 
curs, and,  advancing,  renders  the  article  unfit  for  food. 

THE  SWEET  POTATO. — The  sweet  potato  is  derived  from  the  Batatas 
edulis,  or,  as  it  was  called  by  the  older  botanists,  Convolvulus  batatas,  a 
plant  which  is  a  native  of  the  Malayan  Archipelago,  where  it  formerly  grew 
wild  in  woods.  The  plant  is  now  cultivated  in  most  of  the  warm  countries, 
and  furnishes  a  starchy  and  sweet  tuber,  which  is  prized  as  an  article  of 
food  in  the  East  and  West  Indies,  America,  and  hot  climates  generally. 
It  was  largely  eaten  in  Europe  before  the  cultivation  of  the  potato,  which 
has  now  taken  its  place,  and  also  its  name.  The  tubers  were  imported 
into  England  by  way  of  Spain,  and  sold  as  a  delicacy  before  the  potato 
was  known,  and  it  forms  the  article  referred  to  when  the  name  is  men- 
tioned by  English  writers  previous  to  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  It  is  still,  to  some  extent,  cultivated  in  the  south  of  France 
and  in  Spain,  and  is  to  be  obtained  in  Paris  during  the  fall  of  the  year, 
but  is  not  much  esteemed  now,  being  considered  too  sweet  to  eat  with 
meat  and  other  articles  seasoned  with  salt,  and  not  sweet  enough  as  a 
sweet  kind  of  food.  In  North  America  it  is  a  favorite  article  of  food — 
more  generally  used  than  perhaps  any  other  vegetable  except  the  or- 
dinary potato.  When  roasted  or  boiled,  it  is  mealy,  and  may  be  looked 
upon  as  forming  a  wholesome  food.  It  is  said  to  possess  slightly  laxative 
properties. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  the  Batatas  cultivated.     The  following 


176  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

is  the  composition,  according  to  the  analysis  of  Payen,  of  a  tuber  of  the 

kind  grown  in  the  south  of  France  and  America,  which  is  characterized 
by  richness  in  starchy  and  saccharine  constituents: 

Composition  of  the  Sweet  Potato. 

Nitrogenous  matter,          »        »         .         .         .         .       1.50 

Starch,      .         .         .         .         .        ,.        .         .         .  16.05 

Sugar,       .     -   .         .         .         *  .,       .         .  10.20 

Cellulose,  .r       .    .     .         . '       .  "       .'•       .  s     .       0.45 

Fatty  matter,    .  ......       0.30 

Other  organic  matter,        .         .         .         ...        1.10 

Mineral  salts,    .         .         .         .         .        .-.      .  .  •  j  2.60 

Water,      »         .        .         .        ,        v*     .  •      .         .  67.50 


99.70 

THE  YAM. — The  yam  forms  a  large,  esculent  tuber,  derived  from 
several  species  of  the  genus  Dioscorea,  a  group  of  climbing  plants  be- 
longing to  tropical  climates.  The  tuber  is  oblong,  and  sometimes  grows 
to  the  length  of  three  feet,  and  may  weigh  as  much  as  thirty  pounds. 
It  contains  a  considerable  amount  of  starch,  and,  when  boiled  or  roasted, 
forms  a  mealy,  palatable,  and  wholesome  food.  It  is  devoid  of  the  sweet- 
ness appertaining  to  the  sweet  potato,  and  likewise  keeps  better.  It  is 
eaten  by  the  inhabitants  of  New  Zealand,  as  well  as  by  those  of  the  East 
and  West  Indies  and  the  South  Sea  Islands,  and  holds  as  important  a 
position  as  an  aliment  in  tropical  countries  as  the  common  potato  does 
in  Europe.  At  the  period  of  the  potato  famine  an  attempt  was  made  to 
introduce  it  into  England,  but  with  little  success. 

Of  the  varieties,  the  Dioscorea  sativa  forms  the  common  yam  of  the 
West  Indies.  The  Dioscorea  alata,  or  winged  yam,  grows  in  the  South 
Sea  Islands  and  likewise  the  West  Indies,  and  is  met  with  also  in  a 
cultivated  state  in  the  East  Indies.  In  different  localities  there  are  many 
other  varieties.  The  Dioscorea  batatas  has  been  recently  brought  from 
China,  and  has  been  found  to  be  susceptible  of  cultivation  in  France, 
yielding  an  abundant  produce  of  wholesome  and  agreeable  food,  available 
all  the  year  round,  or  readily,  at  least,  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
year. 

The  tubers  of  all  the  yams  contain  an  acid  principle,  which  is  dis- 
sipated by  boiling,  but  there  are  some  species  which  possess  poisonous 
properties. 

THE  JERUSALEM  ARTICHOKE. — This  vegetable  product  is  derived  from 
the  Helianthus  tuberosus,  a  plant  belonging  to  the  sunflower  tribe.  The 
word  "  Jerusalem,"  indeed,  as  here  applied,  is  asserted  to  form  a  corruption 
of  the  Italian  girasole  (sunflower).  The  plant  is  said  to  have  been  brought 
in  1617  from  Brazil,  and  is  also  believed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Mexico. 
It  was  cultivated  in  European  gardens  before  the  potato  was  introduced. 
The  root  produces  around  it  oval  or  roundish  tubercles,  which  form  the 
edible  part,  and  which  may  amount  to  as  many  as  thirty  or  even  fifty  in 
number.  These  tubercles,  unlike  the  potato,  resist  the  action  of  the  frost, 
and  thus  may  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the  ground  during  the  winter,  and 
collected  for  use  as  occasion  may  require.  The  herbaceous  part  of  the 
plant,  when  dry,  is  also  susceptible  of  being  turned  to  account  as  fuel. 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  177 

The  Jerusalem  artichoke  is  not  consumed  to  a  large  extent  in  England. 
It  has  something  of  the  character  of  the  potato,  but  possesses  a  sweetish 
taste,  is  less  agreeable  to  the  palate,  and  does  not  become  mealy  on  boil- 
ing. The  absence  of  starch  accounts  for  this.  There  are  no  granules,  as 
in  the  potato,  to  swell  up  and  absorb  the  moisture,  and  disorganize  or 
break  up  the  tissue  into  a  loose,  friable  mass.  It  therefore  maintains  a 
moist  or  watery  condition  after  cooking,  and  simply  becomes  softened. 
A  body  in  this  state  must  needs  be  of  a  less  digestible  nature  than  the 
potato.  Its  analysis  shows  that  it  contains  a  considerable  percentage  of 
sugar.  The  inuline,  which  is  present  in  small  amount,  forms  a  principle 
isomeric  with  starch. 

Composition  of  the  Jerusalem  Artichoke 
(From  the  analysis  of  Payen,  Poinsot,  and  Fevry). 

Nitrogenous  matter,   .......  3.1 

Sugar,                   .* 14.7 

Inuline,       .........  1.9 

Pectic  acid,         ........  0.9 

Pectine,       .........  0.4 

Cellulose,    .         .          .         .          .         .         .          .          .  1.5 

Fatty  matter, 0.2 

Mineral  matter,  ........  1.3 

Water, 76.0 


100.0 

Other  tuberous  products  are  used  as  food.  Several  species  of  the  Ox- 
alidece  have  tuberous  roots,  and  are  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  their  tubers. 
The  Oxalis  crenata  and  Oxalis  tuberosa  are  natives  of  Peru  and  Bolivia. 
Their  tubers,  when  cooked,  become  mealy,  like  potatoes,  and  are  said  to 
be  much  esteemed.  The  tubers  of  2Jropoeolum  tuberosum  are  also  eaten 
in  Peru.  Their  taste  is  described  as  peculiar.  The  Ullucus  tuberosus 
grows  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  South  America,  and  is  cultivated  in 
Peru  and  Bolivia  for  the  sake  of  the  tubers.  It  was  introduced  into  France 
as  a  substitute  for  potatoes.  The  tubers  of  the  Witheringia  (Solatium) 
montana  are  used  as  an  article  of  food  by  the  Peruvians.  The  Phlomis 
tuberosa  is  eaten  by  the  Calmucs  of  the  Caspian,  after  being  reduced  to 
powder.  The  tuberous  bitter  vetch,  Orobus  tuberosus,  is  a  native  of  Brit- 
ain, and  its  tubers  have  been  used,  in  times  of  scarcity,  as  an  article  of 
food  (•<  Baird's  Cyclo.  of  Nat.  Sci."). 

The  rhizomes  or  underground  stems  of  the  Caladium  seguinum,  or 
dumb  cane,  of  the  West  Indies,  are  often  used  as  a  substitute  for  potatoes 
and  yams.  The  rhizomes  of  the  pondweed  (Potamogeton  natans)  are 
used  in  Siberia  as  an  article  of  food.  The  root  of  the  Arracacha  esculenta, 
a  native  of  South  America,  is  much  cultivated  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Santa  Fe  de  Bogota  and  other  parts  of  Colombia,  where  it  is  as  much 
eaten  as  potatoes  or  yams  are  elsewhere.  It  is  boiled  like  a  potato,  and 
is  said  to  have  a  flavor  intermediate  between  that  of  the  parsnep  and 
chestnut  ("Baird's  Cyclo.  Nat.  Sci."). 

THE  CARROT. — The  garden  carrot  is  derived  by  cultivation  from  the 
Daucus  carota,  a  plant  which  grows  freely  in  a  wild  state  in  fields,  hedge- 
rows, and  waysides  in  Britain.     The  root  of  the  wild  plant  is  white,  slen- 
12 


178  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND   DIETETICS. 

der,  and  hard,  and  has  an  acrid,  disagreeable  taste,  and  strong,  aromatic 
smell.  As  the  result  of  cultivation,  the  root  of  the  garden  variety  is  thick, 
fleshy,  and  succulent,  and  of  a  red,  yellow,  or  pale  straw  color,  with  a 
pleasant  odor,  and  a  sweet,  agreeable  taste.  Whilst  young  it  is  very 
tender,  but  becomes  hard  when  allowed  to  grow  old.  It  is  said  that  the 
garden  carrot  was  introduced  into  use  in  England  by  the  Flemish  refugees 

who  settled  at  Sandwich  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. 

> 

Composition  of  Carrots  (from  Letheby's  table). 

Nitrogenous  matter,  .......       1.3 

Starch,  etc.,        .         .         ...  '     ,         .         .      ..,,-•     .       8.4 

Sugar,         .         .     "'  .  " ""  i         .    '     .         .         .         .       6.1 

Fat,   .         .       ..i  ..*....  ,      ,4        .         .         .         .0.3 

Mineral  matter, 1.0 

Water, .83.0 


100.0 

Carrots  form  a  wholesome  and  useful  food,  for  both  man  and  cattle, 
They  are  not  adapted,  however,  for  a  weak  stomach,  being  somewhat  in- 
digestible and  apt  to  produce  flatulence.  They  are  proportionately  val- 
uable as  they  have  more  of  the  outer,  soft,  red,  than  the  central,  yellow, 
core-like  part.  On  account  of  the  sugar  present,  they  admit  of  a  syrup 
being  prepared  from  them,  and  also  yield,  by  fermentation  and  distilla- 
tion, a  spirituous  liquid.  Cut  into  small  pieces  and  roasted,  they  are 
sometimes  used  in  Germany  as  a  substitute  for  coffee. 

THE  PARSNIP. — The  root  of  the  parsnip  (Pastinaca  sativa)  is  of  a 
pale  yellow  color,  but  otherwise  closely  resembles  that  of  the  carrot,  both 
in  general  characters  and  alimentary  properties.  The  plant  is  a  native 
of  Britain,  and  is  also  found  in  many  parts  of  Europe  and  the  north  of 
Asia.  In  the  wild  state  the  root  is  white,  aromatic,  mucilaginous,  and 
sweet-tasted,  with  some  degree  of  acridness.  By  cultivation  it  is  ren- 
dered more  fleshy  and  milder  flavored.  It  is  used  in  the  same  way,  but 
not  so  extensively,  as  the  carrot,  and  is  not  so  generally  liked.  From 
custom,  it  forms  the  usual  accompaniment  of  salt  fish. 

Composition  of  the  Parsnip  (from  Letheby's  table). 

Nitrogenous  matter,  .......  1.1 

Starch,  etc.,        .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  9.6 

Sugar,         .         .         .                   .         .         .                  .  5.8 

Fat, 0.5 

Salts, 1.0 

Water,        , .         .         .  82.0 


100.0 

Parsnips  are  not  only  used  as  a  vegetable,  but  a  wine  is  sometimes 
made  from  them,  which  is  spoken  of  as  somewhat  resembling  malmsey. 
A  spirit,  also,  is  sometimes  distilled  from  the  fermented  product,  and  in  the 
north  of  Ireland,  with  the  aid  of  hops,  a  table  beer  is  brewed  from  them. 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  179 

THE  TURNIP.  —  Turnips  grow  wild  in  England,  but  the  wild  plant 
(Brassica  campestrls)  is  supposed  to  form  the  original  of  the  Swedish 
turnip,  or  Swede,  which  is  too  coarse  eating  for  human  food,  and  not  of 
the  cultivated  vegetable.  This,  the  Brassica  rapa  (Lindley  calls  the 
turnip  Brassica  napus,  and  rape  Brassica  rapa},  is  said  to  have  been 
first  introduced  as  a  food  for  cattle  into  this  country  by  the  celebrated 
agriculturist,  Coke,  of  Holkham,  afterward  Earl  of  Leicester.  It  forms 
an  agreeable  and  extensively  used  vegetable,  being  either  cooked  alone 
or  mixed  with  soups  and  stews.  From  the  large  proportion  of  water  it 
contains,  its  nutritive  value  is  low. 

The  top  shoots  of  such  turnip  plants  as  have  stood  the  winter  are 
gathered,  and  used  as  a  green  vegetable.  Those  from  the  Swedish  tur- 
nip are  the  sweetest  flavored. 

Composition  of  the  Turnip  (Letheby's  table). 

Nitrogenous  matter,  .......  1.2 

Starch,  etc.,         ........  5.1 

Sugar,      '"i         ........  2.1 

Salts, 0.6 

Water, 91.0 


100.0 

BEET-ROOT. — The  common  or  red  beet  (Beta  vulgaris)  belongs  to  the 
family  of  saltworts,  which  contains  the  spinach,  quinoa,  etc.,  and  is  char- 
acterized by  the  large  amount  of  alkali  in  combination  with  an  organic 
acid  existing  in  the  plants.  It  is  a  native  of  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, and  was  introduced  into  this  country  in  1548.  It  was  at  one  time 
called  beot-rave,  from  the  French  betterave.  The  root  is  usually  of  an 
elongated  form,  like  that  of  the  carrot,  but  in  some  varieties  it  assumes 
more  of  a  turnip-shaped  character.  The  color  varies  from  a  deepish 
blackish  red  to  a  light  red.  Beet-root  is  extensively  grown,  and  em- 
ployed as  food  both  for  man  and  cattle;  and  on  the  Continent  is  further 
used  as  a  source  of  sugar.  It  is  eaten  cold,  in  slices,  either  alone  or  in 
salads,  after  being  boiled,  and  is  also  sometimes  pickled. 

The  mangel-wurzel  (Beta  altissima)  is  usually  thought  to  constitute 
a  large  and  coarse  variety  of  the  common  beet,  in  which  the  red  color  is 
but  little  developed. 

RADISHES. — The  common  radish  (Raphanus  sativus)  is  a  native  of 
China,  and  is  mentioned  by  Gerard,  in  1584,  as  then  cultivated  in  Eng- 
land. The  root  is  either  long  and  spindle-shaped,  or  round  and  turnip- 
shaped.  The  color  of  the  exterior  varies:  there  being  black,  violet,  red, 
and  white  radishes;  but,  in  all,  the  central  portion  is  white.  It  is  usu- 
ally eaten  in  a  raw  state,  but  is  sometimes  boiled  and  served  as  a  vege- 
table. In  composition  the  radish  closely  resembles  the  turnip. 

SALSIFY. — The  salsify,  or  purple  goat's  beard  (Tragopogon  porrifo- 
lius)  is  a  hardy  plant,  indigenous  in  England.  It  belongs  to  the  same 
tribe  as  the  chiccory  and  lettuce.  The  root  is  long  and  tapering,  and 
becomes  by  cultivation  fleshy  and  tender,  with  a  white,  milky  juice.  It 
has  a  mild,  sweetish  taste,  like  the  parsnip,  and  is  boiled  or  stewed  for 
the  table.  It  is  not  so  much  eaten  in  England  as  on  the  Continent.  In 


180  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

America  it  is  usually  boiled,  mashed  with  potatoes,  and  fried  in  small 
cakes;  and,  from  the  taste  belonging  to  it  when  fried,  it  is  there  often 
called  the  "  oyster  plant." 

The  Ginseng  root  is  highly  valued  by  the  Chinese  for  its  supposed 
invigorating  and  aphrodisiac  qualities.  It  is  a  species  of  Panax  /  and 
the  Panax  quinquefolium,  which  is  a  native  of  America,  possesses  the 
same  qualities  as  the  ginseng  ("  Barrow's  Travels  in  China,"  and  "  Baird's 
Cyclo.  of  Nat.  Sci."). 

The  root  of  the  Ifalo,  or  Arum  esculentum,  which  is  the  principal 
food  of  the  lower  class  of  the  Sandwich  Islanders,  somewhat  resembles 
the  beet,  but  its  color  is  brown  instead  of  red.  It  is  reared  with  great 
care  in  small  enclosures  kept  wet,  like  rice  or  paddy  fields.  A  sort  of 
paste  is  made  from  the  root,  which  is  called  poi  ("  Simpson's  Journey 
Hound  the  World,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  31). 

The  roots  of  the  Potentilla  anserina,  or  goose-grass,  when  roasted  or 
boiled,  taste  like  parsnips,  and  in  the  Western  Islands  of  Scotland  they 
have  been  known  to  support  the  inhabitants  for  months  together  in  times 
of  scarcity  ("  Baird's  Cyclo.  Nat.  Sci."). 

The  roots  of  the  common  fern,  or  bracken,  are  largely  eaten  in  New 
Zealand.  They  are  simply  washed  and  boiled,  or  beaten  with  a  stone  till 
they  become  soft  and  are  then  roasted. 


HERBACEOUS   ARTICLES. 

These  include  foliaceous  parts,  shoots,  and  stems  of  plants.  They  are 
valuable  as  articles  of  food,  not  so  much  for  the  absolute  amount  of  nu- 
tritive matter  afforded — for,  on  account  of  their  succulent  nature,  they 
contain  but  a  small  proportion  of  solid  matter — as  for  the  salts  they  yield 
and  the  variety  they  give  to  our  diet.  By  cultivation  they  have  been 
brought  to  a  very  different  state  from  that  in  which  they  originally  ex- 
isted. To  make  them  tender  and  agreeably  flavored  is  part  of  the  art  of 
the  gardener,  and  is  accomplished  by  quick  growth  and,  in  many  in- 
stances, by  a  partial  exclusion  from  light.  If  allowed  to  grow  slowly,  the 
development  of  ligneous  matter  is  favored,  which  gives  them  hardness, 
whilst  full  exposure  to  light  leads  to  the  production,  not  only  of  green 
coloring  matter,  but  of  the  characteristic  principles  of  the  plant,  which 
often  communicate  a  strong  and  disagreeable  taste.  ]t  is  found  that 
leafy  products,  which  have  been  allowed  to  acquire  a  full  green  color, 
possess  more  or  less  purgative  properties.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  that 
the  consumption  of  these  should  not  be  on  too  extensive  a  scale.  The 
antiscorbutic  virtue  of  the  class  of  vegetables  under  consideration  is  high. 

PRODUCTS  OF  THE  CABBAGE  TRIBE. — The  original  of  the  cabbapre  tribe 
is  the  sea-cabbage,  a  wild  plant,  named  JSrassica  oleracea,  which  is  to 
be  found  growing  on  many  cliffs  of  the  South  Coast  of  England,  and 
in  some  other  parts.  This  is  the  true  collet,  or  colewort  (although  the 
name  is  now  applied  to  any  yonng  cabbage  which  has  a  loose  and  open 
heart),  and  the  leaves  of  it  are  gathered  by  the  inhabitants  and  consumed 
as  a  vegetable.  In  this  state  it  only  grows  to  an  insignificant  size  in 
comparison  with  the  dimensions  attained  as  the  result  of  cultivation. 
From  this  plant  a  variety  of  well-known  and  extensively  consumed  vege- 
tables have  been  produced,  including,  for  instance,  cabbages,  greens, 
savoys,  Brussels-sprouts,  cauliflower,  broccoli,  etc.  Lookjd  at  in  a  gen- 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  181 

eral  way,  these  various  products  form  a  wholesome  and  agreeable  compo- 
nent of  the  food  of  man.  It  is  true,  containing1,  as  they  do,  about  90  per 
cent,  of  water,  their  nutritive  value  is  not  high,  but  they  are  useful  as 
giving  variety,  and  for  the  salts  they  supply.  They  also  possess  marked 
antiscorbutic  virtue.  The}7  labor  under  the  disadvantage  of  being  articles 
of  difficult  digestion,  which  renders  them  unsuited  where  weakness  of 
stomach  exists.  Their  proportion  of  sulphur  is  large,  and  they  thus  are 
apt  to  give  rise  to  flatulence  of  an  unpleasant  nature.  To  secure  tender- 
ness, they  should  be  grown  quickly,  and  dressed  whilst  young. 

The  common  white  garden  cabbage  is  a  variety  of  the  llrassica  oler- 
acea.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  cultivated  vegetables,  and  has  been  known 
in  this  country  from  time  immemorial. 

What  is  called  Sauer-kraut,  which  is  largely  consumed  in  Germany, 
is  prepared  from  the  leaves  of  cabbage.  These,  deprived  of  their  stalk 
and  mid-rib,  are  cut  up  and  placed  in  a  tub  or  vat  in  alternate  layers 
with  salt.  They  are  then  subjected  to  pressure,  and  allowed  to  remain 
till  acid  fermentation  has  set  in  and  they  have  become  sour.  The  pro- 
duct is  cooked  by  stewing  in  its  own  liquor. 

Med  cabbage. — This  is  another  variety  of  the  J3rassica  oleracea,  which 
is  similar  in  form  to  the  preceding.  It  is  used  chiefly  for  pickling,  but 
is  sometimes  stewed  in  a  fresh  state  for  the  table. 

Greens  constitute  all  the  varieties  of  the  Urassica  oleracea  which 
grow  in  an  open  way  or  have  no  hearts,  and  which  are  used  as  an  article 
of  food.  Some  of  them  are  called  colewort  (the  name  applied  to  the 
wild  plant),  and  others,  with  curled  or  wrinkled  leaves,  are  known  as  green 
kale,  or  borecole.  They  are  sufficiently  hardy  to  resist  the  cold  of  winter, 
and  thus  yield  a  green  vegetable  when  such  food  is  scarce. 

There  is  a  variety  of  the  cabbage-plant  extensively  cultivated  in  Jer- 
sey, which  attains  a  height  of  seven  or  eight  feet  and  upward.  It  con- 
tinues to  grow,  and  throw  out  leaves  from  the  top;  and  these,  as  they 
attain  full  size,  are  stripped  off  and  used  as  food,  both  for  man  and  cattle. 
Thriving  through  the  winter,  as  it  does,  it  is  a  valuable  plant  to  the  in- 
habitants of  the  island.  The  stem  is  sufficiently  hard  and  woody  to  be 
susceptible  of  conversion  into  a  walking-stick. 

Savoy. — This  name  is  applied  to  a  variety  of  cabbage,  which  is  dis- 
tinguished from  other  close-hearted  cabbages  by  having  wrinkled  leaves. 
It  is  principally  grown  for  winter  use. 

^Brussels-sprouts  form  also  a  winter  and  early  spring  vegetable.  They 
grow  with  small  heads,  like  miniature  cabbages,  from  the  axils  of  the 
leaves  of  one  of  the  many  cultivated  varieties  of  JBrassica  oleracea.  The 
plant  is  usually  propagated  from  seed  imported  from  Belgium,  as  it  is 
apt  to  degenerate  by  growth  in  England.  It  has  been  cultivated  lately 
to  a  much  larger  extent  in  the  market-gardens  around  London  than  for- 
merly. 

(Cauliflower. — This  is  one  of  the  most  delicate  and  highly  prized  arti- 
cles derived  from  the  cabbage  tribe.  It  is  entirely  the  product  of  culti- 
vation, and  constitutes  the  inflorescence  of  the  plant,  which  by  art  has 
been  made  to  grow  into  a  compact  mass  or  head,  of  a  white  color.  It  was 
known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  but  was  not  much  grown  in  England 
until  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century.  It  was  then,  however,  very 
successfully  cultivated,  and  even  exported  to  Holland,  from  which  coun- 
try so  many  of  our  vegetables  have  been  introduced. 

Broccoli  is  distinguished  from  cauliflower,  of  which  it  is  merely  a 
variety,  by  the  color  of  its  inflorescence  and  leaves,  and  its  compara- 


182  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

lively  hardy  constitution,  which  enables  it  to  stand  the  winter.  Its 
color  varies  greatly,  through  shades  of  buff  or  yellow,  green,  and  purple. 

Broccoli-sprouts  are  obtained  from  the  early  purple  or  sprouting  broc- 
coli. The  plant  grows  from  two  to  three  feet  high,  and  produces  sprouts 
of  flowers  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves. 

Kohl-rabi,  Jtnol-kohl,  or  Turnip  cabbage,  constitutes  a  remarkable 
variety  of  cabbage-plant.  The  stem  is  enlarged  just  above  the  ground 
into  a  fleshy,  turnip-like  knob,  of  about  the  size  of  a  man's  fist,  from 
which  the  leaf-stalks  spring.  The  plant  is  of  a  hardy  nature,  and  the 
globular  enlargement  is  more  solid  and  more  nutritious  than  a  turnip  of 
the  same  size. 

SPINACH. — The  vegetable  falling  under  this  name  is  furnished  by  the 
leaves  of  the  Spinacia  oleracea,  or  garden  spinach,  a  plant  introduced 
into  this  country  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  supposed  to  be  a  native 
of  Western  Arabia.  There  are  several  varieties  of  the  plant,  and  the 
leaves  are  boiled  and  mashed  for  the  table,  to  be  eaten  as  a  green  vege- 
table, and  are  also  frequently  employed  for  introduction  into  soup.  It 
is  a  wholesome  vegetable,  with  slightly  laxative  properties. 

The  spinach  belongs  to  a  tribe  of  plants,  other  families.of  which  yield 
leaves  that  are  prepared  and  eaten  in  a  similar  way.  For  instance,  the 
leaves  of  the  Chenopodium,  which  furnishes  the  quinoa  grain,  are  used 
as  spinach  by  the  inhabitants  of  Chili  and  Peru.  The  Beet  family  be- 
longs to  the  same  tribe,  and  the  leaves  of  the  Beta  maritima,  or  sea-beet, 
a  common  European  sea-shore  plant,  and  of  the  Beta  cicla,  or  white  beet, 
are  also  used  as  spinach.  The  latter  plant,  which  is  supposed  to  be  a 
variety  of  the  red  beet,  is  cultivated  specially  and  solely  for  the  leaves. 
It  is  a  native  of  the  sea-coasts  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  was  introduced 
into  England  in  1570.  What  is  called  mountain  spinach  is  derived  from 
the  garden  orache  (Atriplex  hortensis),  a  member  of  another  family  be- 
longing to  the  same  tribe,  which  is  a  native  of  Tartary,  and  was  intro- 
duced into  Europe  in  1548.  The  leaves  have  a  slightly  acid  flavor,  and 
are  much  esteemed  as  a  vegetable  in  France. 

The  Romans  ate  the  leaves  of  the  mallow  as  a  substitute  for  spinach, 
and  these  are  still  used  for  a  similar  purpose  in  some  parts  of  France, 
Italy,  and  Lower  Egypt.  The  leaves  of  Mercurialis  annua  are  cooked 
and  eaten  as  spinach  in  Germany  ("  Baird's  Cyclo.  of  Nat.  Sci."). 

SOKREL. — Sorrel  (Rumex  acetosa)  belongs  to  the  buckwheat  order  of 
plants.  In  England  it  is  to  be  seen  growing  wild  in  meadows,  and  is 
now  seldom  used  as  an  article  of  food,  although  in  the  time  of  Henry 
VIII.  it  was  to  be  found  in  almost  every  garden.  In  France,  however, 
it  is  rather  extensively  employed,  and  by  cultivation  is  considerably  im- 
proved. Sorrel  possesses  an  acid  taste  of  a  pronounced  character,  which 
is  due  to  the  presence  of  the  superoxalate  of  potash  and  tartaric  acid. 

RHUBARB. — This  is  also  a  member  of  the  buckwheat  tribe,  and  yields 
one  of  the  most  useful  of  garden  productions.  Whilst  the  leaves  were 
formerly  boiled  and  made  into  a  sauce  for  meat  in  England,  the  stalks 
have  only  been  of  comparatively  recent  introduction  into  dietetic  use 
amongst  us.  The  Rheum  rhaponticum  and  Rheum  fiybridum  constitute 
the  species  usually  grown  for/klimentary  purposes.  The  Rheum  palma- 
tU7n,  commonly  known  to  gardeners  as  the  true  Turkey  rhubarb,  also 
yields  an  excellent  edible  product.  The  stalks  of  the  leaves,  after  being 


ALIMENTARY   SUBSTANCES.  183 

peeled,  are  cooked  and  eaten  precisely  in  the  same  way  as  gooseberries, 
for  which  they  form  a  good  substitute,  if  even  they  are  not  to  be  pre- 
ferred. Rhubarb  occupies,  indeed,  in  an  alimentary  point  of  view,  the 
position  of  a  fruit,  but  it  is  not  eatable  in  the  raw  state.  It  is  also  some- 
times used  for  making  wine.  On  account  of  oxalate  of  lime  forming  a 
constituent  of  rhubarb,  it  should  be  avoided  by  persons  suffering  from 
the  oxalate  of  lime  diathesis. 

LAVEK. — Laver  is  the  name  given  to  various  kinds  of  sea-weed  used 
as  food.  Green  laver,  as  dressed  for  the  table,  closely  resembles  spinach 
in  appearance,  but  has  a  bitterish  taste.  It  is  obtained  from  the  Ulva 
latissima,  a  common  sea-weed  on  the  British  shores.  Amongst  the  other 
marine  plants  employed  are  the  Porphyra  vulgaris  and  laciniata  ;  Chon- 
drus  crispus,  or  carrageen,  or  Irish  moss ;  Laminaria,  digitata,  or  sea- 
girdle  j  Laminaria  saccharinaj  and  Alaria  esculenta,  or  bladder- 
lock. 

Basing  his  remarks  upon  the  analyses  of  Dr.  Davy  and  Dr.  Apjohn, 
Dr.  Letheby  states  that  sea-weeds,  in  a  moderately  dry  condition,  contain, 
from  18  to  26  per  cent,  of  water,  9^  to  15  per  cent,  of  nitrogenous  matter, 
and,  upon  an  average,  about  60  per  cent,  of  starchy  matter  and  sugar, 
(vegetable  mucilage  ?) — a  composition  which  places  them  amongst  the 
most  nutritious  of  vegetable  substances.  He  urges  the  advisability  of 
extending  the  use  of  so  valuable  and  abundant  a  stock  of  food,  which 
already  enters  largely  into  the  diet  of  some  of  the  coast  inhabitants  of 
Great  Britain,  Ireland,  and  the  Continent.  Before  being  cooked,  they 
require  to  be  soaked  in  water  to  remove  their  saline  matter.  They  are 
then  stewed  in  water  or  milk  until  they  become  tender  and  mucilaginous. 
Sometimes  they  are  pickled,  and  eaten  with  pepper,  vinegar,  and  oil,  or 
with  lemon-juice.  The  consumption  of  laver  is  thought  to  be  useful  ia 
scrofulous  affections  and  glandular  tumors. 

Sea-weeds  are  eaten  by  the  Chinese,  and  a  jelly  is  likewise  made  by 
them  from  the  leaves  oifucus  ("Barrow's  Travels  in  China,"  pp.  551-2). 

It  may  be  mentioned  here  that  certain  varieties  of  Lichen  are  con- 
sumed as  food.  Captain  Franklin  and  his  party,  in  their  voyage  to  the 
Polar  Sea,  subsisted  principally,  during  a  part  of  the  year  1821  (when 
suffering  great  privations),  on  lichens  of  the  genus  Gyrophora,  which 
the  Canadians  term  tripe  de  roche.  Under  this  diet,  however,  the  party 
became  little  more  than  skin  and  bones,  and  after  a  time  the  unpalatable 
weed  became  -quite  nauseous  to  all,  and  produced  bowel  complaint  amongst 
several  ("  Franklin's  Journey,"  p.  403). 

CELERY. — The  common  celery  (Apium  yraveolens)  is  a  native  of 
Britain,  and  in  its  wild  state  is  known  as  smallage,  which  grows  freely  by 
the  sides  of  ditches  and  in  marshy  places.  In  this  state  it  has  a  coarse, 
rank  taste,  and  a  peculiar  smell.  By  the  process  of  cultivation  which  is 
now  resorted  to,  and  which  was  introduced  from  India  about  a  century 
and  a  half  ago,  it  loses  its  acrid  nature,  and  becomes  mild  and  sweet.  The 
plan  adopted  is  to  earth  it  up  as  it  grows,  and  thus  keep  it  white  by  ex- 
clusion from  light,  the  tops  of  the  leaves  only  being  allowed  to  appear 
above  the  ground.  Several  varieties  of  the  plant  are  met  with.  Eaten 
raw,  it  must  undoubtedly  be  looked  upon  as  difficult  of  digestion.  It  is 
frequently  stewed,  and  is  employed  also  for  introducing  into  soups. 


184  A    TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

SEA-KALE. — The  Sea-kale  (Cramba  maritime?)  forms  a  hardy  plant, 
which  grows  on  the  sea-shores  of  various  parts  of  Britain  and  the  Conti- 
nent. It  has  long  been  eaten  by  the  common  people,  but  was  not  culti- 
vated in  gardens  until  the  eighteenth  century.  It  is  now  brought  to  a 
high  state  of  perfection,  and  is  one  of  the  most  esteemed  of  vegetables. 
Properly  cooked,  it  is  delicate,  easy  of  digestion,  and  nutritious.  Like 
celery,  it  is  blanched  by  exclusion  from  light  during  its  growth,  and  un- 
less this  is  carefully  attended  to,  the  shoots  acquire  an  acrid  taste.  The 
vegetable  is  but  little  known  on  the  Continent. 

ARTICHOKE. — The  green  artichoke  constitutes  the  flower-head  of  one 
of  the  Composites,  viz.,  the  Cynara  scolymus,  which  is  a  native  of  the 
South  of  Europe,  and  was  introduced  into  England  in  1548.  The  flower- 
head  is  gathered  before  the  flowers  expand.  The  succulent  bases  of  the 
leafy  scales  and  the  central  disc  form  the  edible  portion,  and  furnish  a 
delicate-flavoured  vegetable. 

The  term  chard  is  applied  to  the  leaf-stalks,  -which  have  been  blanched 
by  tying  up  the  leaves  and  wrapping  all  of  them  over  expect  the  tops. 
In  this  state  the  stalks  are  tender  and  white,  and  are  sometimes  thus  pre- 
pared for  the  table. 

The  fleshy  receptacle  of  the  carline  thistle  (Carlina  caulescens),  a  na- 
tive of  the  South  of  Europe,  exceeds  that  of  the  artichoke  in  size  and  is 
said  to  equal  it  in  flavor. 

The  cardoon  {Cynara  carduncellus)  also  yields  an  edible  article.  The 
plant  closely  resembles  the  common  artichoke.  The  thick,  fleshy  leaves 
are  blanched,  and,  when  cooked,  taste  very  much  like  the  artichoke.  It 
is  not  much  used  in  England,  but  is  in  considerable  request  on  the  Conti- 
nent. 

ASPARAGUS. — The  Asparagus  officinalis  belongs  to  the  lily  tribe,  and 
in  its  wild  state  is  a  sea-coast  plant.  It  is  a  native  of  Europe,  and  is 
now  extensively  cultivated  as  a  garden  vegetable.  The  young  shoots 
form  the  portion  that  is  eaten,  and,  by  cultivation,  these  have  been 
greatly  increased  in  size  and  altered  from  their  original  condition.  They 
are  universally  esteemed  as  a  choice  and  delicate  vegetable.  They  con- 
tain a  special  crystallizable  principle,  called  asparaffine,  which  possesses 
diuretic  properties,  and  gives  a  peculiar  odor  to  the  urine. 

Other  vegetable  products  are  sometimes  dressed  and  eaten  in  the  same 
way  as  asparagus.  The  flower-stalks,  for  instance,  of  the  Ornithogalum 
pyrenaicum  are  used  as  asparagus  in  some  parts  of  Gloucestershire,  and 
sold  in  Bath  under  the  name  of  Prussian  asparagus.  The  stalks  of  the 
salsify  are  likewise  sometimes  similarly  employed,  and  also  the  leaf  stalks 
and  mid-ribs  of  the  great  white  or  sweet  beet  (J3eta  cicla).  The  latter  is 
denominated  beet  chard.  The  young  shoots  of  one  or  two  species  of 
Typha  are  eaten  by  the  Cossacks  like  asparagus.  The  young  buds  of 
hops  are  said  to  be  scarcely  inferior  to  asparagus  in  taste. 

ONION. — The  onion  (Allium  ccpa),  like  the  asparagus,  although  differ- 
ing so  much  from  it  in  its  dietetic  properties,  belongs  to  the  lily  tribe  of 
plants.  In  common  with,  but  to  a  higher  degree  than,  the  other  mem- 
bers of  the  allium  species,  which  includes  also  the  garlic,  chive,  shallot, 
and  leek,  it  contains  an  acrid,  volatile  oil,  which  possesses  strongly  irri- 
tant and  excitant  properties.  Grown  in  Spain  and  other  warm  places, 
the  onion  ia  milder  and  sweeter  than  when  grown  in  colder  countries. 


ALIMENTARY   SUBSTANCES.  185 

The  chief  use  of  the  onion  reared  in  our  own  gardens  is  as  a  condiment 
or  flavoring  agent,  whilst  the  large  onions  imported  from  Spain  are  suf- 
ficiently mild  to  be  eaten  as  an  ordinary  vegetable,  and  are  stewed  and 
roasted  for  the  table. 

LETTUCE. — The  garden  lettuce  (Lactuca  sativa),  is  a  hardy  plant,  of 
which  a  great  number  of  varieties  exist.  It  is  supposed  to  be  a  native  of 
the  East  Indies,  but  has  been  cultivated  in  Europe  from  a  remote  period 
of  antiquity.  Most  of  the  lettuces  grown  for  use  form  one  or  other  of 
two  kinds — cos  and  cabbage.  The  leaves  of  the  former  are  oblong  and 
upright,  and  are  tied  together  for  the  purpose  of  being  blanched;  whilst 
those  of  the  latter  are  rounder  and  of  a  more  spreading  character,  and  at 
the  same  time  grow  nearer  to  the  ground. 

The  lettuce  supplies  a  wholesome,  digestible,  cooling,  and  agreeable 
salad.  It  is  occasionally  made  use  of  as  a  boiled  vegetable.  It  contains 
a  milky  juice,  especially  when  the  plant  has  been  allowed  to  run  to 
flower,  which  possesses  mild  soporific  properties,  and  is  collected  and  in- 
spissated, and  used  as  a  medicinal  agent,  under  the  name  of  lactucarium 
or  lettuce  opium. 

ENDIVE. — The  endive  ( Cichorium  endivia)  is  a  native  of  China  or 
Japan,  and  was  introduced  into  Europe  in  the  year  1548.  It  is  largely 
used  as  a  winter  salad,  but  is  less  tender  than  lettuce,  and  has  a  decidedly 
bitter  taste.  It  is  sometimes  stewed  and  eaten  as  a  cooked  vegetable. 

CRESS. — The  common  or  garden  cress  (Lepidium  sativum)  is  a  native 
of  the  East,  but  has  been  cultivated  in  our  gardens  since  1548.  The 
young  leaves  are  used  as  salad,  and  they  possess  a  pungent  and  agreeable 
flavor.  It  ranks  as  one  of  the  principal  of  the  small  salads,  and  a  va- 
riety with  curled  leaves  is  especially  esteemed. 

MUSTARD. — The  white  mustard  (Sinapis  alba)  is  a  native  of  Britain, 
and  grows  in  waste  places.  It  is  sown  in  gardens,  and  forced  under  glass 
for  the  production  of  a  small  salad,  which,  like  cress,  possesses  an  agree- 
able, pungent  flavor. 

RAPE. — The  Rape  (Brassica  napus)  is  frequently  grown  and  used  as 
a  substitute  for  mustard  and  cress.  It  is  devoid,  however,  of  the  agree- 
able pungency  which  belongs  to  these  latter  articles. 

WATER-CRESS. — The  water-cress  (Nasturtium  officinale)  is  a  creeping 
plant,  which  grows  in  slow-running  streams,  and  thrives  best  on  a  bottom 
of  sand  or  gravel.  It  is  a  native  of  almost  all  parts  of  the  world,  and 
forms  a  favorite  and  wholesome  edible  product,  which  is  seldom  out  of 
season.  There  are  two  varieties,  the  green  and  brown 

The  young  shoots  of  the  common  poke,  or  American  grape  (Phytolacca 
decandra ),  are  eaten  by  the  natives  of  America  and  the  West  Indies  as 
a  vegetable,  and  in  Austria  the  plant  is  cultivated  for  the  same  purpose 
("Baird's  Cyclo.  Nat.  Sci."). 

The  leaves  of  the  common  daisy  are  used  as  a  pot-herb  in  some  coun- 
tries ("  Baird's  Cyclo.  Nat.  Sci."). 

The  leaves  of  the  dandelion  are  eaten  as  a  salad,  and  are  little  inferior 
to  endive  ("  Forsyth's  Dictionary  of  Diet "). 


186  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

The  large  purple  flowers  of  the  Abulilon  esculentum  (called  in  Brazil, 
Ben$aode  Dios),  are  dressed  and  eaten  with  their  food  by  the  inhabitants 
of  Rio  de  Janeiro  ("  Baird's  Cyclo.  Nat.  Sci."). 

The  leaves  of  the  Lithospermum  maritimum,  which  belongs  to  the 
same  tribe  as  the  borage,  and  grows  on  the  sea-coast  in  certain  northern 
parts  of  the  United  Kingdom,  are  said  to  have  a  strong  taste  of  oysters. 
It  is  hence  sometimes  called  the  "  oyster-plant "  in  Scotland. 


FRUITY  PRODUCTS  CONSUMED  AS  VEGETABLES. 

CUCUMBER. — The  common  cucumber  ( Cucumis  sativus)  is  a  native  of 
the  South  of  Asia,  but  has  long  been  cultivated  in  all  civilized  countries. 
It  furnishes  a  fleshy  fruit,  which  forms  an  edible  product.  It  is  grown 
both  in  the  open  air  and  under  glass,  the  fruit  varying  in  size,  tenderness, 
and  flavor,  accordingly:  that  which  is  forced  or  grown  quickly  possessing 
choicer  qualities  than  that  which  is  grown  slowly. 

Cucumber,  in  the  raw  state,  must  be  looked  upon  as  a  cold  and  indi- 
gestible article;  and  it  is  apt  to  disagree  with  many.  Stewed,  it  forms  a 
light  and  wholesome  vegetable. 

Young  cucumbers  are  pickled  in  vinegar  and  called  gherkins .  In  this 
state  they  form  an  agreeable  relish  at  a  meal,  and  serve  to  give  zest  for 
other  food. 

VEGETABLE  MAEEOW. — Vegetable  marrow  constitutes  the  fruit  of  the 
Cucurbita  ovifera,  a  plant  which  is  supposed  to  be  only  a  variety  of 
the  pumpkin.  It  was  introduced  into  Europe  from  the  East  Indies  at  the 
commencement  of  the  present  century,  and  is  now  extensively  cultivated 
in  England.  It  is  dressed  in  various  ways,  and  its  name  is  derived  from 
the  softness  of  its  fleshy  substance.  It  forms  a  delicate-flavored  and 
easily  digestible  vegetable,  but,  on  account  of  its  highly  succulent  nature, 
its  nutritive  value  is  very  low. 

The  pumpkin  ( Cucurbita  pepo),  and  melon-pumpkin,  or  squash  ( Cu- 
curbita melopepo),  are  products  of  an  allied  nature  to  vegetable  marrow, 
and  are  sometimes  used  as  food. 

TOMATO. — The  tomato,  or  love-apple  (Solanum  ly  coper sicurri),  is  a 
native  of  South  America,  and  was  introduced  into  Europe  in  159G.  The 
ripe  fruit  is  used  in  various  ways,  and  has  an  agreeable  acidulous  taste. 
It  is  more,  perhaps,  as  a  relish,  than  for  its  nutritive  value,  that  it  is  use- 
ful, and  its  popularity  has  rapidly  increased  of  late.  In  the  unripe  state 
it  is  said  to  make  an  excellent  pickle.  In  America  it  is  very  largely  used, 
and  is  eaten  raw  as  a  salad,  or  after  being  stewed;  and  of  late  years  an 
important  industry  has  sprung  up  in  that  country,  embracing  their  pre- 
servation by  partial  cooking  and  enclosure  in  hermetically  sealed  tins. 

A  variety  of  the  Solanum  melongena,  or  egg-plant,  yields  a  fruity 
product,  known  as  the  egg-apple,  aubergine,  or  brinjal.  This  is  of  an 
elongated  form  and  purple  color.  It  is  somewhat  largely  eaten  on  the 
Continent,  and  to  some  extent  also  in  England;  but  it  is  dry  and  spongy, 
and  devoid  of  the  agreeable  qualities  belonging  to  the  tomato.  In 
America  it  is  a  favorite  vegetable,  and  is  there  usually  sliced  and  fried. 


ALIMENTARY   SUBSTANCES. 


187 


ESCULENT  FUNGI. 

The  fungi  are  low  vegetable  products,  which  are  characterized  chemi- 
cally by  the  large  amount  of  nitrogenous  matter  they  contain.  In  this 
respect,  indeed,  they  are  closely  allied  to  animal  substances.  On  the 
Continent  a  considerable  number  of  varieties  are  consumed,  but  in  Eng- 
land, from  suspicion  of  the  possession  of  dangerous  properties,  the  selec- 
tion is  restricted  mainly  to  three,  viz.,  the  mushroom,  morel,  and  truffle. 
The  following  is  the  chemical  composition  of  these,  according  to  the 
analyses  of  Pay  en: 

Composition  of  Edible  Fungi  (Payen). 


Mushrooms. 

Morels. 

White  truffles. 

Black  truffles. 

Nitrogenous  matter  and  traces  of  sul-  ) 
phur,                                                    f 

4.680 

4.40 

9.958 

8.775 

Fatty  matter  
Cellulose,  dextrine,  saccharine  mat-  } 
ter,  mannite,  and  other  non-nitro-  V 
genous  principles,  ) 

0.396 
3.456 

0.56 
3.68 

0.442 
15.158 

0.560 
16.585 

Salts   (phosphates  and  chlorides  of  j 
the  alkalies,  lime,  and  magnesia),  y 

0.458 

1.36 

2.102 

2.070 

Water,    

91.010 

90.00 

72.340 

72.000 

100.000 

100.00 

100.000 

100.000 

In  the  dried  state,  mushrooms  contain,  Payen  states,  52,  morels  44, 
white  truffles  36,  and  black  truffles  31  per  cent,  of  nitrogenous  matter. 

MUSHROOMS. — Belonging  to  the  mushroom  tribe  is  a  large  number  of 
varieties,  many  of  which  are  suitable  for  eating,  whilst  other  possess  poi- 
sonous properties.  The  Agaricus  campestris  constitutes  the  common 
edible  mushroom.  It  is  found  springing  up  spontaneously,  in  our  pas- 
tures during  the  months  of  August,  September,  and  October,  and  is  also 
cultivated  in  beds,  and  thence  obtainable  all  the  year  round.  It  is  a  na- 
tive of  most  of  the  temperate  regions  of  both  hemispheres.  It  produces 
a  spreading  filamentous  or  thread-like  underground  structure,  called  the 
mycelium  or  spawn.  From  this,  little  tubers  spring,  which  rapidly  en- 
large, and  grow  into  a  stalk,  bearing  at  its  summit  a  rounded  head,  which, 
in  a  short  time,  expands  into  a  pileus  or  cap.  This,  which  forms  the 
edible  portion,  constitutes  the  fructification,  and  presents  upon  its  under- 
surface  a  number  of  parallel  plates  or  gills,  that  bear  the  sporules  of  the 
fungus. 

Mushrooms  are  employed  for  flavoring,  and  as  an  occasional  delicacy, 
rather  than  as  a  common  article  of  food.  Although  difficult  of  digestion, 
and,  therefore,  not  adapted  for  the  weak  stomach,  they  may,  neverthe- 
less, be  consumed  by  most  healthy  persons  without  proving  hurtful. 
Sometimes,  however,  probably  from  idiosyncrasy  on  the  part  of  the  indi- 
vidual, they  give  rise  to  more  or  less  serious  derangement.  They  are 
eaten  in  the  fresh  state,  either  broiled,  baked,  or  stewed,  and  are  also 
preserved  by  pickling.  The  young  or  button  mushrooms  are  used  for  the 


188  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD   AND   DIETETICS. 

latter  purpose.  Ketchup  (besides  being  made  from  the  walnut)  is  pre- 
pared from  their  juice,  flavored  with  salt  and  aromatics. 

The  resemblance  between  mushrooms  and  their  companion  non-edible 
growths — toadstools — is  so  close,  that  mistakes  have  sometimes  arisen  and 
serious  consequences  resulted  from  the  wrong  fungus  being  eaten.  It  is 
not  easy  to  give  precise  rules  that  will  serve  to  distinguish  the  wholesome 
from  the  poisonous  product;  but,  as  affording  some  assistance,  the  follow- 
ing particulars  bearing  on  the  point  may  be  furnished.  Mushrooms,  when 
young,  are  like  a  small,  round  button,  with  the  exterior  of  both  the  stalk 
and  head  white.  As  they  grow  larger,  the  head  expands,  assuming  a 
flat  or  discoidal  shape,  and  the  gills  underneath  are  at  first  of  a  pale  flesh 
color,  but  afterward  become  dark  brown  or  blackish.  The  skin  upon  the 
top  of  the  cap  or  disc  peels  off  easily.  The  flesh  is  white,  compact,  and 
brittle,  not  soft  and  watery.  They  have  an  agreeable  odor,  and  grow, 
for  the  most  part,  in  open,  closely  fed  pastures — rarely  in  woods.  Toad- 
stools, on  the  other  hand,  grow  freely  in  woods,  or  shady,  damp  places. 
They  have,  in  general,  an  unpleasant  smell,  and  the  gills  are  of  a  brown 
color.  A  sure  test,  says  Dr.  Christison,  indicative  of  a  poisonous  fungus, 
is  an  astringent,  styptic  taste,  and  perhaps,  also,  a  disagreeable,  but  cer- 
tainly a  pungent  odor.  He  says,  also,  that  most  fungi  which  have  a  warty 
cap,  and  more  especially  if  fragments  of  membrane  are  seen  adhering  to 
their  upper  surface,  are  poisonous.  In  the  absence  of  practical  know- 
ledge of  the  different  varieties,  the  golden  rule  to  observe  is,  to  reject  all 
kinds  of  fungi,  which  are  disagreeable  to  smell  and  taste — or  stated  con- 
versely, to  select  those  only  which  possess  the  well-known  agreeabla 
aroma  and  flavor  of  the  common  edible  mushroom.  The  effects  produced 
by  the  poisonous  fungi  are  of  a  narcotico-acrid  nature.  The  usual  symp- 
toms are  pain  or  uneasiness  in  the  stomach,  vomiting,  purging,  a  sense  of 
constriction  in  the  throat,  distress  of  breathing,  giddiness,  fainting, 
prostration,  and  stupor.  Sometimes  the  brain  symptoms  predominate,  and 
the  sufferer  is  thrown  into  a  state  of  coma;  at  other  times  the  effects  are 
chiefly  manifested  upon  the  alimentary  canal,  and  symptoms  allied  to 
those  of  cholera  are  observed.  Sometimes,  also,  the  effects  have  come  on 
within  a  few  minutes  after  the  fungi  have  been  eaten,  whilst  at  other 
times  they  have  been  delayed  for  several  hours.  Recovery  has  generally 
occurred  after  a  longer  or  shorter  period,  but  a  few  instances  have  been 
recorded  where  a  fatal  termination  has  been  observed.  Some  persons,  as 
already  mentioned,  are,  through  idiosyncrasy,  injuriously  affected  by  the 
ordinary  edible  mushrooms,  but  the  effects  in  such  cases  are  usually  con- 
fined to  vomiting,  purging,  and  colic. 

The  active  principle  of  the  poisonous  fungi  has  recently  been  separ- 
ated from  the  Agaricus  muscarius  by  Schmiedeberg  of  Strasburg,  and 
named  by  him  muscarin.  From  the  investigations  conducted  by  its  dis- 
coverer, it  appears  to  have  the  power  of  checking  in  a  very  striking  man- 
ner the  action  of  the  heart.  Dr.  Lauder  Brunton  *  has  also  found. that  it 
causes  marked  contraction  of  the  pulmonary  vessels,  and  thereby  dimin- 
ishes the  flow  of  blood  through  the  lungs  to  such  an  extent  that  the  gen- 
eral arteries  are  brought  to  a  nearly  empty  condition.  A  further  dis- 
covery, which  promises  to  prove  of  practical  importance,  is  that  these  effects 
of  muscarin  are  in  a  very  complete  manner  counteracted  by  the  active 
principle  of  belladonna.  The  merest  trace  of  muscarin,  it  is  stated,  will 
almost  instantaneously  arrest  the  pulsations  of  the  frog's  heart,  and  the 

*  British  Medical  Journal,  p.  617,  November  14,  1871 


ALIMENTARY  SUBSTANCES.  189 

effect  will  be  permanent  unless  a  little  atropine  be  afterward  employed, 
when  the  pulsations  will  be  resumed.  It  remains  to  be  seen  whether  the 
administration  of  belladonna,  or  the  subcutaneous  injection  of  atropiiie  will 
prove  effectual  as  an  antidote  in  cases  of  mushroom-poisoning. 

Although  fungi  constitute  an  important  article  of  diet  of  large  num- 
bers of  people  in  France,  Germany,  Russia,  and  Italy,  the  prejudice 
from  mistrust  in  England  is  such  that  nearly  all  except  the  common  mush- 
room (Agaricus  campestris)  are  neglected.  Rocques  has  called  them 
"the  manna  of  the  poor,"  and  so  large  is  the  consumption  of  fungi  in 
Rome,  that  the  appointment  of  an  official  inspector  was  made  in  1837. 
In  Terra  del  Fuego,  the  inhabitants  almost  live  upon  a  species  of  mushroom 
(  Cyttaria  Darwimi)  which  grows  on  the  bark  of  the  beech  of  that  coun- 
try; and  in  Australia,  many  species  of  Boletus  are  eaten  by  the  natives, 
one  of  them  (Myllttus  Australia)  is  commonly  known  as  Australian 
bread  ("Baird's  Cyclo.  of  Nat.  Sci."). 

Dr.  Badham,  in  his  work  on  "The  Esculent  Funguses  of  England," 
writes:  "No  country  is  perhaps  richer  in  esculent  funguses  than  our 
own;  we  have  upward  of  thirty  species  abounding  in  our  woods.  No 
markets  might  therefore  be  better  supplied  than  the  English,  and  yet, 
England  is  the  only  country  in  Europe  where  this  important  and  savory 
food  is,  from  ignorance  or  prejudice,  left  to  perish  ungathered."  Dr. 
Badham's  work  (184?)  contains  descriptions  of  twenty-nine  species  of 
Agaricus,  three  of  Boletus,  three  of  Polyporus,  and  many  others. 

Attempts  have  been  made  of  late  years  to  break  through  the  popular 
prejudice  against  many  species  of  edible  fungi,  and  the  Rev.  M.  J.  Berke- 
ley, the  most  distinguished  mycologist  in  England,  attended  the  Food 
Committee  of  the  Society  of  Arts  (  VideJourn.  of  the  Soc.  of  Arts,  p.  467, 
May  15,  1868),  to  give  information  on  the  subject. 

The  members  of  the  Woolhope  Naturalists'  Field  Club  have  paid  special 
attention  to  the  discovery  of  edible  fungi,  and  on  October  9,  1868,  a 
meeting  was  arranged  at  Hereford  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  "  Foray 
among  the  Funguses."  A  large  number  were  collected,  which  were  eaten 
at  the  dinner  that  was  given  after  the  excursion.  Among  these  were  the 
Fistulina  hepatica,  the  liver  fungus  or  vegetable  beef-steak,  one  speci- 
men of  which  was  nearly  two  feet  in  diameter  and  weighed  about  10  or 
12  Ibs.,  and  the  Agaricus  prunulus  or  Orcella,  called  vegetable  sweet- 
bread. 

THE  MOREL. — The  common  morel  (Morchella  esculenta),  though  a  na- 
tive of  this  country,  is  usually  imported  for  use  from  the  Continent.  It 
is  kept  in  a  dried  state,  and  sold  at  Italian  warehouses,  and  by  the  her- 
balists at  Coven t  Garden.  In  the  fresh  state  it  consists  of  a  hollow  stem 
and  rounded  head  continuous  with  each  other.  It  enters  as  a  flavoring  in- 
gredient into  some  made  dishes,  and  is  sometimes  also  stewed  and  eaten 
separately,  like  the  mushroom. 

TRUFFLES. — The  truffle  forms  a  subterraneous  fungus,  which  never  ap- 
pears above  the  surface.  It  grows  in  light,  dry  soils,  and  is  found  in 
several  parts  of  England:  more  especially  on  the  Downs  of  Wiltshire, 
Hampshire,  and  Kent.  It  is  more  plentiful  in  France,  and  there  acquires 
a  larger  size  and  choicer  flavor.  The  most  esteemed,  on  account  of  the 
richness  of  their  aroma,  are  those  which  are  obtained  from  the  oak  forests 
of  Perigord.  There  are  three  varieties:  the  black,  white,  and  red  or  vio- 
let. The  latter  is  rare,  and  of  the  two  former  the  black  is  held  in  by  far 


190  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

the  higher  repute.  The  white,  indeed,  is  considered  of  comparatively 
little  value.  To  be  in  perfection,  truffles  should  be  quite  fresh,  much  of 
their  aroma  being  lost  by  keeping.  The  black  truffle  is  nodulated  on  the 
surface,  and,  as  met  with  in  the  market,  varies  in  size  from  that  of  a  fil- 
bert or  plum  to  that  of  the  fist.  Internally,  it  is  marbled  with  white, 
filamentous  streaks,  which  have  been  regarded  as  constituting  a  sort  of 
mycelium. 

As  they  do  not  appear  above  the  surface,  there  is  nothing  to  indicate 
the  locality  of  their  growth,  but  their  odor  leads  to  their  being  scented 
out  by  animals  employed  for  the  purpose.  In  England,  dogs  are  trained 
for  this  work.  They  scratch  and  bark  over  the  spot  •where  the  truffles 
grow,  and  then  men  dig  them  out.  In  France,  pigs  are  used  in  the  same 
way.  This  animal  appears  to  be  very  fond  of  them,  and  on  discovering 
their  situation  turns  up  the  ground  with  its  snout  in  search  of  them. 

Truffles  are  considered,  particularly  on  the  Continent,  an  article  of 
the  greatest  delicacy.  Their  firm  and  toughish  consistence  renders  them 
indigestible,  but  they  are  esteemed  for  the  sake  of  their  peculiar  aroma. 
Whilst  being  seldom  eaten  alone,  they  are  often  used  as  a  stuffing,  and 
form  also  a  frequent  ingredient  of  made  dishes,  besides  being  employed 
to  flavor  gravies  and  sauces. 


FRUITS. 

The  term  fruit,  in  botanical  language,  signifies  the  seed,  with  its  sur- 
rounding structures,  in  progress  to  or  arrived  at  maturity.  In  a  popular 
and  dietetic  sense  it  has  a  more  limited  signification,  and  refers  in  a  gene- 
ral way  only  to  such  product  when  used  in  the  manner  of  a  dessert.  Bo- 
tai  ically,  wheat,  peas,  beans,  etc.,  constitute  fruits,  but  popularly  the  term 
is  restricted  to  articles  like  apples,  pears,  plums,  grapes,  etc. 

Fruits  consist  of  two  parts — the  seed,  and  what  is  technically  called 
the  pericarp.  The  latter  comprises  that  which  surrounds  the  seed,  and  is 
composed  of  the  epicarp,  the  external  integument  or  skin;  the  endocarp 
or  piitamen,  the  inner  coat  or  shell;  and  the  sarcocarp  or  mesocarp,  the 
intermediate  part,  which  generally  possesses  a  more  or  less  fleshy  consist- 
ence. It  is  the  sarcocarp  which  forms  the  edible  succulent  portion  of  the 
fruit. 

The  flower,  and  thence  the  fruit,  is  formed  from  modifications  of  the 
leaf,  and  in  an  early  stage  the  fruit  is  green,  and  exhibits  much  the  same 
chemical  composition  and  general  comportment  as  the  leaf.  It  is  only  as 
maturity  advances  that  its  special  characteristics  become  developed.  At 
first,  like  other  green  parts  of  the  plant,  it  absorbs  and  decomposes  the 
carbonic  acid  of  the  atmosphere  under  the  influence  of  light,  liberating 
oxygen  and  assimilating  the  carbon.  During  its  progress,  it  increases 
more  or  less  rapidly  in  bulk  and  weight;  and,  as  it  approaches  maturity, 
it  loses  its  green  color,  becomes  brown,  yellow,  or  red,  and  no  longer  acts 
on  the  air  like  the  leaves,  but,  on  the  contrary,  absorbs  oxygen  and  gives 
out  carbonic  acid.  As  this  process  advances,  some  of  the  proximate 
principles  contained  in  the  unripe  fruit,  particularly  the  vegetable  acids 
and  tannin,  in  part  disappear,  apparently  by  oxidation,  and,  thus,  it  be- 
comes less  sour  and  astringent.  At  the  same  time  the  starch  undergoes 
transformation  into  sugar,  and  the  insoluble  pectose  into  pectin  and 
other  soluble  substances  of  allied  composition  and  having  more  or  less  of 
a  gelatinous  character.  The  fruit  in  this  way  arrives  at  a  state  of  per- 


ALIMENTAKY    SUBSTANCES.  191 

fection  for  eating.  Oxidation,  however,  still  advances,  and  now  the 
sugar  and  remaining  acid  become  destroyed,  giving  rise  to  the  loss  of 
flavor  which  occurs  after  the  full  ripened  state  has  been  attained  and 
deterioration  has  set  in.  Finally  if  the  changes  are  allowed  to  pursue 
their  ordinary  course,  the  pericarp  undergoes  decay  and  the  seed  is  set 
free. 

The  agreeable  taste  of  fruits  partly  depends  on  the  aroma,  and  partly 
on  the  existence  of  a  due  relation  between  the  acid,  sugar,  gum,  pectin, 
etc.,  and  likewise  the  amount  of  water  and  the  soluble  and  insoluble  con- 
stituents. Luscious  fruits  like  the  peach,  greengage,  and  mulberry,  which 
seem  to  melt  in  the  mouth,  contain  a  very  large  proportion  of  soluble  sub- 
stances. A  due  proportion  of  gum,  pectin,  and  other  gelatinous  sub- 
stances, serves  to  mask  the  taste  of  the  free  acid,  if  present  in  a  some- 
what large  proportion  as  compared  with  the  sugar.  Such  is  the  case 
•with  the  peach,  apricot,  and  greengage,  which  contain  but  a  small  amount 
of  sugar  as  compared  with  the  free  acid,  but  a  large  proportion  of  gum 
and  pectous  substances.  The  sour  taste  of  certain  berry  fruits,  as  the 
currant  and  gooseberry,  arises  from  the  presence  of  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  free  acid,  with  only  a  small  amount  of  gum  and  pectin  to  disguise 
it.  By  cultivation,  the  proportion  of  sugar  may  be  increased  in  fruits, 
as  is  instanced  by  the  difference  existing  between  the  wild  and  cultivated 
strawberry  and  raspberry  ("  Watts'  Dictionary  of  Chemistry,"  Art.  Fruit). 

Fruit  forms  an  agreeable  and  refreshing  kind  of  food,  and,  eaten  in 
moderate  quantity,  exerts  a  favorable  influence  as  an  article  of  diet.  Its 
proportion  of  nitrogenous  matter  is  too  low,  and  of  water  too  high,  to  al- 
low it  to  possess  much  nutritive  value.  It  is  chiefly  of  service,  looking  at 
the  actual  material  afforded,  for  the  carbohydrates,  vegetable  acids,  and 
salts  it  contains.  It  enjoys  in  a  high  degree  the  power  of  counteracting 
the  unhealthy  state  found  to  be  induced  by  too  close  restriction  to  dried 
and  salted  provisions.  The  preserved  juice  acts  in  this  way  equally  as 
•well  as  the  fresh  fruit,  and  the  juice  of  certain  fruits — the  lemon  and 
lime,  for  instance — as  is  well-known,  is  specially  and  largely  used  for  its 
antiscorbutic  efficacy. 

Whilst  advantageous  when  consumed  in  moderate  quantity,  fruit,  on 
the  other  hand,  proves  injurious  if  eaten  in  excess.  Of  a  highly  suc- 
culent nature,  and  containing  free  acids  and  principles  prone  to  undergo 
change,  it  is  apt,  when  ingested  out  of  due  proportion  to  other  food,  to 
act  as  a  disturbing  element,  and  excite  derangement  of  the  alimentary 
canal.  This  is  particularly  likely  to  occur  if  eaten  either  in  the  unripe 
or  over-ripe  state:  in  the  former  case,  from  the  quantity  of  acid  present; 
in  the  latter,  from  its  strong  tendency  to  ferment  and  decompose  within 
the  digestive  tract.  The  prevalence  of  stomach  and  bowel  disorders, 
noticeable  during  the  height  of  the  fruit  season,  affords  proof  of  the  in- 
conveniences that  the  too  free  use  of  fruit  may  give  rise  to. 

The  effect  of  fruit  is  to  diminish  the  acidity  of  the  urine.  The  alka- 
line vegetable  salts  which  it  contains  become  decomposed  in  the  system," 
and  converted  into  the  carbonate  of  the  alkali,  which  passes  off  with  the 
urine.  By  virtue  of  this  result,  the  employment  of  fruit  is  calculated  to 
prove  advantageous  in  gout  and  other  cases  where  the  urine  shows  a  ten- 
dency to  throw  down  a  deposit  of  iithic  acid. 

In  the  following  description  of  fruits  no  strict  classification  "will  be 
attempted.  There  are  some  fruits,  however,  that  admit  of  being  con- 
veniently grouped  together,  and  these  will  be  made  to  follow  each  other. 
The  pomaceous  group,  for  instance,  forms  a  natural  assemblage,  and  in- 


192  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

dudes  the  apple,  pear,  quince,  etc.  The  orange  or  citron  group  includes, 
besides  the  orange  and  citron,  the  lemon,  lime,  shaddock,  and  pomelo. 
Drupaceous  fruits  are  those  provided  with  a  hard  stone,  surrounded  by  a 
fleshy  pulp,  such  as  the  plum,  peach,  cherry,  olive,  date,  etc.  Fruits  of 
the  baccate  or  berry  kind  comprise  the  grape,  gooseberry,  currant,  cran- 
berry, barberry,  and  others.  Strawberries,  raspberries,  blackberries,  and 
mulberries,  although  in  name  compounded  of  the  word  berry,  constitute  a 
fruit  of  quite  a  different  nature. 

THE  APPLE. — The  apple  (Pyrus  malus),  of  which  there  are  now  very 
numerous  varieties,  is  derived  by  cultivation  from  the  wild  crab,  a  native 
of  Britain  and  other  parts  of  Europe.  The  smallest  apples  grow  in  Si- 
beria, and  the  largest  in  America,  where  many  new  varieties  have  origi- 
nated, and  the  fruit  has  attained  its  highest  perfection.  Their  Newtown 
pippin  is  considered  by  the  Americans  to  stand  at  the  head  of  all  apples, 
native  or  foreign. 

The  apple  forms  one  of  the  most  useful  and  plentiful  of  British 
fruits.  It  is  introduced  into  tarts  and  puddings,  besides  being  employed 
at  the  dessert-table  and  made  into  sauce,  preserve,  and  jelly.  It  also  fur- 
nishes the  fermented  beverage  called  cider.  Verjuice  is  the  fermented 
juice  of  the  crab-apple. 

In  a  raw  state  the  apple  must  not  be  looked  upon  as  easy  of  diges- 
tion. In  a  cooked  state,  however,  it  is  light  and  digestible.  Roasted 
apples  exert  a  slightly  laxative  action,  and  are  often  employed  as  an 
agreeable  means  of  overcoming  habitual  constipation. 

Large  quantities  of  apples  are  dried  and  flattened  in  America  and 
Normandy,  producing  what  are  known  as  "  biffins  "  and  "  Normandy  pip- 
pins." These  are  prepared  for  use  by  stewing. 

Composition  of  Apples  (Fresenius). 

SOLUBLE  MATTER — •  "\Vhite  dessert. 

Sugar,          .         .        ^ 7.58 

Free  acid  (reduced  to  equivalent  in  malic  acid),          .         .       1.04 
Albuminous  substances,      <         .          .          .          .          .         .0.23 

Pectous  substances,  etc.,     .         .         .         .         .         .         .2.72 

Ash,    .         ;         . 0.44 

INSOLUBLE  MATTEE — 

Seeds,          .                            0.38 

Skins,  etc.,  ..........  1.42 

Pectose, 1.16 

[Ash  from  insoluble  matter  included  in  weights  given},        .          .          .  [0.03] 

WATER,  .        .  .  85.04 


100.00 

THE  PEAR. — The  pear  (Pyrus  communis),  like  the  apple,  is  indigen- 
ous to  this  country,  but  the  wild  pear  is  a  very  insignificant  fruit.  It 
flourishes  in  a  warm,  moist  atmosphere,  and  Jersey  is  considered  to  be 
the  most  favorable  situation  for  its  growth  in  all  Europe.  There  is  a 
larger  number  of  the  varieties  of  the  pear  than  of  the  apple.  The  jar- 
gonelle, bergamot,  and  Beurre  form  three  of  the  most  highly  esteemed  va- 
rieties. The  fruit  is  chiefly  used  for  dessert,  but  is  also  stewed  and  made 
into  compote  and  marmalade.  Perry  is  obtained  from  the  fermented 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES. 


193 


juice.  The  best  varieties  of  pear  form  a  very  choice  and  delicate  fruit, 
and  when  in  proper  condition  for  eating,  it  is  soft  and  more  digestible 
than  the  apple.  Hard  pears  to  be  rendered  wholesome,  require  to  be 
subjected  to  cooking. 


Composition  of  Pears  (Fresenius) 

SOLUBLE  MATTER — 

Sugar, 7.000 

Free  acid  (reduced  to  equivalent  in  malic  acid),  .  0.074 

Albuminous  substances,        .....  0.260 

Pectous  substances,  etc.,       .....  3.281 

Ash, 0.285 

INSOLUBLE  MATTER — 

Seeds, ........ 

Skins,  etc.,  .         .         .         .    • 

Pectose,        ....... 

[Ash  from  insoluble  matter  included  in  weights  given], 

WATER,  .         . 


Sweet  Red. 


0.390 
3.420 
1.340 
[0.0501 

83.950 

100.000 


7.940 
trace. 
0.237 
4.409 
0.284 


3.518 

0.605 
[0.0491 

83.007 
100.000 


THE  QUINCE. — The  quince  (Pyrus  cydonia  or  Cydonia  vulgaris)  was 
cultivated  by  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  is  now  grown  through- 
out temperate  climates.  The  fruit,  which,  like  the  apple  and  pear,  be- 
longs to  the  pomaceous  group,  is  in  some  varieties  globose,  in  others  pear- 
shaped,  and  has  a  rich  yellow  or  orange  color,  with  an  agreeable  odor 
taken  singly,  but  a  strong,  disagreeable  smell  when  stowed  away  together 
in  quantity.  In  Persia  it  ripens  so  as  to  be  eatable  in  a  raw  state,  but  in 
Europe  it  never  ripens  sufficiently  to  allow  of  its  being  eaten  previous  to 
being  cooked.  It  is  stewed  with  sugar,  and  frequently  added  to  apple- 
tarts,  the  flavor  of  which  it  greatly  improves.  It  also  furnishes  an  ex- 
cellent marmalade — a  preserve  which  takes  its  name  from  the  Portugese 
word  for  quince,  marmelo.  The  seeds  are  employed  for  the  mucilage 
they  yield. 

THE  MEDLAR. — The  medlar  (Mespilus  germanica)  is  a  native  of 
various  parts  of  Europe,  and  grows  wild  in  Great  Britain.  The  fruit, 
which  is  only  eaten  when  its  tough  pulp  has  become  soft  by  incipient 
decay,  has  a  very  peculiar  flavor. 

THE  SERVICE. — The  service  (Pyrus  domestica  or  Sorbus  domestica)  is 
a  native  of  Italy,  Germany,  and  France,  and  has  been  found  wild  in  Eng- 
land. The  fruit  has  a  peculiar  acid  flavor.  It  requires,  like  the  medlar, 
to  be  kept  until  it  is  over-ripe.  It  is  not  much  eaten  in  England,  as  it  is 
considered  inferior  to  the  medlar. 

THE  ORANGE. — The  common  or  sweet  orange  (  Citrous  aurantium)  is 
supposed  to  be  a  native  of  the  Eastern  and  Central  parts  of  Asia.  It  does 
not  appear  to  have  been  known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  was 
probably  introduced  into  Italy  in  the  fourteenth  century,  above  a  thou- 
sand years  after  the  citron. 

The  orange  is  one  of  the  most  useful  and  agreeable  of  common  fruits. 
13 


194  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

It  is  exceedingly  grateful  and  refreshing  to  the  palate,  and  in  the  ripe 
s:ate  is  so  little  likely  to  occasion  disorder  as  to  be  admissible  under  al- 
most every  condition  both  of  sickness  and  of  health. 

Several  varieties  of  orange  exist.  The  following  are  the  chief  en- 
countered in  ordinary  use.  The  Portugal  or  Lisbon  orange,  which  is 
characterized  by  the  thickness  of  its  rind,  is  the  most  common  of  all. 
The  China  orange,  which  is  said  to  have  been  brought  by  the  Portuguese 
from  China,  has  given  rise  to  the  St.  Michael's  as  a  sub-variety,  and  this  is 
one  of  the  most  highly  esteemed  on  account  of  its  sweet  and  abundant  juice. 
Its  rind  is  smooth  and  thin.  The  Maltese  or  blood-orange  is  remarkable 
for  the  blood-red  color  of  its  pulp.  The  Tangerine  orange  is  small  and 
flat,  and  valued  chiefly  for  the  aroma  belonging  to  it.  The  peel,  particu- 
larly, is  charged  with  a  large  quantity  of  volatile  oil  lodged  in  round  or 
vesicular  receptacles,  easily  discernible  beneath  the  outer  surface.  The 
egg  orange  is  known  by  its  oval  shape.  The  Majorca  orange  is  seedless. 

The  sweet  orange  is  pretty  largely  used  by  the  cook  and  confectioner, 
as  well  as  being  consumed  as  a  fresh  fruit. 

The  Seville  or  bitter  orange  ( Citrus  vulgaris)  is  characterized  by  its 
taste  and  the  amount  of  aromatic  volatile  oil  contained  in  its  rind.  It  is 
too  bitter  to  be  agreeable  for  eating  in  the  raw  state,  but  forms  the  best 
kind  of  orange  for  making  wine  and  marmalade,  and,  for  these  purposes 
it  is  extensively  employed.  The  rind  is  used  for  its  aromatic  bitterness 
as  a  stomachic  and  tonic,  and  also  simply  as  a  flavoring  agent.  The 
flavor  of  Curayoa  is  derived  from  it.  The  best  orange-flower  water  is 
distilled  from  the  flowers  of  this  variety  of  the  orange  tree. 

THE  LEMON. — The  lemon  (  Citrus  limonium)  is  a  native  of  the  North 
of  India.  The  fruit  is  oblong,  wrinkled  or  furrowed,  and  of  a  pale  yellow 
color.  In  the  common  variety  the  pulp  is  very  acid,  but  in  the  variety 
called  the  sweet  lemon  the  juice  is  sweet. 

Lemons  are  extensively  used  to  give  flavor  to  many  articles  of  food. 
The  juice  possesses  valuable  anti-scorbutic  properties,  and  made  into 
lemonade  constitutes  one  of  the  most  popular  of  refreshing  beverages. 
The  rind  contains  a  volatile  oil  and  bitter  principle  which  renders  it  use- 
ful as  an  aromatic  and  stomachic.  In  a  candied  state  it  is  employed  as  a 
dessert  and  in  confectionery.  The  fruit  is  occasionally  made  into  wine 
in  the  same  way  as  the  orange. 

THE  CITRON. — The  fruit  of  the  citron  tree  ( Citrus  medico)  is  larger 
and  less  succulent  than  the  lemon,  and  of  a  strongly  acid  taste.  The 
peel  is  very  thick  and  the  surface  warty  and  furrowed.  The  citron  is  not 
suitable  for  eating  in  the  natural  state.  Its  juice  mixed  with  water  and 
sweetened  forms  an  excellent  refrigerant  and  antiscorbutic  drink.  Its 
peel  is  candied  in  the  same  way  as  that  of  the  orange  and  lemon. 

THE  LIME. — The  common  lime  (  Citrus  acida)  is  a  native  of  India  and 
China,  but  has  long  been  cultivated  in  the  West  Indies  and  the  South  of 
Europe.  The  fruit  is  similar  to  the  lemon,  but  smaller  in  size.  It  has  a 
thin  rind  and  an  extremely  acid  juice,  which  is  largely  used  for  its  anti- 
scorbutic virtue.  The  sweet  lime  (  Citrus  limetta)  is  a  variety  cultivated 
in  the  South  of  Europe,  which  has  a  pulp  of  a  less  acid  nature. 

THE  SHADDOCK. — The  fruit  of  the  shaddock  (Citrus  decumana)  is 
large,  and  from  the  thickness  of  its  skin  will  keep  longer  on  sea  voyages 
than  any  of  the  other  species  of  citrus.  The  pulp  is  of  a  mixed  red  and 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES. 


195 


white  color  and  has  a  moderately  acid  taste.     It  forms  a  pleasant  re- 
freshing fruit  and  is  frequently  made  into  a  preserve. 

THE  POMELO. — The  pomelo  or  pompelmoose  (Citrus  pompelmoos) 
closely  resembles  the  shaddock,  of  which  it  is  sometimes  regarded  as  a  va- 
riety. Its  flavor  is  pleasant  and  approaches  that  of  the  orange.  It  is  this 
fruit  which  is  sometimes  sold  in  the  London  shops  as  the  "  forbidden  fruit." 

THE  POMEGRANATE. — The  pomegranate  (Punica  granata)  has  been 
cultivated  in  Asia  from  ancient  times,  and  has  long  been  naturalized  in 
the  South  of  Europe.  The  fruit  is  of  about  the  size  of  a  large  orange, 
and  possesses  a  thick  leathery  rind  of  a  fine  golden  yellow  color  with  a 
rosy  tinge  on  one  side.  The  central  part  is  composed  of  cells  filled  with 
numerous  seeds,  each  of  which  is  surrounded  with  pulp  and  separately 
enclosed  in  a  thin  membrane.  The  pulp  has  a  sweetish,  styptic,  and 
slightly  bitter  taste.  The  rind  is  much  more  strongly  astringent,  and  is 
sometimes  used  in  medicine  on  account  of  this  property.  The  fruit  is 
also  sometimes  employed  for  its  refrigerant  and  mildly  astringent  qualities. 

THE  PLTTM. — The  common  plum  (Prunus  domestica)  is  supposed  to 
be  a  native  of  Asia  Minor,  but  it  has  long  been  naturalized  in  England. 
The  wild  sloe  (Prunus  spinosa)  which  is  found  growing  in  hedges,  forms 
the  parent  of  the  plum.  From  this  is  first  derived  the  bullace  (Prunus 
insititia),  and  from  the  bullace,  afterward  the  plum.  The  varieties  of 
the  plum  are  numerous.  They  range  in  quality  from  a  delicious  dessert 
fruit  to  one  fit  only  for  tarts  and  preserves. 

The  Damson  or  Damascene  plum  is  so  called  from  being  derived 
originally  from  Damascus.  The  Greengage,  which  is  known  in  France 
as  the  Reine  Claude,  may  be  looked  upon  for  sweetness  and  richness  of 
flavor  as  the  choicest  kind  of  plum.  The  purple  gage  is  a  new  variety 
lately  introduced  by  the  French  under  the  name  of  Heine  Claude  molette. 

Composition  of  Plums  (Fresenius). 


Mirabelle, 
common 
yellow. 

Dark  black- 
red. 

Common 

Mussel. 

Greengage, 
large  green, 
very  sweet. 

SOLUBLE  MATTEB  — 
Sugar,    

3.584 

2.252 

5.793 

3.405 

Free  acid  (reduced  to  equiva-  ) 
lent  in  malic  acid),       .     .    J 
Albuminous  substances, 
Pectous  substances,  etc., 
Ash,       

0.582 

0.197 
5.772 
0.570 

1.331 

0.426 
5.851 
0.553 

0.952 

0.785 
3.646 
0.734 

0.870 

0.401 
11.074 
0.398 

INSOLUBLE  MATTER  — 
Seeds,    

5.780 

3.329 

3.540 

2.852 

Skins,  etc.,       

0.179  ) 

j  1.990 

1.035 

Pectose,       

1.080  f 

1.020 

{  0.630 

0.245 

[Ash  from  insoluble  matter  in-  \ 
eluded  in  weights  given],     .    J 

WATBB,      

[0.082] 

82.256 

[0.063] 

85.238 

[0.094] 

81.930 

[0.037] 

79.720 

100.000 

100.000 

100.000 

100.000 

196 


A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 


Large  quantities  of  plums  are  imported  and  consumed  as  a  dried 
fruit.  The  commoner  kind  are  known  by  the  name  of  l*)'imes,  the 
choicer  kinds  by  that  of  French  plums. 

Plums  are  more  apt  than  most  other  fruits  to  produce  disorder  of  the 
bowels,  attended  with  griping  and  diarrhoea,  and  should,  therefore,  only 
be  eaten  in  moderate  quantity.  In  both  the  unripe  and  over-ripe  state 
they  must  be  regarded  as  decidedly  unwholesome.  Cooking  renders 
them  less  objectionable.  Some  kinds  possess  so  marked  an  astringency 
as  scarcely  to  be  eatable  in  a  raw  state.  Prunes  are  often  used  for  their 
laxative  effect  by  persons  suffering  from  habitual  constipation. 

THE  CHEBRT. — The  common  cherry  ( Ceracas  duracina)  is  supposed 
to  have  been  a  native  of  Syria  and  other  parts  of  Western  Asia.  The 
varieties  differ  greatly  in  color.  The  pale,  sweet,  firm-fleshed  Bigarreau 
forms  the  cherry  most  esteemed  for  dessert.  The  dark-skinned  morello 
constitutes  the  favorite  for  making  preserves  and  for  cherry  brandy. 

Cherries,  like  plums,  require  to  be  eaten  in  moderation,  on  account  of 
their  tendency  to  disorder  the  bowels.  In  the  unripe  and  unsound  state 
they  are  particularly  apt  to  do  so. 

Kirchwasser  is  the  name  of  a  liqueur  obtained  from  cherries.  Maras- 
chino^ a  sweeter  and  more  agreeable  liqueur,  is  also  prepared  from  a  deli- 
cately flavored  variety  of  cherry  grown  in  Dalmatia,  and  called  marasca  or 
marasquin. 

In  speaking  of  cherries,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  serious  results  have 
sometimes  arisen  from  the  stones  having  been  swallowed.  These,  like 
the  stones  of  other  fruits,  are  liable,  if  swallowed,  to  become  impacted  in 
the  alimentary  canal,  and  thence  to  occasion  inflammation  and  its  conse- 
quences. 

Composition  of  Cherries  (Fresenius). 


Sweet,  light 
red-heart. 

Very  light 
heart, 
rather  sour. 

Sweet  black. 

Sour. 

SOLUBLE  MATTEB  — 

Sugar,    

13.110 

8.568 

10.700 

8.772 

Free  acid  (reduced  to  equiva-  ) 
lent  in  malic  acid),       .     .    J 

0.351 

0.961 

0.560 

1.277 

Albuminous  substances, 
Pectons  substances,  etc., 

0.903  ) 
2.286  f 

3.529 

j  1.010 
|  0.670 

0.825 
1.831 

Ash,       

0.600 

0.835 

0.600 

0.565 

INSOLUBLE  MATTEB  — 

Seeds,    

5.480 

3.244 

5.730 

5.182 

Skins,  etc.,       .     .     . 

0.450 

0.464 

0.366 

0.808 

Pectose, 

1.450 

0.401 

0.664 

0.246 

[Ash  from  insoluble  matter  in-  \ 
eluded  in  weights  given\y     .     J 

[0.090] 

[0.070] 

[0.078] 

[0.067] 

WATEB,     ... 

75.370 

81.998 

79.700 

80.494 

100.000 

100.000 

100.000 

100.000 

THE  PEACH. — The  peach  (Amygclalus  persicd)  is  a  native  of  Persia 
and  the  North  of  India,  and  is  now  cultivated  in  all  temperate  climates. 
It  thrives  very  freely  and  produces  most  plentifully  in  the  United  States. 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  197 

The  peach  forms  one  of  the  choicest  and  most  luscious  of  fruits.  The 
skin  is  downy  or  velvety,  and  its  color  varies  from  a  dark  reddish  violet 
through  many  shades  of  crimson,  green,  or  yellow,  to  the  beautiful  clear 
white  of  the  American  snow  peach.  The  composition  shows  that  the 
peach  is  notable  for  the  small  quantity  of  saccharine  matter  it  contains  in 
comparison  with  the  other  kinds  of  edible  fruits. 

Composition  of  Peaches  (Fresenius). 

SOLUBLE  MATTER —  Large  Dutch.  Similar  variety. 

Sugar, 1.580  1.565 

Free  acid  (reduced  to  equivalent  in  malic  acid),  0.612  0.734 

Albuminous  substances,         ....     0.463  )  -.-.  ^^Q 

Pectous  substances,  etc.,        ....     6.313  ] 
Ash,      .         .        .  .         .         .     0.422  0.913 

INSOLUBLE  MATTER 

Seeds,    .  4.629  6.764 

Skins,  etc,    .  -i  0.991  2.420 

rectose,         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  ) 

[Ash  from  insoluble  matter  included  in  weights  given],     [0.042]  [0.163] 

WATER,    .     R| 84.990         .     76.546 

100.000  100.000 

THE  NECTARINE. — The  nectarine  constitutes  merely  a  variety  of  the 
peach,  probably  produced  by  cultivation.  It  has  been  sometimes  found 
growing  on  peach  trees,  and  the  Boston  nectarine,  which  forms  the  finest 
kind  known,  was  produced  originally  from  a  peach-stone.  It  differs  from 
the  peach  in  having  a  smooth  and  wax-like  skin,  and  being  of  smaller  size. 

THE  OLIVE. — The  olive-tree  (  Olea,  Europasa]  is  supposed  to  be  origi- 
nally a  native  of  Greece,  but  it  has  long  been  naturalized  in  France,  Italy, 
and  Spain.  The  fruit  in  the  ripe  state  is  black,  and  its  fleshy  part  abounds 
in  oil,  which  is  expressed  and  used  with  us  as  salad  oil  and  largely  on  the 
Continent  for  cooking.  The  ripe  fruit  is  also  sometimes  eaten  abroad, 
but  it  has  a  strong  and,  most  persons  would  consider,  a  disagreeable 
taste. 

The  olives  imported  into  this  country  have  been  gathered  green  and 
soaked,  first  in  strong  lye  and  then  in  fresh  water,  to  remove  their  rough 
and  bitter  taste  before  being  preserved  in  a  solution  of  salt.  French, 
Spanish,  and  Italian  olives  are  imported.  The  Spanish  are  much  larger, 
and  more  bitter,  rich,  and  oily  than  the  others.  Olives  enter  into  the 
constitution  of  various  dishes,  are  sometimes  used  to  stimulate  the  appe- 
tite at  the  commencement  of  dinner,  and  also  eaten  at  dessert  as  a  relish 
and  to  cleanse  the  palate  for  the  enjoyment  of  wine. 

THE  DATE. — The  date  is  derived  from  the  Phoenix  dactylifera,  the 
date  palm  or  palm  tree  of  Scripture,  a  native  of  Africa  and  parts  of  Asia, 
and  now  brought  into  cultivation  in  the  South  of  Europe.  The  tree  bears 
its  fruit  in  bunches  which  weigh  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  pounds. 

Dates,  both  fresh  and  dried,  form  the  chief  food  of  the  Arabs.  Cakes 
of  dates,  pounded  and  kneaded  together  into  a  solid  mass,  constitute  also 
the  store  of  food,  called  the  "  bread  of  the  desert,"  provided  for  African 


198 


A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 


caravans  on  their  journey  through  the  Sahara.  The  fruit  is  of  a  drupa- 
ceous nature,  and  the  fleshy  part  contains,  according  to  the  analysis  of 
Reinsch,  58  per  cent,  of  sugar,  accompanied  by  pectin,  gum,  etc. 

THE  APKICOT. — The  apricot  (Prumis  armeniaca)  is  a  native  of  Arme- 
nia, and  was  introduced  into  England  in  the  time  of  Henry  the  Eighth. 
A  good  apricot,  when  perfectly  ripe,  is  an  excellent  fruit,  but  when  of 
inferior  quality  it  eats  dry  and  insipid.  Unless  quite  ripe  it  is  apt  to 
prove  laxative,  and  should  not  be  eaten  by  delicate  persons.  In  the  cooked 
state  it  is  more  easy  of  digestion,  and  green  apricots  are  often  used  for 
tarts.  It  makes  one  of  the  most  highly  esteemed  of  preserves.  The  ker- 
nels of  some  are  sweet,  of  others  bitter.  From  the  bitter  kind,  JEau  de 
Noyaux  is  distilled  in  France. 

Composition  of  Apricots  (Fresenius). 


Fine,  rather 
large. 

Large,  fine 
flavored. 

Small. 

SOLUBLE  MATTEB  — 
Sugar,      

1.140 

1.531 

2.736 

Free  acid  (reduced  to  equivalent  in  malic  ) 
acid),                                                      ,    I 

0.898 

0.766 

1.603 

Albuminous  substances,     

0.832 

0.389 

0.411 

Pectous  substances,  etc.,   

5.929 

9.283 

5.562 

Ash,    

0.820 

0.754 

0.723 

INSOLUBLE  MATTEB  — 
Seeds,      

4.300 

3.216 

3.415 

0.967 

0.944 

1.248 

Pectose,   

0.148 

1.002 

0.750 

[Ash  from  insoluble    matter   included  in  \ 

[0.0711 

[0.104] 

[0.060J 

WATEB,  

84.966 

82.115 

83.552 

100.000 

100.000 

100.000 

THE  GRAPE. — The  grape-vine  (Vitis  viniferd)  is  indigenous  in  the 
East,  but  was  introduced  into  the  South  of  Europe  at  a  very  early  period. 
It  produces  fruit  in  the  form  of  a  globular  or  oval  berry  with  a  smooth 
skin.  The  color  of  the  fruit  is  very  various,  from  white,  yellow,  amber, 
green,  and  red,  to  black.  More  than  1,500  varieties  are  described  in  works 
on  the  culture  of  the  plant. 

In  England  the  summer  is  not  long  and  warm  enough  to  thoroughly 
ripen  the  fruit  in  the  open  air,  but  some  of  the  finest  grapes  produced 
are  grown  in  the  hot-houses  of  Great  Britain. 

The  grape  is  one  of  the  most  useful  and  highly  esteemed  of  fruits. 
The  skin  and  seeds  are  indigestible  and  should  be  rejected,  but  the  juicy 
pulp  possesses  wholesome,  nutritious,  and  refrigerant  properties,  and  may 
usually  be  safely  taken  by  the  invalid.  If  eaten  freely,  the  fruit  exerts  a 
diuretic  and  laxative  action.  Besides  being  useful  as  a  fresh  fruit,  it  is 
dried  and  imported  under  the  form  of  raisins  and  currants,  and,  as  is 
Well  known,  furnishes  the  choicest  of  wines  and  spirits. 

The  juice  of  ripe   grapes,  according  to   the   analyses  of  Proust  and 


ALIMENTARY   SUBSTANCES. 


199 


Berard,  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  grape-sugar,  small  quantities 
of  a  glutinous  substance  and  of  extractive  matter,  bitartrate  of  potash, 
tartrate  of  lime,  a  little  malic  acid,  and  other  ingredients  suspended  or 
dissolved  in  water. 


Composition  of  Grapes  (Fresenius). 


SOLUBLE  MATTER — 

Sugar, 

Free  acid  (reduced  to  equivalent  in  malic  acid), 
Albuminous  substances, ..... 
Pectous  substances,  etc.,          .... 
Ash,        ........ 

INSOLUBLE  MATTER — 

Seeds,      .......          \ 

Skins, f 

Pectose,  ........ 

[Ash  from  insoluble  matter  indiided  in  weights  given],  . 

WATER,      ........ 


White  Austrian 
(quite  ripe). 
.     13.780 
1.020 
0.832 
0.498 
0.360 


2.592 

0.941 
[0.117] 

79.997 
100.000 


Klienberger 
(quite  ripe). 

10.590 
0.820 
0.622 
0.220 
0.377 


1.770 

0.750 
[0.077] 

84.870 

100.000 


The  amount  of  sugar  varies  considerably  in  different  kinds  of  grape. 
In  Fresenius'  analysis  of  very  ripe  Oppenheim  grapes  it  amounted  to 
13.52  per  cent.;  over-ripe  Oppenheim,  15.14  per  cent.;  red,  very  ripe  As- 
mannshiiuser,  17.28  per  cent.;  and  Johannisberg,  19.24  per  cent. 

JRaisins  constitute  grapes  in  a  dried  state.  The  process  of  drying  is 
effected  either  by  exposure  to  the  sun  or  by  the  heat  of  an  oven.  The 
sun-dried  grapes  are  the  sweeter  and  better  of  the  two.  Sometimes  the 
stalks  of  the  ripened  bunches  of  grapes  are  partially  cut  through,  and  the 
fruit  allowed  to  dry  spontaneously  upon  the  vine.  The  muscatels,  which 
form  the  finest  sort,  and  are  eaten  at  the  dessert  table,  are  prepared  in 
this  way.  The  Lexias  are  so  called  on  account  of  being  dipped  into  a 
lixivium  of  wood-ashes  and  olive  oil  before  being  dried.  This  disposes 
them  to  shrink  and  wrinkle,  the  alkaline  solution  serving  to  remove  the 
waxy  coat  which  impedes  the  drying  of  the  berry.  Sultanas  are  charac- 
terized by  an  absence  of  stones,  whereby  they  save  a  great  amount  of 
trouble  in  the  kitchen,  but  they  are  not  sufficiently  rich  in  flavor  and 
sweetness  to  be  advantageous  for  employment  alone  in  puddings.  Raisins 
abound  more  in  sugar  and  less  in  acid  than  the  fresh  fruit.  They  are, 
therefore,  more  nutritious  but  less  refrigerant.  They  are  apt  to  derange 
the  digestive  organs  if  eaten  freely. 

The  so-called  currants  which  are  used  in  cakes  and  puddings,  consti- 
tute the  dried  fruit  of  a  vine  which  grows  in  the  Ionian  Islands  (espe- 
cially Zante  and  Cephalonia)  and  yields  a  very  small  berry.  The  word 
currant,  as  here  employed,  is  a  corruption  of  Corinth,  where  the  fruit  was 
formerly  produced.  After  being  gathered  and  dried  by  exposure  to  the 
sun  and  air,  the  currants  are  heaped  together  and  stored  in  magazines, 
where  they  become  so  firmly  caked  as  to  require  digging  out  for  packing 
into  casks  for  exportation.  Currants  are  of  so  indigestible  a  nature  that 
they  frequently  pass  through  the  alimentary  canal  without  betraying  any 
decided  evidence  of  being  acted  upon. 


200 


A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 


THE  GOOSEBERRY. — The  common  gooseberry,  or  feaberryas  it  was  in 
former  times  called  (Hides  grossularia),  grows  wild  in  thickets  and  rocky 
situations,  and  is  a  native  of  many  parts  of  Europe  and  the  North  of 
Asia.  This  fruit  is  comparatively  neglected  on  the  Continent,  but  has 
been  brought  to  a  high  state  of  perfection  in  size  and  flavor  in  England  by 
the  attention  which  has  been  paid  to  its  cultivation,  more  especially  since 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  gooseberry  forms  a  wholesome  and  useful  fruit.  Malic  and  citric 
acids  blended  with  sugar  give  it  its  chief  characteristics.  It  is  made 
into  tarts  and  puddings  and  eaten  at  the  dessert  table,  besides  furnishing 
a  good  preserve  and  a  very  passable  wine. 

Composition  of  Gooseberries  (Fresenius). 


Large  red. 

Small  red. 

Middle-sized 
yellow. 

Large  smooth 
red. 

SOLUBLE  MATTER  — 
Sugar,  

8.063 

6.030 

6.383 

6.483 

Free  acid  (reduced  to  equiva-  \ 
lent  in  malic  acid),              .    j 
Albuminous  substances, 
Pectous  substances,  etc., 
Ash,       

1.358 

0.441 
0.969 
0.317 

1.573 

0.445 
0.513 
0.452 

1.078 

0.578 
2.112 
0.200 

1.664 

0.306 
0.843 
0.553 

INSOLUBLE  MATTER  — 
Seeds,    

2.481  ) 

j  3.380  ) 

Skins,  etc.,       

0.512  j 

2.442 

|  0.442  1 

2.803 

Pectose,      

0.294 

0.515 

0.308 

0.390 

[Ash  from  insoluble  matter  in-  { 
eluded  in  weights  given],     .    J 

WATER,     

[0.146] 

85.565 

[0.069] 

88  030 

[0.100] 

85.519 

[0.133] 

86.958 

100.000 

100.000 

100.000 

100.000 

THE  CRANBERRY. — The  common  cranberry  ( Oxycoccus  palustrisy 
formerly  Vaccinium  oxycoccus)  is  a  native  of  the  colder  regions  of  the 
Northern  Hemisphere.  The  fruit  is  too  acid  to  be  eaten  raw,  but  is  in 
much  request  for  tarts. 

Wine  is  made  from  it  in  Siberia. 

The  American  cranberry  (  Oxycoccus  macrocarpus)  furnishes  a  larger 
fruit,  but  is  not  so  highly  esteemed. 

Another  species,  brought  from  Nova  Scotia  in  1760,  is  called  snow- 
berry,  from  the  fruit  being  white. 

THE  BARBERRY. — The  common  barberry  (Herberts  vulgaris)  grows 
widely  distributed  through  the  North  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America.  It 
is  found  in  woods,  coppices,  and  hedges  in  England,  especially  on  a  chalky 
soil.  The  old  English  name  for  the  plant  is  Pipperidge,  or  Piprage  bush. 
1  he  berries  are  of  an  elongated  oval  form,  and,  when  ripe,  generally  of  a 
bright  red  color,  more  rarely  whitish,  yellow,  or  almost  black.  They  are 
too  acid  to  be  eaten  in  the  fresh  state,  but  make  excellent  preserves  and 
jelly,  and  are  also  used  to  garnish  dishes.  Malic  acid  is  prepared  from 
them  in  France. 


ALIMENTAEY    SUBSTANCES. 


201 


THE  CURRANT. — There  are  two  varieties  of  the  currant,  viz.,  the  red 
(Ribes  riibrum)  and  the  black  (Ribes  nigrum).  Both  are  natives  of  Europe 
and  some  parts  of  Asia  and  North  America.  Cultivation  has  produced 
the  white  currant  from  the  red,  and  in  Russia  there  are  varieties  of  the 
black  currant  with  yellow  berries.  The  name  currant  is  derived  from  the 
resemblance  of  the  fruit  to  the  Corinth  raisins,  or  small  grapes  of  Zante, 
commonly  called  Corinths  or  currants. 

Currants  are  employed  in  the  same  way  as  gooseberries,  with  which 
they  pretty  closely  agree  in  their  alimentary  properties.  A  wine  is  made 
from  the  red  currant  and  a  liquor  from  the  black. 


Composition  of  Currants  (Fresenius). 


Middle-sized  red. 

Very  large 
red. 

Middle-  sized 
white. 

SOLUBLE  MATTEB  — 
Sugar,  

4.78 

2.31 

0.45 
0.28 
0.54 

4.45  [ 
0.66  j 
0.69 

[0.11J 
85.84 

6.44 
1.84 

0.49 
0.19 
0.57 

4.48 
0.72 
[0.23] 

85.27 

5.647 

1.695 

0.356 
0.007 
0.620 

3.940 
2.380 
[0.1851 
85.355 

7.12 
2.53 

0.68 
0.19 
0.70 

4.85 
0.51 
[0.14] 

83.42 

Free  acid  (reduced  to  equiva-  { 
lent  in  malic  acid),       .     .    f 

Albuminous  substances,  . 
Pectous  substances,  etc., 
Ash. 

INSOLUBLE  MATTEB  — 
Seeds,    

Skins,  etc.,       

Pectose,            

[Ask  front  insoluble  matter  in-  ) 
eluded  in  weights  given],     .    j 

WATEB,     

100.00 

100.00    » 

100.000 

100.00 

THE  ELDERBERRY. — Elderberries  are  derived  from  the  Sambucus 
nigra  (the  bourtree  of  the  Scotch),  which  forms  a  native  of  Europe,  and 
the  North  of  Asia  and  of  Africa.  The  berries  are  black  in  color  (some- 
times, however,  white),  and  have  a  faintly  acid  with  an  after-sweetish  and 
unpleasant  taste.  They  are  rarely  used  except  for  making  elder  wine. 
The  purple  juice  obtained  by  expression  is  called  elder  rob.  It  possesses 
mildly  aperient,  diuretic,  and  sudorific  properties. 

THE  BILBERRY. — The  whortle-,  hurtle-,  bil-  or  blae-berry  (  Vaccinium 
myrtillus}  is  a  native  of  Great  Britain,  and  grows  in  woods  and  on  heaths 
or  waste  places  in  the  North  of  Europe  and  of  America.  It  furnishes  a 
small  round  purple  or  almost  black  fruit,  covered  with  a  delicate  azure 
bloom.  This  is  sweet  and  agreeable  to  the  taste,  and  is  either  eaten  un- 
cooked with  cream  or  made  into  tarts.  The  bog  whortleberry  or  great 
bilberry  (  Vaccinium  uliginosutn)  has  a  larger  fruit,  but  its  flavor  is  in- 
ferior. 

The  red  whortleberry  (  Vaccinium  vitis  idcea)  is  often  called  cran- 
berry, from  the  similarity  of  its  acid  fruit  to  the  true  cranberry.  It  is 
much  esteemed  for  preserves. 


202 


A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 


Composition  of  Bilberries  (Fresenius). 

SOLUBLE  MATTER — 

Sugar,   ....... 

Free  acid  (reduced  to  equivalent  in  malic  acid), 

Albuminous  substances,  etc., 

Pectous  substances,  etc.,        .... 

Ash, 

INSOLUBLE  MATTER — 

Seeds,     .  

Skins,  etc.,     ....... 

Pectose,          ....... 

[Ash  from  insoluble  matter  included  in  weights  given], 

WATER,     ........ 


5.780 
1.341 
0.794 
0.555 
0.858 


I  12.864 

.     0.256 
.    [0.5501 

.  77.552 

100.000 


THE  STRAWBERRY. — The  common  wood  strawberry  (Fragaria  vesca) 
is  indigenous  in  almost  all  temperate  climates.  The  products  which  have 
been  obtained  by  cultivation  from  this  plant  rank  among  the  choicest  and 
most  tempting  of  summer  fruits,  and  afford  an  example  of  one  of  the 
greatest  triumphs  of  the  gardener's  art.  The  Alpine  strawberry  (Fraga- 
ria  collina)  is  a  native  of  Switzerland  and  Germany.  The  fruit  is  small, 
but  produced  in  great  abundance. 


Composition  of  Strawberries  (Fresenius). 


Wild. 

Light  red  pine 
(quite  ripe). 

SOLUBLE  MATTEK  —       * 
Sugar,      

3.247 
1.650 

0.619 
0.145 
0.737 

6.032 
0.299 
[0.3151 

87.271 

4.550 
1.332 

0.567 
0.049 
0.603 

5.580 
0.300 
[0.345] 

87.019 

7.575 
1.133 

0.359 
0.119 
0.480 

1.960 
0.900 
[0.154] 

87.474 

Free  acid  (reduced  to  equivalent  in  malic 
acid),    

\ 

Albuminous  substances,    

Pectous  substances,  etc.,  

Ash,    

INSOLUBLE  MATTEB  — 
Seeds,       

\ 

Skins,  fit/v, 

Pectose,  ...           

[Ash  from    insoluble   matter  included  in 
weights  given],       

I 

WATER,  

100.000 

100.000 

100.000 

THE  RASPBERRY. — The  raspberry  (jRubus  idoeus)  is  a  native  of  Great 
Britain  and  most  parts  of  the  world,  but  it  has  only  been  cultivated  in 
gardens  during  the  last  one  or  two  centuries.  The  fruit  is  wholesome  and 
agreeable,  but  is  not  so  much  eaten  at  dessert  in  England  as  on  the  Con- 
tinent. It  is,  however,  largely  used  for  tarts  and  puddings  under  the 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES. 


203 


form  of  a  preserve,  and  for  making  raspberry  vinegar.     A  wine  is  some- 
times prepared  from  the  fermented  juice. 

Rubus  arcticus,  a  smaller  variety,   takes  the  place  of   the  common 
raspberry  in  the  colder  regions  of  Northern  Europe. 

Composition  of  Raspberries  (Fresenius). 


Wild  red. 

Cultivated. 

Bed. 

White. 

SOLUBLE  MATTER  — 
Sugar,      

3.597 
1.980 

0.546 
1.107 
0.270 

8.460 
0.180 
[0.134] 

83.860 

4.708 

1.356 

0.544 
1.746 
0.481 

4.106 
0.502 
[0.296] 

86.557 

3.703 
1.115 

0.665 
1.397 
0.380 

4.520 
0.040 
[0.081] 

88.180 

Free  acid  (reduced  to  equivalent  in  malic  ) 
acid),     ...           .                                 j 

Albuminous  substances,     

Pectous  substances,  etc.,  

Ash,    

INSOLUBLE  MATTEB  — 
Seeds,       ) 

Skins,  etc.,                                                  ,    C 

Pectose,         .                 

[Ash  from    insoluble  matter  included  in  ) 

WATEK,  

100.000 

100.000 

100.000 

THE  BLACKBERRY. — The  blackberry  (Rubus  fruticosus)  is  indigenous- 
in  Great  Britain  and  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  and  grows  wild  as  a 
shrubby  bramble  in  hedges.  The  fruit  is  gathered  by  children  for  eating, 
and  also  for  making  into  puddings.  Jelly  and  jam  are  sometimes  pre- 
pared from  it  as  well  as  a  wine. 


Composition  of  Blackberries  (Fresenius). 

SOLUBLE  MATTER — 

Sugar,  _                            .         . 
Free  acid  (reduced  to  equivalent  in  malic  acid), 
Albuminous  substances,         .... 
Pectous  substances,  etc.,        .... 
Ash, 

INSOLUBLE  MATTER- 

Seeds,    .         .         .         .         .         . 

Skins,  etc.,    ....... 

Pectose,         ....... 

[Ash  from  insoluble  matter  included  in  weights  given], 

WATER, 


Very  ripe. 
4.444 
1.188 
0.510 
1.444 
0.414 


•  £5.210 

.'     0.384 

-  [0.074] 

.  8G.406 
100.000 


THE  DEWBERRY. — The  dewberry  or  gray  bramble  (Rubus  ccesius)  is  a 
native  of  Britain  and  many  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia;  it  is  closely  allied 


204  A   TKEATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

to  the  blackberry,  but  grows  on  the  ground  and  not  in  hedges.  The  fruit 
is  very  sweet  and  agreeable,  and  makes  an  excellent  wine.  The  dew- 
berry of  North  America  (Hubus  procumbens)  bears  a  more  acidulous  and 
superior  fruit  to  that  of  Britain. 

THE  MULBERRY. — The  black  or  common  mulberry  (Morus  nigra)  is  a 
native  of  Persia,  but  is  supposed  to  have  been  brought  to  Europe  by  the 
Romans.  The  fruit  is  of  a  purplish  black  color,  with  dark  red  juice,  fine 
aromatic  flavor,  and  acidulous  and  sweet  taste.  It  possesses  wholesome, 
refrigerant,  and  slightly  laxative  properties,  and  is  highly  esteemed  for 
dessert.  An  excellent  preserve  and  an  agreeable  wine  are  made  from  it. 

Composition  of  Mulberries  (Fresenius). 

SOLUBLE  MATTER —  Black. 

Sugar,    .         .         .         .         .         .         .  .  9.192 

Free  acid  (reduced  to  equivalent  in  malic  acid),        .  1.860 

Albuminous  substances,         .....  0.394 

Pectous  substances,  etc.,       .....  2.031 

Ash, 0.566 

INSOLUBLE  MATTER — 

Seeds,  .         .         .        u         .         .         .         .         .  )  n  QAK 
01  .  >•  0.905 

Skins,  .         .         .        ..         .         ....         .  ) 

Pectose,        .........     0.345 

[Ash  from  insoluble  matter  included  in  weights  given},         .    [0.089] 
WATER,  .        .«•/,    % 84.707 


100.000 

THE  MELON. — The  melon  ( Cueumis  melo)  belongs  to  the  gourd  tribe. 
The  fruit  varies  greatly  in  size,  color,  and  the  character  of  the  rind.  In 
some  the  rind  is  smooth  and  thin,  in  others  thick  and  warty,  and  cracked 
in  a  net-like  manner.  The  color  of  the  flesh  is  green,  red,  and  yellow. 
It  is  eaten  with  sugar  at  dessert,  or  with  pepper  and  salt  at  dinner.  When 
in  perfection  it  forms  a  rich  and  delicious  fruit,  but,  like  its  congeners, 
the  cucumber,  etc.,  it  is  sometimes  apt  to  disagree. 

The  watermelon  (  Cucumis  citrulliis)  is  highly  prized  for  its  flavor  and 
juiciness.  This  fruit  is  round,  with  a  dark  green  spotted  rind,  and  pink 
or  white  flesh.  It  is  only  eaten  at  dessert. 

THE  PINEAPPLE. — The  pineapple  (Ananassa  sativa)  is  a  native  of 
South  America,  whence  it  has  been  introduced  into  Africa  and  Asia.  It 
was  first  cultivated  in  hot-houses  in  Holland  and  England  at  the  end  of 
the  seventeenth  century.  It  may  be  looked  upon  as  furnishing  the  finest 
of  dessert  fruits.  Besides  being  eaten  in  the  fresh  state,  it  is  made  into 
a  preserve  with  sugar,  and  otherwise  employed  by  the  confectioner.  It 
is  also  used  to  flavor  rum. 

THE  FIG. — The  common  fig  (Ficus  carica)  is  a  native  of  Asia  and 
Barbary,  and  has  been  naturalized  in  Greece,  Italy,  Spain,  and  the  South 
of  France,  where  the  fruit  forms  an  important  part  of  the  people's  food. 
The  fig-tree  also  grows  in  the  open  air  in  some  of  the  milder  parts  of 
England,  but  its  fruit  fails  to  acquire  the  perfection  in  flavor  belonging 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  205 

to  that  produced  in  a  warmer  climate.  The  varieties  cultivated  are 
numerous,  and  the  color  of  the  fruit  of  some  is  bluish  black,  of  others, 
red,  purple,  green,  yellow,  or  white.  The  fruit  is  pear-shaped,  and  con- 
sists of  a  pulpy  mass,  containing  many  seed-like  bodies.  The  amount  of 
sugar  present  is  exceedingly  large.  The  figs  grown  in  England  have  but 
little  taste,  and  that  of  a  somewhat  sickly  nature.  Grown  in  warm 
countries,  however,  they  form  a  rich  and  luscious  fruit.  Figs  are  largely 
imported  in  a  dried  and  compressed  state.  The  best  are  brought  from 
Smyrna,  and  are  known  as  Turkey  figs.  If  freely  eaten,  they  are  apt  to- 
irritate  and  disorder  the  stomach  and  bowels. 

THE  PRICKLY  PEAR. — The  prickly  pear,  or  Indian  fig  ( Opuntia  vul- 
garis),  is  a  native  of  America,  but  is  now  naturalized  in  many  parts  of 
the  South  of  Europe  and  North  of  Africa.  It  grows  freely  on  the  barest 
rocks,  and  spreads  over  expanses  of  volcanic  sand  and  ashes  too  arid  for 
almost  any  other  plant  to  live.  The  fruit  is  somewhat  like  a  fig,  of  a 
deep  rose  color,  and  rather  larger  than  a  hen's  egg.  The  pulp  is  juicy, 
and  its  flavor,  which  to  most  palates  will  be  considered  of  a  sickly  nature, 
combines  sweetness  with  acidity.  It  is  not  much  known  in  England,  but 
is  largely  eaten  in  some  localities  abroad. 

THE  TAMARIND. — There  are  two  varieties  of  the  tamarind — the  East 
Indian  (Tamarindus  Tndica),  and  the  West  Indian  (Tamarindus  occi- 
dentalis).  The  fruit  consists  of  a  brown,  many-seeded  pod,  filled  with  a 
sweet  and  acidulous,  reddish  black  pulp.  The  pod  of  the  East  Indian  is- 
much  longer  than  that  of  the  West  Indian  variety.  According  to  the 
analysis  of  Vauquelin,  tamarinds  contain  9.40  per  cent,  of  citric  acid;  1.55 
per  cent,  of  tartaric  acid;  0.45  per  cent,  of  malic  acid;  3.25  per  cent,  of 
bitartrate  of  potash;  and  12.5  per  cent,  of  sugar,  besides  gum,  vegetable 
jelly,  parenchyma,  and  water.  They  are  preserved  by  placing  alternate 
layers  of  the  fruit  and  sugar  into  a  cask,  and  pouring  over  them  boiling" 
syrup. 

THE  PLANTAIN  AND  BANANA. — The  plantain  (Musa  paradisiaca)  is 
a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  but  is  now  diffused  all  over  the  tropical  and 
sub-tropical  regions  of  the  globe.  It  is  so  called  on  account  of  having 
been  supposed  to  have  furnished  the  fruit  which  tempted  Eve  in  Para- 
dise. The  banana  (Musa  sapientum)  appears  to  be  only  a  variety  of 
the  plantain,  bearing  smaller,  softer,  and  more  delicately  flavored  fruit. 
Its  name  is  due  to  its  having  formed  the  chief  food  of  the  Brahmins 
or  wise  caste  of  India.  They  both  constitute  exceedingly  productive 
plants,  and  it  is  asserted  that  an  extent  of  ground  which  would  only 
grow  wheat  enough  for  the  support  of  two  persons,  would  maintain  fifty 
if  cultivated  with  the  plantain.  Plantains  and  bananas  furnish  important 
and  valuable  articles  of  food  to  the  inhabitants  of  many  tropical  regions. 
They  even  afford  in  some  localities  the  chief  alimentary  support  of  the 
people.  The  fruit  occurs  in  large  bunches  or  clusters,  which  may  weigh 
as  much  as  fifty  pounds.  On  stripping  off  the  tegumentary  part,  a  soft- 
ish  core  is  met  with,  which  is  chiefly  farinaceous  in  the  unripe,  and  sac- 
charine in  the  ripe  state;  the  starch  becoming  converted,  it  is  stated,  dur- 
ing maturation,  first  into  a  mucilaginous  substance,  and  then  into  sugar. 
Plantain-meal  is  prepared  by  powdering  and  sifting  the  dried  core  of  the 
plantain  whilst  in  the  green  or  unripe  state.  It  has  a  fragrant  odor,  and 
a  bland  taste,  like  that  of  common  wheat-flour.  It  is  said  to  be  easy  of 


206  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

digestion,  and  to  be  extensively  employed  in  British  Guiana  as  the  food  of 
infants,  children,  and  invalids.  The  larger  proportion  of  it  consists  of 
starch,  but  it  also  contains  a  certain  percentage  of  nitrogenous  matter, 
and  is,  therefore,  of  higher  alimentary  value  than  the  starchy  prepara- 
tions, as  sago,  arrow-root,  etc. 

Composition  of  the  Pulp  of  Ripe  Bananas  (Corenwinder). 

Nitrogenous  matter,           ......  4.820 

Sugar,  pectose,  organic  acid,  with  traces  of  starch,  .  19.657 

Fatty  matter, „         .         .  0.632 

Cellulose, 0.200 

Saline  matter,  ........  0.791 

Water,      . 73.900 


100.000 

THE  GUAVA. — The  common  or  white  guava  (Psidium  pyriferum)  is 
said  to  be  a  native  of  both  the  East  and  West  Indies,  where  it  is  now 
much  cultivated.  It  has  also  been  grown  as  a  stove  plant  in  England. 
The  fruit  is  roundish  or  oblong  in  shape,  and  rather  larger  than  a  hen's 
egg  in  size.  It  has  a  smooth  and  yellow  rind  and  a  flesh-colored  firm  pulp 
full  of  hard  seeds.  It  possesses  a  sweet  aromatic  taste,  and  is  eaten  raw 
and  made  into  a  preserve  and  jelly.  The  red  guava  {Psidium  ponii- 
ferum],  which  is  also  common  in  both  the  East  and  West  Indies,  has  a 
beautiful  fruit  crowned  like  a  pomegranate;  but  it  is  strongly  acid  and 
not  so  agreeable  to  eat  as  that  of  the  white.  The  China  guava  (Psidium 
Cattleyanum)  is  a  native  of  the  country  its  name  bears,  but  it  has  been 
brought  over  to  and  grown  in  Europe,  and  is  found  to  flourish  in  the  open 
air  in  the  South  of  France.  The  fruit  is  round  and  of  a  fine  claret  color. 
It  has  an  agreeable  acidulous  taste  and  makes  an  excellent  preserve.  A 
dwarf  species  of  guava  called  Marongaba  (Psidium  pygmceum)  grows  on 
some  of  the  mountains  of  Brazil.  The  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  a  goose- 
berry, and  is  much  esteemed  on  account  of  its  delicious  flavor,  which  bears 
some  resemblance  to  that  of  the  strawberry. 

THE  MANGO. — The  common  Mango  (Mctnyifera  Indicd)  'grows  into 
a  large  spreading  tree,  and  is  a  native  of  India,  but  was  introduced  into 
Jamaica  toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  is  now  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  warm  countries.  The  fruit,  which  contains  a  large 
flattened  stone  covered  with  fibrous  filaments,  is  smooth  and  kidney- 
shaped,  and  varies  in  color  and  size,  sometimes  being  as  large  as  a  man's 
fist.  From  its  luscious  character,  and  sweet  and  yet  slightly  acidulous 
taste,  it  is  highly  prized  for  dessert.  The  green  or  unripe  fruit  is  made 
into  tarts  and  also  into  pickles.  In  times  of  scarcity  the  kernels  have 
been  cooked  and  used  as  food. 

THE  BREAD  FRUIT. — This  is  derived  from  the  Artocarpus  incisa,  a  na- 
tive of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  and  the  Moluccas.  The  fruit  is  of  a  round 
or  oval  shape,  and  attains  a  size  as  large  as  that  of  a  small  loaf  of  bread. 
In  an  alimentary  point  of  view,  it  occupies  the  same  position  amongst  the 
inhabitants  of  Polynesia  that  is  held  by  corn  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 
The  Artocarpus  integrifolia  is  cultivated  throughout  Southern  India  and 
all  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia.  Its  fruit,  called  jak  fruit,  is  considerably 
employed  as  an  article  of  food  in  Ceylon. 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  207 

The  fruit  of  the  Carol  tree,  or  St.  John's  bread  (  Ceratonia  siliqita), 
is  eaten  in  time  of  scarcity  by  the  country  people  of  the  districts  where  it 
grows,  and,  as  implied  by  its  name,  it  has  been  supposed  to  have  been 
the  food  of  John  the  Baptist.  It  is  a  native  of  the  countries  skirting  the 
Mediterranean,  and  is  almost  the  only  tree  that  grows  in  Malta  ("  Baird's 
Cyclo.  of  Nat.  Sci."). 

The  Date  plum  of  China,  or  key  fig  of  Japan  (Diospyros  Jcaki],  is  a 
native  of  China  and  Japan,  and  is  frequently  sent  to  Europe  in  a  dried 
state  ("  Baird's  Cyclo.  of  Nat.  Sci."). 

The  fruit  of  the  Persimmon  tree  (Diospyros  virginiana),  a  native  of 
the  United  States,  when  fully  ripe,  is  sweet  and  palatable.  The  fleshy 
part  is  separated  from  the  seeds,  and  made  into  cakes,  which  are  dried 
and  preserved  ("Baird's  Cyclo.  of  Nat.  Sci."). 

The  fruit  of  the  Chilian  pine  (Araucaria  imbricatd)  is  the  chief  food 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Chili  and  Patagonia.  It  is  asserted  that  the  pro- 
duce of  one  large  tree  will  maintain  eighteen  persons  for  a  year  ("  John- 
ston's Chemistry  of  Common  Life,"  vol.  i.,  p.  108). 

BARK 

The  bark  of  trees  is  to  some  extent  eaten  in  certain  localities.  The 
Jakuts  of  Northern  Siberia  grate  the  inner  bark  of  the  larch,  and  some- 
times of  the  fir,  and  mix  it  with  fish,  a  little  meal  and  milk,  or  by  pref- 
erence with  fat,  and  make  it  into  a  sort  of  broth  ("  Wrangell's  Polar  Sea," 
p.  23).  The  inhabitants  of  New  Caledonia  eat  the  bark  of  a  tree  after 
they  have  roasted  it  ("  Cook's  Second  Voyage,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  123);  and  the 
Laplanders  and  Fins  make  a  kind  of  bread  with  the  triturated  internal 
layers  of  the  bark  of  the  pine  ("  Baird's  Cyclo.  of  Nat.  Sci."). 

SAW-DUST  AND  WOODY  FIBRE. 

In  Sweden  and  Norway  saw-dust  is  sometimes  converted  into  bread, 
for  which  purpose  beech,  or  some  wood  that  does  not  contain  turpentine, 
is  repeatedly  macerated  and  boiled  in  water  to  remove  soluble  matters, 
and  then  reduced  to  powder,  heated  several  times  in  an  oven,  and  ground. 
In  this  state  it  is  said  to  have  the  smell  and  taste  of  corn-flour  ("  Tomlin- 
son's  Cyclo.  of  Useful  Arts,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  926). 

Bread  has  been  made  in  times  of  famine  of  a  variety  of  substances; 
thus,  in  the  years  1629,  1630,  and  1693,  very  good,  wholesome,  white  bread 
was  made  in  England  from  boiled  turnips.  The  moisture  was  pressed 
out  of  the  turnips,  and  they  were  then  kneaded  with  an  equal  quantity  of 
wheaten-flour  ("Beckman's  History  of  Inventions,"  vol.  i.,  p.  349,  1846). 

During  the  late  siege  of  Paris,  the  bread  served  out  constituted  a  very 
coarse  and  mixed  article.  In  Sheppard's  "  Shut  up  in  Paris,"  p.  309,  it  is 
stated  to  have  been  found  by  analysis  to  be  comprised  of  one-eighth 
wheat;  four-eighths  potatoes,  beans,  peas,  oats  and  rye;  two-eighths 
water;  and  the  remaining  one-eighth  straw,  hulls  of  grain,  and  the  skins 
of  vegetable  products. 

VEGETABLE  BUTTER. 

*A  vegetable  butter  is  obtained  from  several  species  of  Hassia,  a  genus 
of  plants  indigenous  to  tropical  India  and  Africa.  The  seeds  of  the 
Bassia  butyracea,  or  Indian  butter-tree,  contain  a  substance  which  in  the 


208  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

fresh  state  resembles  butter,  but  which  hardens  by  degrees  and  becomes 
like  suet  ("  Baird's  Cyclo.  of  Nat.  Sci."). 

The  Shea  or  African  butter-tree  (JBassia  Parkii)  is  named  after  Mungo 
Park,  who  describes  in  his  "  Travels  in  the  Interior  Districts  of  Africa  " 
the  mode  adopted  by  the  natives  to  obtain  the  butter.  "  These  trees," 
he  says  (vol.  i,  pp.  198-9,  1816),  "  grow  in  great  abundance  all  over  this 
part  of  Bambarra.  They  are  not  planted  by  the  natives,  but  are  found 
growing  naturally  in  the  woods;  and  in  clearing  woodland  for  cultivation, 
every  tree  is  cut  down  but  the  shea.  The  tree  itself  very  much  resembles 
the  American  oak;  and  the  fruit,  from  the  kernel  of  which,  being  first 
dried  in  the  sun,  the  butter  is  prepared,  by  boiling  the  kernel  in  water, 
has  somewhat  the  appearance  of  a  Spanish  olive.  The  kernel  is  enveloped 
in  a  sweet  pulp,  under  a  thin  green  rind,  and  the  butter  produced  from  it, 
besides  the  advantage  of  its  keeping  the  whole  year  without  salt,  is  whiter, 
firmer,  and  to  my  palate  of  a  richer  flavor  than  the  best  butter  I  ever 
tasted  made  from  cow's  milk.  The  growth  and  preparation  of  this  com- 
modity seem  to  be  among  the  first  objects  of  African  industry  in  this- 
and  neighboring  states;  and  it  constitutes  a  main  article  of  their  inland 
commerce." 

SACCHARINE  PREPARATIONS. 

Sugar  forms  an  important  alimentary  principle,  and  is  met  with  widely,, 
and  in  certain  cases  largely,  amongst  vegetable  products,  from  some  of 
which  it  is  extracted  for  use.  It  also  constitutes,  under  the  name  of  lac- 
tine,  one  of  the  ingredients  of  the  animal  food  provided  by  nature  for  the 
support  of  the  young  mammal — viz.,  milk. 

Sugar  was  known  to  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  its  manu- 
facture is  said  by  Humboldt  to  be  of  the  greatest  antiquity  in  China. 

Sugar  evidently  contributes  toward  force-production  in  the  body,  and, 
likewise,  as  is  shown  by  ample  evidence,  toward  the  formation  and  accu- 
mulation of  fat.  Being  of  a  soluble  and  diffusible  nature,  it  needs  no 
preliminary  digestion  for  absorption,  and,  therefore,  sits  lightly  on  the 
stomach.  It  is,  however,  apt  in  some  dyspeptics  to  undergo  acid  fer- 
mentation, and  give  rise  to  preternatural  acidity  of  stomach  and  likewise 
flatulence.  A  popular  notion  prevails  that  it  has  a  tendency  to  injure  the 
teeth,  but  no  trustworthy  evidence  that  such  is  the  case  exists. 

The  consumption  of  sugar  in  Great  Britain  in  1700  amounted  to  10,000 
tons.  In  the  year  1863-64  it  had  risen  to  536,226  tons  of  unrefined, 
14,879  tons  of  refined,  and  40,165  tons  of  cane-juice,  syrup,  and  molasses. 
In  relation  to  population,  the  amount  stood  at  30  pounds  per  head.  In 
1866,  the  quantity  consumed  in  England  was  at  the  rate  of  38  pounds  per 
head. 

Besides  employment  as  a  daily  article  of  food,  sugar  constitutes  the 
base  of  a  variety  of  products  of  the  confectioner's  art.  On  account  of  its 
antiseptic  virtue,  it  is  also  extensively  used  as  a  preservative  of  other  sub- 
stances. Vegetable  products,  as  fruits,  etc.,  are  those  which  are  chiefly 
subjected  to  the  influence  it  exerts  in  this  direction,  but  animal  substances 
can  be  equally  well  preserved  by  it. 

There  are  two  main  varieties  of  sugar.  The  one  is  familiar  to  us  as 
the  produce  of  the  sugar-cane,  and  the  other  as  contained  in  grapes  an  1 
other  kinds  of  fruit.  The  former  variety  is  characterized  by  the  facility 
with  which  it  crystallizes,  and  by  its  strong  sweetness  of  taste.  It  not 
only  exists  in  the  sugar-cane,  but  also  in  beet-root,  in  the  sap  of  certain- 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  209 

species  of  maple,  in  the  sterns  of  maize,  and  in  some  other  vegetable  pro- 
ducts. It  is  distinguished  by  the  appellation  crystalline  or  cane-sugar. 
The  latter  is  imperfectly  crystallizable,  and  of  much  inferior  sweetness. 
It  abounds  in  grapes  and  many  other  fruits  and  vegetable  articles,  and 
may  also  be  obtained  by  the  action  of  acids  and  ferments  on  cane-sugar, 
starch,  gum,  and  licorice.  It  is  known  by  the  name  of  glucose  or  grape- 
sugar.  These  two  varieties  differ  further  in  their  chemical  relations,  and 
in  the  amount  of  the  elements  of  water  they  contain.  The  various  sac- 
charine products  in  common  use  consist  in  one  or  other  of  these  varieties. 
Cane-sugar. — This,  looked  at  as  a  specific  product,  is  derived  from  the 
sugar-cane,  or  Saccharum,  a  plant  which  appears  to  have  come  originally 
from  the  interior  of  Asia,  whence  it  was  transplanted  to  Cyprus.  It  was 
introduced  into  the  West  Indies,  where  it  is  now  extensively  cultivated, 
early  in  the  sixteenth  century.  There  are  several  varieties  of  Saccharum 
grown  for  the  extraction  of  sugar,  but  the  Creole  cane,  or  Saccharum 
officinarum,  is  that  which  was  first  introduced  into  the  New  World. 

The  sugar  is  contained  in  the  juice  of  the  cane,  and  the  first  step  in 
its  manufacture  is  to  obtain  the  juice  by  means  of  pressure,  which  is 
usually  applied  by  iron  rollers.  The  cane,  when  ripe,  is  cut  close  to  the 
ground,  stripped  of  its  leaves,  and  then  twice  passed  between  the  iron 
rollers.  The  expressed  juice  is  next  clarified  and  evaporated.  This  is 
effected  by  the  combined  use  of  heat  and  the  addition  of  lime.  Passing 
through  a  series  of  evaporating  vessels,  the  scum  and  deposit  are  removed, 
and  the  liquor  brought  to  the  proper  consistence.  It  is  now  transferred 
into  coolers,  for  the  crystals  to  form  and  separate  from  the  uncrystalliz- 
able  portion,  which  is  allowed  to  drain  off.  The  solidified  product  con- 
stitutes muscovado,  or  raw  sugar,  and  is  packed  in  hogsheads  and  dis- 
tributed to  the  consumer.  The  uncrystallizable  portion,  containing 
changed  products  resulting  from  the  action  of  the  heat,  is  called  molasses. 

The  juice  of  the  sugar-cane  contains  about  18  to  22  per  cent,  of 
sugar,  and  six  to  eight  pounds  of  it  are  required  to  yield  one  pound  of 
the  crystallized  article. 

A  large  portion  of  the  raw  sugar  is  refined  or  transformed  from  brown 
or  moist  into  white  or  loaf  sugar  before  being  used,  and  the  process  of 
refining  is  extensively  carried  on  in  this  country.  The  object  is  to  clar- 
ify and  decolorise,  and  this  is  usually  effected  by  boiling  the  dissolved 
sugar  with  bullock  s  blood,  filtering,  and  allowing  the  liquor  to  percolate 
through  coarsely  grained  animal  charcoal.  The  nearly  colorless  liquid 
thence  obtained  is  concentrated  to  the  requisite  degree  in  a  vacuum  pan 
heated  with  steam,  and  then  transferred  to  conical  moulds,  where  solidi- 
fication occurs.  The  unsolidified  portion,  which  constitutes  treacle,  is 
afterward  permitted  to  drain  off,  and  loaf  sugar  is  left.  The  article  is 
still  to  some  extent  colored,  and,  as  a  finishing  process,  a  saturated  solu- 
tion of  sugar  is  allowed  to  percolate  through  the  loaf.  This  washes  out 
the  remaining  coloring  matter,  and  leaves  the  product  in  the  white  and 
porous  condition  observed  to  belong  to  the  fully  refined  article. 

Sugar  is  also  extracted  from  the  root  of  the  beet  (Beta  vulgaris\ 
which  contains  nearly  one-tenth  part  of  its  weight  of  the  principle.  The 
cultivation  of  the  beet  was  recommended  for  the  purpose  as  early  as  1747, 
at  Berlin,  but  nothing  was  practically  carried  out  until  Napoleon  the 
First  encouraged  the  proposal,  and  now  the  manufacture  is  successfully 
and  extensively  pursued  in  France,  Belgium,  and  Russia.  In  England  a 
beet-sugar  factory  has  been  established  at  Lavenham,  in  Suffolk.  The 
juice  of  the  root  is  obtained  and  submitted  to  the  same  kind  of  treatment 
14 


210  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND   DIETETICS. 

as  that  of  the  sugar-cane,  and  in  the  refined  state  the  two  sugars  resem- 
ble each  other. 

A  considerable  portion  of  the  sugar  used  in  the  northern  parts  of 
North  America  is  obtained  from  a  variety  of  maple,  the  Acer  sacchari- 
num.  Incisions  are  made  into  the  tree,  to  allow  the  sap  to  escape.  This 
is  collected  and  concentrated  to  crystallizing  point.  It  yields  then  a 
coarse  sugar,  which,  however,  admits  of  being  purified  and  brought  into 
the  same  state  as  the  refined  sugar  of  the  cane  and  beet. 

The  green  stalks  of  maize,  or  Indian  corn,  are  largely  impregna- 
ted Avith  sugar,  and  are  sometimes  employed  for  its  extraction.  Sugar 
was  obtained  from  this  source  by  the  ancient  Mexicans.  The  Sorghum 
saccharatum,  or  sugar-grass,  is  also  gradually  growing  into  importance 
as  a  source  of  sugar,  both  in  North  America  and  the  south  of  Europe. 
In  India  a  large  amount  of  sugar,  called  jaggary,  is  obtained  from  the 
juice  of  various  trees  of  the  palm  tribe.  The  date-palm  (Phoenix  dacty- 
lifera),  the  wild  date-palm  (Phoenix  silvestris),  and  the  gomuto-palm 
(Saguerus  saccharifer],  are  all  turned  to  account  for  this  purpose,  and 
the  sugar  is  to  some  extent  imported  into  England  and  used  for  mixing, 
but  it  is  said  not  to  be  of  sufficient  "strength"  to  pay  for  refining. 

Barley-sugar. — When  a  concentrated  solution  of  sugar  is  rapidly 
boiled  down,  its  tendency  to  crystallize  is  diminished,  and,  it  may  be, 
even  destroyed.  On  being  allowed  to  cool,  it  solidifies  into  a  transparent, 
amorphous  mass,  of  a  vitreous  nature.  It  is  in  this  way  that  barley- 
sugar  is  prepared,  and  the  same  principle  also  determines  the  production 
of  acidulated  drops,  hardbake,  toffee,  etc.  Sometimes  a  little  cream  of 
tartar  is  introduced  to  favor  the  action  of  the  heat,  and  in  the  case  of 
acidulated  drops,  tartaric  acid  is  added  whilst  the  liquid  is  boiling. 

Sugar-candy. — This  is  crystallized  sugar,  and  is  prepared  by  allowing 
a  concentrated  syrup  to  slowly  deposit  crystals  on  the  surface  of  the  ves- 
sel in  which  it  is  contained,  and  on  threads  stretched  across  it.  Crushed 
sugar-candy  forms  the  coarse  crystalline  article  which  is  often  sold  for 
sweetening  coffee. 

Molasses  constitutes  the  dark-colored,  viscid  liquid  which  drains  off 
during  the  preparation  of  raw  sugar.  The  molasses  which  separates  from 
beet-root  sugar  has  a  disagreeable  taste,  and  is  thereby  unfit  for  employ- 
ment in  the  same  way  as  that  which  is  derivable  from  the  sug-ar  of  the 

V 

cane. 

Treacle. — As  molasses  constitutes  the  uncrystallized  liquid  which 
drains  from  raw  sugar,  so  treacle  forms  that  which  escapes  from  the 
moulds  in  which  refined  sugar  concretes.  Both  liquids  contain  uncrystal- 
lizable  sugar,  crystallizable  sugar,  gum,  extractive  matter,  free  acid,  va- 
rious salts,  and  water.  They  are  used  as  a  cheap  substitute  for  sugar. 
If  consumed  to  any  great  extent,  they  exert  a  laxative  action. 

Golden  syrup  is  produced  by  reboiling  the  liquid  which  drains  from 
refined  sugar,  and  filtering  through  animal  charcoal.  It  therefore  con- 
stitutes a  purified  form  of  treacle. 

Caramel. — When  crystallized  sugar  is  hea-ted  to  about  400°  Fahr.,  it 
suffers  decomposition,  gives  off  the  elements  of  water,  loses  its  power  of 
crystallizing,  becomes  dark-colored,  and  acquires  a  bitter  taste  in  the 
place  of  a  sweet  one.  The  article  thus  produced  is  called  caramel,  and  is 
used  by  the  cook  and  confectioner  as  a  flavoring  and  coloring  agent. 

Glucose,  or  grape-sugar. — It  has  been  already  stated  that  it  is  to  this 
modification  of  sugar  that  grapes  and  many  other  fruits  owe  their  sweet 
taste,  and  that  it  may  be  produced  artificially  from  cane-sugar,  starch, 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  211 

and  some  other  substances.  Its  separation  from  the  juice  of  grapes,  and 
likewise  its  manufacture  from  potato-starch  and  sago,  have  been  to  some 
extent  carried  out,  and  the  product  has  formed  an  article  of  commerce, 
but  its  chief  employment  has  been  as  an  adulterant  of  cane-sugar.  It  is 
not  used  dietically  upon  its  own  merits  in  the  same  way  as  the  latter.  Its 
taste  is  less  agreeably  sweet,  and  its  sweetening  power  is  so  far  inferior, 
that  five  parts  of  grape-sugar  are  said  to  be  required  to  raise  a  given  vol- 
ume of  water  to  the  same  degree  of  sweetness  as  is  effected  by  two  parts 
of  cane-sugar.  It  is  also  much  less  soluble  in  water,  and  less  disposed  to 
assume  a  crystalline  form,  on  which  account  it  is  not  susceptible  of  the 
same  facility  of  purification. 

HONEY. — Honey  may  be  most  conveniently  referred  to  here,  although 
not  a  preparation  standing  in  precisely  the  same  position  as  the  other 
products  included  in  the  group. 

It  is  an  article  collected  by  the  bee  for  its  own  use,  which  man  takes 
possession  of  and  consumes  instead.  It  is  an  exudation  from  the  nectar- 
iferous glands  of  flowers,  which  the  bee  sucks  up  and  passes  into  the  dila- 
tation of  the  oesophagus  forming  the  crop  or  honey-bag.  From  this  it  is 
afterward  disgorged,  probably  somewhat  altered  in  its  properties  by  the 
secretion  of  the  crop,  and  deposited  in  the  cell  of  the  honey-comb.  In 
Europe,  it  is  principally  through  the  Apis  mellifica  that  honey  is  ob- 
tained, and  it  is  by  the  neuter  or  working  member  of  the  hive  that  the 
office  is  performed.  The  honey  of  Surinam  and  Cayenne,  furnished  by 
the  Apis  arnalthea,  is  red,  and  that  supplied  by  the  Apis  wiicolor  of 
Madagascar  is  of  a  greenish  color. 

Honey  is  a  concentrated  solution  of  sugar,  mixed  with  odorous,  color- 
ing, gummy,  and  waxy  matters.  It  usually  resolves  itself  into  a  fluid 
and  a  solid  crystalline  portion,  which  are  separable  from  each  other  by 
pressure  in  a  linen  bag.  Chemically,  the  saccharine  matter  is  of  two 
kinds:  the  one  resembles  that  from  the  grape  (glucose),  whilst  the  other 
is  uncrystallizable,  and  analogous  to  the  uncrystallizable  sugar  which  ex- 
ists along  with  common  sugar  in  cane-juice.  Mannite,  a  non-fermenting 
kind  of  sugar,  has  also  been  met  with. 

Honey  varies  in  flavor  and  odor,  according  to  the  age  of  the  bees  and 
the  flowers  from  which  it  has  been  collected. 

Virgin  honey,  or  that  pj-ocured  from  young  bees  which  have  never 
swarmed,  is  held  in  higher  estimation  than  that  collected  from  a  hive 
that  has  swarmed;  but  the  "term  virgin  honey  is  also  applied  to  that 
which  flows  spontaneously  from  the  comb,  on  account  of  its  being  better 
than  that  obtained  by  the  aid  of  pressure,  and  especially  heat  and  pres- 
sure, this  being  contaminated  with  foreign  matter  derived  from  the  comb. 
The  honey,  again,  of  certain  countries  and  districts  is  well  known  to  pos- 
sess special  qualities  dependent  on  the  flora  of  the  locality.  Hence  the 
fragrant  odor  and  choice  taste  belonging  to  the  honey  of  Mount  Ida  in 
Crete;  the  neighborhood  of  Narbonne,  where  the  labiate  flowers  abound; 
the  valley  of  Chamounix;  and  of  the  high  moorlands  of  Great  Britain 
when  the  heather  is  in  bloom.  Hence,  also,  the  deleterious  qualities  which 
the  honey  of  Trebizonde,  upon  the  Black  Sea,  has  long  been  known  to 
possess,  and  which  are  due  to  its  collection  from  a  species  of  rhododen- 
dron, the  Azalea  pontica,  which  grows  upon  the  neighboring  mountains. 
The  effects  produced  consist  of  headache,  vomiting,  and  a  kind  of  in- 
toxication; and,  if  eaten  in  large  quantities,  a  loss  of  all  sense  and  power 
for  some  hours  may  occur.  It  is  said  to  have  been  probably  this  kind  of 


212  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

honey  which  poisoned  the  soldiers  of  Xenophon,  as  described  by  him  in 
the  "  Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand."  Many  other  instances  of  honey  ex- 
erting poisonous  effects  have  been  recorded. 

Honey  formed  an  alimentary  article  of  great  importance  to  the  ancients, 
who  were  almost  unacquainted  with  sugar;  and  certain  localities,  as  Hybla 
in  Sicily,  and  Hymettus  near  Athens,  were  specially  celebrated  for  its 
production.  It  is  still  pretty  largely  consumed  dietetically  in  some  dis- 
tricts, and  possesses  the  same  alimentary  value  as  sugar.  It  exerts  a 
slightly  laxative  action,  and  is  frequently  employed  therapeutically  as  an 
emollient  and  demulcent. 

MANNA. — Manna  is  a  sweet  substance,  which  solidifies  from  the  juice 
of  certain  species  of  ash,  especially  Fraxinus  ornus  and  rotundifolla. 
Incisions  are  made  into  the  stem  of  the  tree,  and  the  juice  allowed  to  es- 
cape and  dry  into  solid  masses.  It  contains  a  peculiar  kind  of  sugar — 
mannite — which  forms  about  four-fifths  of  the  best  manna.  Mannite, 
which  also  exists  to  some  extent  in  the  beet-root  and  some  other  vegetable 
products,  constitutes  a  white,  crystallizable,  odorless,  and  sweet  principle, 
which  differs  from  ordinary  sugar  in  not  being  susceptible  of  undergoing 
alcoholic  fermentation  in  contact  with  yeast. 

The  chief  use  to  which  manna  is  applied  is  as  a  mild  and  safe  laxative. 
It  possesses  some  nutritive  value.  Different  sorts  of  manna  are  eaten  by 
the  natives  of  Australia  ("  Eyre's  Central  Australia,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  250).  The 
peasants  of  Mount  Libanus  in  Syria  it  is  said,  eat  manna  ordinarily  as 
others  do  honey;  and  in  Mexico  they  have  a  manna  which  is  eaten  as 
we  eat  cheese  ("  Forsyth's  Diet,  of  Diet "). 


FAKINACEOUS  PKEPABATIONS. 

Farinaceous  or  starchy  matter  is  a  product  which  is  yielded  by  the 
vegetable  kingdom  only.  Here,  however,  it  is  widely  and  often  very 
largely  met  with.  It  occurs  under  the  form  of  little  granular  bodies 
(starch-granules)  lodged  in  the  vegetable  tissues,  but  readily  susceptible, 
under  appropriate  treatment,  of  isolation.  These  granules  possess  a 
distinctly  organized  construction,  and  are  made  up  of  a  series  of  super- 
posed layers,  the  outermost  of  which  is  the  thickest  and  hardest.  Thus 
are  produced  the  concentric  lines  which  are  visible  when  the  granule  is 
submitted  to  microscopic  examination,  and -which  are  arranged  around  a 
spot  which  is  called  the  hilum.  The  granules  from  different  sources  pre- 
sent distinctive  features  as  regards  size,  form,  and  appearance,  which  may 
be  recognized  with  the  aid  of  the  microscope. 

Starch  forms  an  important  alimentary  article.  Being  devoid  of  nitro- 
gen, it  can  contribute  only  toward  force  and  fat-production.  The  hard- 
ness of  the  external  envelope  renders  the  granule  in  its  original  state  dif- 
ficult of  digestion — and  digestion,  which  involves  transformation  into 
sugar,  must  occur  before  absorption  and  utilization  can  ensue.  On  this 
account,  when  starch  is  consumed  in  the  raw  state,  more  or  less  of  it 
passes  off  with  the  undigested  residue  from  the  alimentary  canal.  By 
boiling,  or  otherwise  exposing  to  heat,  the  granules  rupture  and  become 
far  more  easily  attacked  by  the  digestive  juices.  Starchy  matter,  there- 
fore, should  be  subjected  to  cooking  before  being  consumed. 

There  are  various  starchy  preparations  in  common  use,  an  account  of 
which  will  now  be  furnished. 


ALIMEISTTARY    SUBSTANCES.  213 

SAGO. — Sago  is  obtained  from  the  central  or  medullary  part,  commonly 
called  pith,  of  the  stems  of  several  species  of  palm.  When  the  tree  is 
sufficiently  mature,  it  is  cut  down  near  the  root  and  split  perpendicularly. 
The  medullary  matter  is  extracted,  reduced  to  powder,  mixed  with  water, 
and  strained  through  a  sieve.  From  the  strained  liquid  the  starch  is  de- 
posited, and,  after  washing  with  water  and  drying,  forms  the  sago-flour ', 
or  meal,  of  commerce.  A  single  tree  is  said  to  yield  from  five  to  six  hun- 
dred pounds*of  sago.  What  is  called  sago-bread  is  made  in  the  Moluccas 
by  throwing  the  dry  meal  into  heated  earthenware  moulds,  which  leads, 
in  the  course  of  a  few  minutes,  to  its  incorporation  or  caking  together 
into  a  hard  mass. 

Granulated  sago  is  prepared  from  sago-flour  by  mixing  it  with  water 
into  a  paste,  and  then  granulating.  It  consists  of  pearl  sago,  which  occurs 
in  small  spherical  grains,  and  constitutes  the  kind  now  commonly  em- 
ployed for  dietetic  purposes;  and  brown  or  common  sago,  which  occurs 
in  larger  grains,  and  was  the  only  kind  used  in  England  prior  to  the  in- 
troduction of  the  first.  Both  sorts  are  met  with  variously  tinted,  but  the 
tint  is  not  uniform  throughout,  the  surface  of  the  grain  being  deep  on 
one  side  and  pale  on  the  other.  It  may  be  rendered  white  by  bleaching. 

Sago  constitutes  pan  important  article  of  food  in  some  parts  of  the 
East.  It  is  used  in  household  economy  in  England  for  introduction  into 
soup,  and  under  the  form  of  pudding.  It  serves  as  a  light  and  digestible 
alimentary  material  for  the  invalid  and  dyspeptic.  It  absorbs  the  liquid 
in  which  it  is  cooked,  and  becomes  transparent  and  soft,  but  retains  its 
original  granular  form.  In  1863-64  the  amount  of  sago  imported  into 
Great  Britain  was  7,306  tons. 

CASSAVA  AND  TAPIOCA. — These  starchy  preparations  are  obtained  from 
the  large,  thick,  fleshy,  tuberous  roots  of  the  Manihot  utilissima,  for- 
merly known  as  the  Jatropha  manihot,  a  native  of  tropical  America,  but 
now  cultivated  in  Africa,  India,  and  other  hot  countries.  The  plant  in 
question  constitutes  what  is  popularly  called  the  bitter  cassava,  but  there 
is  another  variety  from  which  cassava  and  tapioca  are  also  obtained, 
called  the  sweet  cassava.  Both  plants,  like  others  of  the  order  Euphor- 
biacece,  to  which  they  belong,  have  a  milky  juice.  This,  in  the  case  of 
the  bitter  variety,  contains,  amongst  other  deleterious  principles,  hydro- 
cyanic acid,  and  gives  to  the  root  highly  acrid  and  poisonous  properties. 
In  the  case  of  the  sweet  variety,  the  juice  is  devoid  of  poisonous  proper- 
ties, and  the  root  by  boiling  or  roasting  becomes  soft,  and  is  used  as  an 
edible  article.  In  the  bitter  variety  it  is  only  the  juice  that  is  poisonous, 
and  when  this  has  been  expressed  or  otherwise  removed,  the  residue  is  of 
a  harmless  nature. 

To  procure  the  farinaceous  preparations,  the  root,  after  being  washed 
and  scraped,  is  reduced  to  a  pulp  by  being  rasped  or  grated.  The  pulp 
is  then  subjected  to  pressure,  to  express  the  juice.  From  the  compressed 
residue  cassava-meal  and  bread  are  obtained;  and  from  the  juice,  cassava- 
starch  and  tapioca. 

The  residue,  for  instance,  dried  over  a  brisk  fire,  and  afterward 
pounded,  forms  cassava-meal.  If  baked  on  a  hot  plate,  it  yields  cassava- 
bread.  Both  these  products  form  important  and  valuable  articles  of  food 
to  the  inhabitants  of  tropical  America.  They  contain  starch,  vegetable 
fibre,  and  nitrogenous  matter.  The  expressed  juice,  in  the  next  place, 
contains  suspended  starch,  which  is  allowed  to  subside.  This,  after  being 
washed  and  dried  in  the  air  without  the  aid  of  heat,  constitutes  cassava- 


214  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

starch,  or  what  is  known  in  commerce  as  tapioca-meal  or  Brazilian  arrow- 
root. Tapioca  is  made  by  heating  the  cassava-starch,  before  being  dried, 
on  hot  plates,  and  stirring  it  with  an  iron  rod.  By  these  means  the  mass 
agglomerates  into  small,  irregular,  transparent  granules,  forming  the  arti- 
cle imported  into  England  under  the  name  in  question  from  Bahia  and 
Rio  Janeiro. 

Tapioca  forms  an  agreeable,  light,  and  easily  digestible  farinaceous 
article  of  food.  It  is  useful  both  for  the  sick  and  healthy,  and  is  em- 
ployed under  the  form  of  pudding  and  for  introduction  into  soup  and 
broth.  Consisting,  as  it  does,  of  starchy  matter  only,  it  possesses  a  less 
nutritive  value  than  cassava-meal  and  bread.  In  consequence  of  the 
heat  to  which  it  has  been  subjected,  many  of  the  starch-granules  are 
in  a  ruptured  state,  which  leads  to  its  being  partially  soluble  in  cold 
water. 

ARROW-ROOT. — Genuine  arrow-root,  or,  as  it  is  called,  West  Indian 
arrow-root,  in  contradistinction  to  spurious  representatives  of  the  article, 
constitutes  a  pure  form  of  starch  from  the  tuberous  root  of  the  Maranta 
arundinacea,  It  owes  its  name  to  the  belief  of  the  Indians  of  South 
America,  that  the  root  of  the  plant  was  an  antidote  to  the  poison  of  their 
enemies'  arrows.  The  plant  grows  in  tropical  climates,  and  was  originally 
cultivated  in  the  West  Indies,  but  has  been  transferred  to  the  East  In- 
dies, Ceylon,  and  Africa. 

The  following  is  the  process  by  which  the  product  is  obtained.  The 
roots  are  dug  up  when  they  are  about  ten  or  twelve  months  old,  washed, 
and  reduced  to  a  state  of  pulp.  This  is  mixed  with  water,  cleared  of 
fibres  by  means  of  a  coarse  sieve,  and  the  starch  allowed  to  settle.  Suc- 
cessive washings  are  employed  for  further  purification,  and  the  arrow-root 
is  then  either  dried  on  sheets  in  the  sun,  or  in  drying-houses,  care  being 
exercised  to  exclude  dust  and  insects. 

Arrow-root  is  imported  into  England  from  the  West  Indian  Islands, 
Calcutta,  and  Sierra  Leone,  and  is  usually  distinguished  by  the  name  of 
the  island  or  place  producing  it.  That  derived  from  Bermuda  is  held  in 
the  highest  estimation.  It  forms  a  white,  odorless,  and  tasteless  sub- 
stance, and  is  met  with  either  in  the  state  of  powder  or  of  small  pulveru- 
lent masses.  When  rubbed  between  the  fingers  it  feels  firm,  and  pro- 
duces a  slight  crackling  noise.  It  consists  of  starch-granules,  which  are 
readily  distinguished  by  their  microscopic  characters  from  those  derived 
from  other  sources. 

Consisting,  as  arrow-root  does,  of  pure  starch,  it  has  no  alimentary 
value  beyond  that  belonging  to  this  principle.  It  is  chiefly  used  as  a 
bland  article  of  food  for  invalids,  but,  of  course,  requires  to  be  conjoined 
with  other  alimentary  matter,  as  alone  it  possesses  only  a  limited  sustain- 
ing power.  As  an  ordinary  dietetic  agent,  it  is  employed  under  the  form 
of  pudding  and  blanc-mange,  and,  with  other  materials,  is  made  into  a 
biscuit. 

The  spurious  arrow-root  consists  of  starch  derived  from  other  sources, 
and  substituted  on  the  score  of  greater  cheapness.  For  example,  Tahitan 
arrow-root,  or  Tacca  starch,  also  sometimes  called  Otaheite  salep,  is  ob- 
tained from  the  root  of  the  Tacca  oceanica,  a  native  of  the  South  Sea 
Islands  (the  Tacca  pinnatifida  of  the  tropical  parts  of  Asia  also  yields  a 
large  quantity  of  beautifully  white  starch,  which  constitutes  an  impor- 
tant article  of  food  to  the  natives) ;  Portland  arrow-root  (so  called  from 
being  manufactured  in  the  island  of  that  name)  from  that  of  the  Arum 


ALIMENTARY   SUBSTANCES.  215 

tnaculatum;  Brazilian  arrow-root,  from  that  of  the  plant  which  yields 
tapioca;  East  Indian  arrow-root,  from  that  of  the  Curcuma  angustifolia, 
a  species  of  turmeric  plant;  and  English  arrow-root,  from  the  potato. 

• 

TOUS-LES-MOIS. — This  name  is  given  to  the  starch  obtained  from  the 
tuberous  root  of  the  Canna  edulis,  a  native  of  the  West  Indies.  It  is 
extracted  in  the  same  way  as  arrow-root,  viz.,  by  reducing  the  tuber  to  a 
pulp,  straining,  washing,  decanting  the  supernatant  liquid,  and  drying 
the  starchy  deposit.  It  is  imported  from  St.  Kitts,  and  was  only  intro- 
duced into  England  as  recently  as  about  the  year  1836.  Its  granules  are 
characterized  by  exceeding  in  size  those  of  all  other  starches.  It  is  very 
soluble  in  boiling  water,  and  appears  to  be  readily  susceptible  of  diges- 
tion. It  is  used  for  invalids  in  the  same  way  as  arrow-root,  and  in  ali- 
mentary value  resembles  the  other  farinaceous  preparations. 

SALEP. — Salep  constitutes  the  prepared  tubercles  of  several  orchideous 
plants.  It  is  imported  from  India,  Persia,  and  Turkey,  and  is  met  with 
under  the  form  of  small  ovoid  tubercles,  which  have  been  subjected  to 
boiling  for  a  few  minutes  in  water,  rubbing  with  a  coarse  linen  cloth  to 
remove  the  skin,  and  drying  in  an  oven.  When  required  for  use,  they  are 
ground  to  a  fine  powder,  and  mixed  with  boiling  water.  Salep  consists 
of,  besides  other  ingredients,  mucilaginous  matter  and  starch.  It,  there- 
fore, possesses  demulcent  as  well  as  nutritive  properties. 

REYALEXTA  ARABICA. — Revalenta  and  Ervalenta  form  preparations 
the  chief  portion  of  which  consists  of  the  flour  of  the  lentil,  or  Ervum 
lens  (hence  ervalenta],  a  plant  belonging,  like  peas  and  beans,  to  the 
leguminous  tribe. 

Du  Barry's  Revalenta  Arabica  is  thus  composed,  according  to  the 
analysis  of  Dr.  Hassall.  Three  samples,  he  says,  were  examined,  and  one 
consisted  of  a  mixture  of  the  red  or  Arabian  lentil  and  barley-flour; 
another  of  the  same  ingredients  mixed  with  sugar;  and  the  third  of  the 
Arabian  lentil  and  barley-flour,  with  saline  matter,  chiefly  salt,  and  a 
flavoring  principle  tasting  as  though  consisting  of  celery  seed.  Such,  ac- 
cording to  Dr.  Hassall,  was  found  to  be  the  composition  of  samples  of  an 
article  which  is  vaunted  in  the  advertising  columns  of  the  daily  press  as 
a  specific  for  almost  all  the  aliments  that  the  human  frame  is  heir  to,  and 
sold  at  an  enormous  price,  looked  at  in  relation  to  the  cost  of  its  ingre- 
dients. 

A  sample  of  Wharton's  Ervalenta,  examined  by  Dr.  Hassall,  con- 
sisted of  the  French  or  German  lentil,  mixed  with  a  substance  resembling 
maize  or  Indian  corn. 

The  object  of  the  admixture  of  barley-  and  other  flours  with  the  lentil 
powder  is  not,  remarks  Dr.  Hassall,  that  of  gain,  for  the  cost  of  the  latter 
is  less  than  that  of  the  former,  but  to  diminish  the  strong  flavor  which 
lentils  possess,  and  which  is  so  distasteful  to  many. 

Regarded  dietetically,  a  preparation  which  owes  its  chief  composition  to 
lentil-flour  is  rich,  like  leguminous  seeds  in  general,  in  nitrogenous  mat- 
ter, but  in  that  form  of  it  which  is  of  a  more  indigestible  nature  than  the 
nitrogenous  matter  belonging  to  the  Cerealia. 


216  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 


BEVERAGES. 

A  supply  or*water  under  some  shape  or  other  is  one  of  the  essential 
conditions  of  life.  It  is  just  as  needful  as  solid  matter.  It  not  only 
enters  largely  into  the  constitution  of  the  different  parts  of  the  organism, 
but  is  required  for  various  purposes  in  the  performance  of  the  operations 
of  life.  Without  it,  for  instance,  there  could  be  no  circulation  nor  molec- 
ular mobility  of  any  kind.  It  forms  the  liquid  element  of  the  secretions, 
and  thereby  the  medium  for  dissolving  and  enabling  the  digested  food  to 
pass  into  the  system  and  the  effete  products  to  pass  out.  A  constant  in- 
gress and  egress  are  occurring,  and  the  former  requires  to  stand  in  proper 
adjustment  to  the  latter.  Under  ordinary  conditions  of  exercise  and 
temperature,  it  may  be  estimated  that  about  five  pints  of  fluid  pass  off 
through  the  kidneys,  skin,  lungs  and  alimentary  canal  from  an  average- 
sized  adult  in  the  course  of  the  twenty-four  hours,  and  this  has  to  be  re- 
plenished by  supply  from  without.  But  it  is  not  necessary  that  this 
amount  should  be  drunk.  A  large  proportion  of  our  solid  food,  in  many 
cases  as  much  as  70,  80,  or  90  per  cent.,  consists  of  water,  and  the  quan- 
tity required  in  an  ordinary  way  to  be  taken  daily  in  the  form  of  drink 
may  be  roughly  assumed  to  amount  to  from  two  and  a  half  or  three  to 
three  and  a  half  or  four  pints  or  more.  The  loss  going  on,  however, 
represents  such  a  fluctuating  product  dependent  on  exercise  or  work  and 
the  temperature  to  which  the  body  is  exposed,  that  great  variation  must 
ensue  in  the  amount  of  fluid  required.  The  effect  of  muscular  exertion 
in  leading  to  increased  cutaneous  transpiration  is  familiar  to  all.  Ex- 
posure to  heat  also  is  well  known  to  act  in  the  same  way,  and  where  a 
particularly  elevated  temperature  has  to  be  endured,  the  loss  of  fluid  by 
the  skin  is  very  great — indeed,  it  is  by  this  loss  and  the  evaporation 
which  follows,  that  the  cooling  influence  is  exerted  whereby  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  body  is  kept  down  within  natural  limits.  In  the  case  of  men, 
as  particularly  the  stokers  of  large  steam-vessels,  who  remain  for  some 
time  in  a  highly  heated  atmosphere,  the  loss  of  fluid  occurring  entails  the 
consumption  of  an  enormous  quantity  (some  quarts  in  the  course  of  a 
few  hours)  of  liquid,  and  it  is  the  practice  with  such  persons  to  drink 
from  a  store  of  water  into  which  a  little  oatmeal  has  been  thrown.  Now, 
according  to  the  amount  required,  so  is  the  supply  provided  for  by  the 
sensation  of  thirst — a  sensation  which  creates  an  irresistible  desire  to 
drink  when  the  want  of  fluid  in  the  system  exists. 

If  a  plain  and  wholesome  liquid  be  drunk,  the  error  is  not  likely  to  be 
committed  of  taking  too  much.  After  compensating  for  the  loss  by  the 
skin  and  with  the  breath,  the  surplus  passes  off  through  the  urinary  chan- 
nel, and  it  is  desirable  that  this  surplus  should  amply  suffice  to  carry  off 
the  effete  products  forming  the  solid  matter  of  the  urine  in  a  thoroughly 
dissolved  state.  The  notion  has  been  started  that  it  is  advisable  to  re- 
strict the  amount  of  liquid  taken  with  the  meals  with  the  view  of  avoiding 
the  dilution  of  the  gastric  juice.  Whether  as  the  result  of  the  influ- 
ence of  this  notion  upon  the  public  mind  or  not,  mischief,  I  believe,  is  fre- 
quently occasioned,  especially  amongst  the  higher  ranks  of  society,  by  a 
too  limited  consumption  of  fluid.  Instead  of  taking  a  draught  of  some 
innocent  and  simple  beverage,  it  is  at  many  tables  the  fashion  to  sip  fluid 
— and  this  a  more  or  less  strongly  alcoholic  one — only  from  the  wine- 
glass. It  is  a  mistaken  notion  to  think  that  when  we  drink  with  a  meal 
we  are  diluting  the  gastric  juice.  The  act  of  secretion  is  excited  by  the 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  217 

arrival  of  the  meal  in  the  stomach,  and  the  gastric  juice  is  not  there  at  the 
time  of  ingestion.  It  happens,  indeed,  that  the  absorption  of  fluid 
takes  place  with  great  activity,  and  the  liquid  which  is  4runk  during  a 
meal  becoming  absorbed,  may  be  looked  upon  as  proving  advantageous 
by  afterward  contributing  to  yield  the  gastric  juice  which  is  required. 

Water  constitutes  the  essential  basis  of  all  our  drinks,  taken  purely 
as  such.  The  liquids  consumed  are  of  various  kinds,  but  water  is  the  ele- 
ment physiologically  and  indispensably  required.  Many  of  the  beverages 
in  use,  however,  are  far  from  simply  fulfilling  the  office  of  supplying  water 
for  the  purposes  of  life.  The  accessory  ingredients  they  contain  give 
them  special  properties,  for  the  sake  of  which  their  employment  is  often 
mainly,  if  not  solely,  dictated.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that  a  large 
quantity  of  fluid  is  required  to  be  consumed  to  compensate  for  the  loss 
occurring  under  violent  exercise  *  or  exposure  to  a  high  temperature, 
and  that  nothing  is  equal  to  a  simple  aqueous  liquid,  and  the  softer  and 
purer  the  water  the  better.  As  already  mentioned,  those  who  work  in 
unusually  hot  situations  are  in  the  habit  of  consuming,  and  wisely  so, 
plain  water,  the  rawness  of  which  is  removed  by  the  addition  of  a  little 
oatmeal. 

Before  treating  of  the  beverages  having  special  properties,  as  tea, 
coffee,  etc.,  and  the  various  liquids  of  the  alcoholic  class,  all  of  which 
are  products  of  artificial  resources,  something  will  be  said  regarding 
water,  which  forms  the  drink  that  has  been  placed  at  our  disposal  by 
nature. 

*  In  Appendix  II.  to  Dr.  Parkes'  publication,  On  the  Issue  of  a  Spirit  Ration  Dur- 
ing the  Ashanti  Campaign  of  1874.  an  account  is  given  setting  forth  the  good  effect 
produced  by  the  employment  of  oatmeal  drink  during  the  heavy  work  recently  ac- 
complished iu  the  conversion  of  the  broad  into  narrow-gauge  on  the  Great  Western 
Railway. 

One  portion  of  the  undertaking  consisted  of  narrowing  the  gauge  on  the  South 
Wales  section  of  the  railway  for  a  length  of  about  400  miles  of  single  line.  The  num- 
ber of  men  employed  was  1,500,  and  the  work  lasted  from  seventeen  to  eighteen  hours 
a  day  for  several  successive  days.  According  to  the  report  of  the  superintending 
engineer,  the  men  worked  in  gangs  of  about  thirty  each,  and  were  housed  in  lodges 
built  along  the  line  about  six  miles  apart.  They  were  directed  to  bring  with  them  the 
food  they  would  want  for  about  two  weeks,  and,  as  a  rule,  they  provided  cocoa,  coffee, 
sugar,  bacon,  bread,  and  cheese.  At  early  dawn,  water  was  heated  at  the  lodges  and 
breakfast  made.  That  over,  the  day's  work  was  commenced.  Two  men  went  in  advance 
provided  with  a  large  iron  pot,  and  oatmeal  in  28  Ib.  packages.  Water  being  found,  a 
fireplace  of  stones  was  constructed  and  the  pot  boiled.  Oatmeal  was  then  sprinkled 
into  it  and  added  until  their  gruel  was  made.  As  soon  as  the  shout  for  drink  was 
heard,  buckets  were  filled  and  carried  round,  small  tins  being  used  to  drink  it  from. 
The  men  soon  got  to  like  it  exceedingly,  and  used  it  very  largely  to  supplement  their 
solid  food.  It  was  the  only  drink  taken  during  the  day. 

The  engineer  superintending  the  portion  of  the  work  which  was  carried  out  in  the 
month  of  June,  1874,  on  the  Wilts,  Somerset,  and  Weymouth  branch  of  the  line,  re- 
ported that  the  men  worked  from  daylight  to  dark.  Each  man  was  allowed  one  pound 
of  oatmeal  and  one-half  pound  of  sugar  per  diem,  and  a  man  was  appointed  to  cook  and 
serve  it  out  to  each  gang  of  twenty-one  men.  The  men  very  much  appreciated  this 
drink,  and  had  nothing  else,  no  beer  or  spirits  being  allowed  on  the  work.  The  work 
from  beginning  to  end  of  the  conversion  lasted  nearly  a  fortnight.  The  oatmeal  sup- 
plied the  place  of  water,  beer,  tea,  and  coffee.  For  meals  the  men  had  bread  and 
cheese,  or  meat,  and  in  some  cases  they  had  beer  at  night  after  their  work  was  over, 
but  never  in  the  work.  It  is  further  stated  that  there  was  a  strong  feeling  on  the 
part  of  the  engineers  that  the  good  conduct  of  the  men  and  the  hard  work  done  by 
them  was  due  to  the  liberal  supply  of  oatmeal  which  they  had  ;  as  it  not  only  quenched 
their  thirst,  but  sustained  them,  and  enabled  them  upon  one  occasion  to  keep  on  con- 
tinually working  very  hard  from  four  o'clock  on  Friday  morning  till  nine  o'clock  on 
Saturday  evening,  with  very  little  intermission. 


218  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

WATER. — "Water  is  derivable  from  various  sources,  and  is  denominated 
accordingly. 

Rain-water  constitutes  the  aqueous  vapor  which  has  existed  in  the 
atmosphere  and,  becoming  condensed,  has  descended  in  a  liquid  form. 
It  holds  an  analogous  position  to  distilled  water,  and  differs  from  it  only 
in  being  impregnated  with  volatile  products  which  have  been  abstracted 
from  the  air.  It  is  found  to  be  highly  aerated,  and  to  contain  traces  of 
ammonia,  nitric  acid,  etc.,  and  also  a  little  organic  matter.  It  is  likely 
to  be  contaminated  by  the  surfaces  upon  which  it  has  fallen,  and,  unless 
special  care  has  been  taken  in  its  collection,  is  not  well  adapted  for  po- 
table purposes,  although  from  its  freedom  from  the  earthy  salts  it  is  par- 
ticulary  eligible  for  domestic  use.  Its  purity,  indeed,  as  far  as  freedom 
from  the  earthy  salts  is  concerned,  renders  it  specially  prone  to  acquire 
dangerous  properties  from  lead  contamination  should  it  chance  to  be 
brought  into  contact  with  this  metal. 

Spring-water  is  rain-water  which  has  percolated  through  the  earth, 
and  made  its  escape  through  some  opening  at  a  lower  point  admitting  of 
its  flow.  It  is  charged  with  gaseous  and  saline  principles,  dependent  in 
nature  upon  the  character  of  the  soil  it  has  permeated.  Many  spring- 
waters  furnish  one  of  the  best  kinds  of  water  for  drinking.  Some  are 
charged  with  special  ingredients — the  mineral  waters  are  alluded  to — 
•which  render  them  unfit  for  ordinary  use,  but  may  give  them  a  high 
value  in  a  therapeutic  point  of  view. 

Well-  or  pump-water  is  of  the  same  nature  as  spring-water.  Deep 
•well-water,  unless  there  should  be  any  defect  in  the  construction  of  the 
well,  allowing  a  leakage  into  it  from  above,  mostly  yields  a  safe  and 
wholesome  drink.  The  water  of  surface  or  superficial  wells,  however, 
cannot  be  spoken  of  in  a  similar  way.  Derived  as  it  is  from  soakage  from 
the  surrounding  surface,  through  a  comparatively  shallow  stratum  only, 
and  this  often  consisting  of  a  loose  porous  soil,  it  is  liable  to  be  contam- 
inated with  organic  impurities  that  may  cause  it  to  give  rise  to  the 
most  serious  consequences.  Superficial  well-water  should  always  be  re- 
garded with  suspicion.  It  may  be  clear,  bright,  sparkling,  cool,  and  agree- 
able, and  yet  possess  dangerous  properties. 

River-water  consists  partly  of  spring-water  and  partly  of  rain-water 
that  has  run  off  from  the  surrounding  surface  of  land.  A  large  portion 
of  the  water  consumed  is  drawn  from  rivers,  and  whilst  varying  consid- 
erably in  character,  according  to  local  circumstances,  some  river-waters 
possess  qualities  that  render  them  highly  suited  for  our  use.  The  main 
drawback  to  their  employment  as  a  source  of  supply  is  their  liability 
to  pollution  by  the  refuse  of  cities  and  towns  being  allowed  to  reach 
them.  Rivers,  however,  possess  a  purifying  power  of  their  own.  The 
effect  of  a  running  stream,  and  the  influence  of  vegetation,  are  to  oxidize 
and  destroy  impurities;  and  thus  if  the  pollution  be  only  of  a  limited  ex- 
tent, the  water  may  be  maintained  fit  for  use. 

Distilled  water  is  now  extensively  used  at  sea.  Most  large  vessels 
are  furnished  with  the  necessary  appliance  for  subjecting  sea-water  to 
distillation  to  afford  the  water  required,  instead  of,  as  formerly,  ship- 
ping it  from  shore.  Thus,  a  plentiful  supply  of  pure  water,  in  a  strict 
sense,  is  at  command.  From  the  absence  of  air  it  has  a  flat  taste,  and, 
therefore,  drinks  less  agreeably  than  that  obtained  from  other  sources. 
There  are  means,  however,  of  submitting  it  to  aeration,  and  overcom- 
ing this  objection.  On  account  of  its  purity  it  readily  takes  up  lead, 
and  many  instances  have  occurred  of  injurious  effects  having  been  pro- 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  219 

duced  by  contamination  through  the  medium  of  the  pipes  or  their  joints 
belonging  to  the  condensing  apparatus. 

Speaking  now  of  water  generally,  it  is  almost  needless  to  say  that 
to  be  suitable  for  drinking  purposes  it  should  be  bright  and  clear,  and 
devoid  of  taste  and  smell.  As  a  natural  product,  impregnation  with  a 
certain  amount  of  gaseous  and  solid  matter  may  be  looked  for.  The. 
gaseous  matter,  when  consisting,  as  it  only  properly  should  do,  of  air 
and  carbonic  acid,  gives  an  agreeable  briskness,  and  may  be  considered 
a  desirable  accompaniment.  The  solid  matter,  unless  of  a  specially  noxious 
character  from  the  presence  of  organic  impurities,  or  unless  existing  in 
considerable  amount,  cannot  be  regarded  as  detracting  from  the  fitness 
of  the  water  for  consumption,  although  it  must  be  said  that  the  less  the 
extent  of  impregnation  with  solid  matter — in  other  words,  the  purer  the 
water — the  better  it  is  suited  for  our  use. 

Unwholesome  water. — The  chief  sources  of  unwholesomeness  of  water 
are:  1st,  An  excess  of  saline  matter;  3d,  the  presence  of  organic  impuri- 
ties; and  3d,  contamination  with  lead. 

First. — The  presence  of  a  moderate  amount  of  saline  matter  does  not 
render  a  water  objectionable  for  drinking,  although  the  less  the  amount 
the  more  wholesome  it  may  be  considered  to  be.  A  large  amount  of  saline 
matter  may  prejudicially  influence  (increasing  or  diminishing  according 
to  its  nature)  the  action  of  the  secreting  organs  of  the  alimentary  canal 
and  so  occasion  constipation  or  diarrhcea;  may  aggravate  the  deranged 
condition  existing  in  cases  of  dyspepsia;  and  possibly  prove,  in  some  in- 
stances, the  source  of  calculous  disorders,  or,  at  least,  if  not  the  source, 
may  favor  the  formation  of  urinary  gravel  or  calculi  when  a  tendency 
exists  that  way. 

Second. — There  is  conclusive  evidence  to  show  that  the  most  serious 
consequences  have  arisen  from  the  consumption  of  water  polluted  with 
organic  matter.  This,  in  fact,  is  the  impurity  that  is  most  to  be  dreaded. 
Outbreaks  of  diarrhcea  have  been  very  distinctly  traced  to  the  use  of  con- 
taminated water  of  this  kind.  It  is  acknowledged  to  be  one  of  the  most 
common  causes  of  dysentery,  and  has  been  alleged,  when  derived  from  a 
marshy  district,  to  be  capable  of  inducing  malarious  fever  and  its  con- 
comitant enlargement  of  the  spleen. 

From  the  facts  that  have  been  recently  made  known,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  typhoid  or  enteric  fever  has  been  frequently  communicated 
through  the  medium  of  water.  Some  well-established  instances  have 
lately  been  brought  to  light  where  milk  adulterated  with  polluted  water 
has  been  the  cause  of  serious  outbreaks  of  fever.  Whether  water  simply 
charged  with  general  organic  impurity  will  suffice  to  produce  the  disease 
has  not  been  settled,  but  certain  it  is  that  if  it  be  contaminated  with  the 
intestinal  excreta  of  a  fever  patient,  either  by  the  discharge  of  sewage 
into  a  river,  percolation  from  a  drain  or  cesspool  into  a  superficial  well, 
or  in  any  other  way,  it  will  do  so.  Probably  the  presence  of  sewage 
impurity  in  a  particular  state,  apart  from  the  specific  poison,  will  occa- 
sion the  disease,  and  it  appears  that  it  may  be  induced  by  impregnation 
with  sewer-gases  allowed,  through  a  defective  service  arrangement,  to 
become  absorbed  during  storage  in  a  cistern.  Cholera  is  another  disease 
which  may  be  considered  as  having  been  traced  to  contaminated  water, 
and  probably  this  forms  the  chief  mode  of  its  spread  through  a  commun- 
ity. As  with  typhoid  fever,  the  discharges  from  a  cholera  patient,  in 
any  way  reaching  water  that  is  subsequently  consumed,  may  suffice  to 
be  the  cause  of  a  widely  spread  outbreak  of  the  disease. 


220  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

Third. — Water  may  possess  unwholesome  properties  from  contamina- 
tion with  lead,  acquired  by  transit  through  leaden-pipes  or  storage  in 
leaden-cisterns.  A  portion  of  the  metal  becoming  dissolved,  the  prolonged 
use  of  the  water  gives  rise  to  the  ordinary  phenomena  of  lead-poisoning. 
It  is  only  certain  kinds  of  water  that  are  liable  to  become  contaminated  in 
.this  way.  Water  charged  with  a  moderate  quantity  of  the  earthy  salts 
may  be  preserved  in  contact  with  lead  with  impunity.  Protection  is 
afforded  by  the  formation  of  an  insoluble  compound  upon  the  surface  of 
the  metal.  With  a  purer  water,  on  the  other  hand,  a  solvent  action  is 
allowed  to  come  into  play.  Distilled  water  very  readily  becomes  im- 
pregnated with  lead,  and  if  a  cistern  be  provided  with  a  leaden-cover,  the 
water  which  has  evaporated  and  condensed  in  drops  upon  the  surface,  in 
falling  back  may  lead  to  a  contamination  which,  from  the  character  of 
the  water,  would  not  otherwise  occur. 

Purification  of  Water. — It  follows  from  what  has  been  stated,  that 
water  has  much  to  answer  for  in  the  causation  of  disease,  and  that  care 
should  be  taken  to  secure  a  pure  supply  for  drinking  purposes.  It  is 
wise  to  be  cautious  in  drinking  water  that  has  been  derived  from  a 
superficial  source,  unless  it  has  been  subjected  to  a  preparatory  purifica- 
tion. In  the  case  of  spring-water  issuing  from  a  depth,  and  of  deep  well- 
water,  there  is  but  little  chance  of  any  serious  harm  arising.  The  extent 
of  soil  through  which  it  has  percolated  is  sufficient  to  ensure  an  absence, 
certainly,  of  noxious  organic  impurity.  The  danger  especially  lies  with 
river-water  and  the  water  of  shallow  wells,  and  these  should  always  be 
regarded  with  suspicion. 

A  considerable  number  of  processes  have  been  proposed  for  the  puri- 
fication of  water.  Only  those  in  common  use  in  this  country  need  be 
referred  to. 

Water  from  certain  sources  is  treated  on  a  large  scale  by  what  is 
known  as  Clark's  process,  which  consists  of  the  addition  of  a  definite 
amount  of  lime-water.  The  object  of  the  process  is  to  diminish  the  hard- 
ness by  reducing  the  amount  of  earthy  matter,  and  it  is  usefully  applied 
to  water  derived  from  chalk  districts.  By  combining  with  the  carbonic 
acid,  which  is  holding  in  solution  carbonate  of  lime,  the  lime  leads  to  a 
precipitation  of  newly  formed  carbonate,  and  at  the  same  time  of  almost 
the  whole  of  the  carbonate  previously  present.  The  hardness  produced 
by  sulphates  and  chlorides  still  remains,  but  suspended,  and  perhaps  some 
dissolved,  organic  matter  is  thrown  down. 

Soiling,  by  driving  off  the  carbonic  acid,  has  the  effect  of  diminish- 
ing the  hardness  due  to  the  earthy  carbonates.  It  also  acts  upon  or- 
ganic matter.  If  it  does  not  remove  organic  matter  it  may  be  spoken  of 
as  having  the  power  of  destroying  the  activity  of  that  which  possesses 
specifically  poisonous  properties.  Where  fear  is  entertained  respecting 
the  transmission  of  cholera  or  typhoid  fever,  the  water  should  be  sub- 
jected to  thorough  boiling,  and  it  may  then  be  considered  safe  for  use. 
Toast  and  water,  which  is  made  by  pouring  boiling  water  on  toasted  and 
partially  charred  bread  or  biscuit  and  allowing  it  to  cool,  forms,  on  this 
account,  a  safer  drink  for  water-drinkers  than  plain  and  fresh  water,  un- 
less dependence  can  be  placed  upon  the  purity  of  the  source. 

Filtration  is  very  extensively  practised,  and  contributes  in  a  most 
important  manner  toward  the  purification  of  water.  Before  being  dis- 
tributed to  the  metropolis  the  supply  of  the  London  Water  Companies  is 
submitted  to  filtration  through  sand  and  gravel.  Suspended  matters,  both 
mineral  and  organic,  are  thereby  removed,  and  dissolved  mineral  matter 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  221 

may  be  to  some  extent  diminished,  but  dissolved  organic  matter  fails  to 
undergo  any  material  alteration,  and  such  nitration  must  not  be  viewed 
as  rendering  water  safe  for  use  when  contaminated  with  noxious  excreta. 
Animal  charcoal,  however,  possesses  a  purifying  power  which  is.not  en- 
joyed by  other  agents,  and  percolation  through  a  good  filter  composed  of 
this  material  effects  a  removal  not  only  of  suspended  matters,  but  of  a 
large  proportion  of  the  dissolved  organic  matter  that  may  be  contained 
in  water.  It  is  alleged  that  animal  charcoal,  in  arresting,  exerts  at  the 
same  time  a  chemical  alteration  of  the  organic  matter.  The  best  domestic 
filters  owe  their  action  to  this  agent,  and  it  is  probable  that  they  have 
the  power  of  completely  depriving  water  of  any  noxious  property  of  an 
organic  source  that  it  may  have  possessed.  There  is  always  the  pos- 
sibility, however,  that  through  defective  action  some  active  matter  may 
pass  through,  and  where  room  for  suspicion  exists  that  water  may  be 
dangerously  contaminated,  it  is  prudent  to  subject  it  to  boiling  instead  of 
relying  solely  on  filtration.  The  purifying  power  of  animal  charcoal  is 
not  unlimited.  When  water  is  charged  with  much  organic  matter  it  soon 
ceases  to  be  effective.  With  the  ordinary  drinking-waters,  however, 
where  the  organic  impurity  is  small  in  amount,  a  filter  will  continue  to 
act  satisfactorily  for  many  months,  or  even  longer,  provided,  as  is  always 
necessary,  the  passage  of  the  water  is  not  too  quick.  After  ceasing  to 
act  properly,  the  animal  charcoal  may  be  cleansed  and  again  fitted  for  use, 
and  to  secure  a  constant  state  of  efficiency  a  filter  should  from  time  to  time 
be  subjected  to  this  process. 


NON-ALCOHOLIC  EXHILAKATING  AND  EESTOBATIVE 
BEVEEAGES. 

The  group  of  dietetic  articles  of  which  tea,  coffee,  and  cocoa  form  the 
chief  representatives,  are  only  of  comparatively  modern  introduction  into 
Europe,  although  now  so  extensively  consumed  amongst  us.  They  must 
be  regarded  as  exerting  a  great  influence  on  the  social  condition  of  man- 
kind, possessing  the  innocent  properties  they  do,  and  consumed  as  largely 
as  they  are  in  the  place  of  articles  belonging  to  the  alcoholic  class,  from 
•which,  when  used  in  excess,  such  baneful  physical  and  moral  results  take 
their  source. 

It  is  certainly  a  remarkable  circumstance  that  the  articles  of  this  group 
should  have  independently  come  into  use  in  different  parts  of  the  globe 
purely  upon  their  own  merits;  that  they  should  also  be  derived  from 
plants  widely  separated  in  their  botanical  affinities,  and  from  different 
structures  of  the  plant,  and  yet  that  they  should  be  found  to  possess  the 
same  physiological  properties  and  dietetic  virtue,  and,  moreover,  should 
be  discovered,  long  subsequently  to  their  introduction,  to  contain  the 
same  active  chemical  principle.  In  1820,  caffeine  was  discovered  in  coffee 
by  Runge,  and  in  1827  theine  in  tea  by  Oudry;  and  in  1838  these  two 
principles  were  found  by  Jobst  and  Mulder  to  be  identical.  In  1840,  the 
same  substance  was  recognized  by  Martius  in  Guarana — an  article  used 
in  some  parts  of  South  America  in  the  same  way  as  we  use  tea  aud  coffee; 
and  in  1843  it  was  found  by  Stenhouse  also  to  exist  in  Paraguay  tea — a 
kind  of  tea  obtained  from  the  leaves  of  quite  a  different  plant  from  that 
which  yields  the  Chinese  tea.  Theobromine,  the  peculiar  principle  be- 
longing to  cocoa,  is  certainly  not  strictly  identical  with,  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  very  closely  allied  to  caffeine  and  theine.  Cocaine,  the  active 


222  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

principle  of  the  leaves  of  the  Erythroxylon  coca  which  are  used  in  South 
America  in  the  same  way  as  tea,  coffee,  etc.,  and  possess  the  same  die- 
tetic properties,  has  been  further  found  to  bear  a  close  chemical  relation 
to  the  other  principles,  and  to  agree  with  them  in  physiological  action. 
Now  that  caffeine  and  theine,  and  what  were  originally  called  guaranine 
and  paraguaine,  have  been  shown  to  be  identical,  it  would  prove  a  source 
of  convenience  if  some  suitable  generic  name  were  invented  and  employed 
by  chemists  to  represent  them.  The  action  of  these  various  principles 
has  been  made  the  subject  of  inquiry  by  the  Committee  of  the  British 
Medical  Association  appointed  to  investigate  the  antagonism  of  medi- 
cines; and  the  results  showing  the  resemblance  they  bear  to  each  other, 
and  the  antagonistic  position  they  hold  in  relation  to  morphia,  are  to  be 
found  in  the  second  volume  of  the  British  Medical  Journal  for  1874. 

TEA. — Tea  constitutes  the  dried  leaves  of  a  plant  belonging  to  the 
genus  Thea  of  Linnaeus,  which,  according  to  the  more  recent  authority 
of  Bentham  and  Hooker,  forms  a  section  only  of  the  genus  Camellia,  a 
tribe  of  plants  with  which  all  are  familiar  in  England.  The  tea-plant  is 
indigenous  in  China,  Cochin  China,  Japan,  and  the  northern  parts  of 
the  eastern  peninsula  of  India,  and  has  been  introduced  into  British 
India  on  the  southern  declivities  of  the  Himalayas,  Java,  the  Kong 
Mountains  in  Western  Africa,  Brazil,  Madeira,  and  other  warm  and 
temperate  countries.  It  is  capable  of  flourishing  in  all  latitudes  between 
0°  and  40°. 

The  two  chief  varieties  of  the  plant  are  Thea  bohea  and  Thea  viridis, 
but  besides  these  Thea  sasangua  is  grown  and  used  for  some  of  the 
choicest  sorts  of  tea. 

It  was  formerly  supposed  that  Thea  bohea  yielded  black  tea  only, 
and  Thea  viridis  green;  but  Mr.  Fortune  ascertained,  and  it  has  since 
been  fully  corroborated  by  others,  that  black  and  green  are  both  obtained 
from  each  variety  of  the  plant,  it  being  upon  the  mode  of  preparation 
adopted  that  the  difference  in  the  nature  of  the  article  depends.  Thea 
viridis  abounds  in  the  northern  districts  of  China,  where  it  is  cultivated 
on  the  fertile  slopes  of  the  hills.  TJiea  bohea  is  cultivated  in  the  south- 
ern parts  of  China,  especially  about  Canton. 

The  first  gathering  of  tea  is  conducted  in  April,  and  consists  of  young 
leaf-buds,  the  removal  of  which  to  some  extent  injures  the  plant.  The 
tea  thus  obtained,  called  yutien,  is  insignificant  in  amount,  and  not  an 
article  of  commerce,  but  only  intended  for  choice  gifts  to  friends.  It  is 
used  on  occasions  of  ceremony,  and  although  very  strong  in  taste,  scarcely 
colors  the  water  in  which  it  is  infused.  The  showers  of  spring  bring  on 
fresh  leaves,  and  the  second  gathering,  which  is  the  most  important  of 
the  season,  takes  place  in  May.  A  third  and  last  gathering  supplies  only 
inferior  teas. 

Green  tea  is  prepared  from  the  young  leaves,  which  within  an  hour  or 
two  after  being  gathered  are  roasted  in  pans  over  a  brisk  wood  fire.  After 
four  or  five  minutes'  roasting  they  are  rolled  by  hand,  and  again  thrown 
into  the  drying  pans,  where  they  are  kept  in  rapid  motion  for  about  an 
hour  and  a  half.  The  process  is  simple,  and  speedily  accomplished. 
Prussian  blue,  turmeric-root,  gypsum,  and  sometimes  indigo  and  copper, 
are  used  to  give  an  attractive  bloom,  but  this  artifice  is  only  resorted  to 
for  the  foreign  market.  The  Chinese,  it  is  said,  never  dye  the  teas  for 
their  own  consumption. 

For  black  tea,  the  leaves  are  allowed  to  lie  in  heaps  for  ten  or  twelve 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  223 

hours  after  they  have  been  gathered,  during  which  time  the}'  undergo  a 
sort  of  fermentation.  They  are  then  tossed  about  till  they  become  soft 
and  flaccid,  and,  after  being  rolled,  are  alternately  heated  and  rolled  three 
or  four  times.  The  leaves  are  afterward  dried  slowly  over  charcoal  fires. 

Various  sorts  of  both  black  and  green  tea  are  manufactured.  Of 
green,  Singlo  or  Twankay  is  the  lowest  in  quality.  The  chief  of  the 
others,  in  upward  order  of  excellence,  are  Hyson-skin,  Hyson,  Imperial, 
Gunpowder,  and  the  choicest  Young  Hyson.  The  chief  varieties  of  black 
tea,  arranged  in  a  similar  order,  are  Bohea,  Oolong,  Congou,  Campoi, 
Souchong,  Souchy  or  Caper,  and  Pekoe. 

Certain  teas  possess  a  characteristic  aroma,  dependent  on  the  district 
in  which  they  are  grown;  but  the  Chinese  also  adopt  the  plan  of  scenting 
some  kinds  of  tea  with  various  flowers,  such  as  roses,  jasmine,  and  orange- 
blossoms.  The  dry  tea  and  the  freshly  gathered  flowers  are  mixed  and 
allowed  to  remain  together  for  twenty-four  hours.  The  flowers  are  then 
sifted  out. 

Lie  tea  is  the  name  applied  to  an  article  produced  from  the  dust  and 
sweepings  of  tea-warehouses,  cemented  with  rice-water,  and  rolled  into 
grains.  It  is  made  either  of  a  black  color,  to  imitate  Caper;  or  green,  to 
resemble  Gunpowder.  It  is  manufactured  for  the  purpose  of  adulterating1 
the  better  kinds  of  tea. 

Brick  tea  is  made  from  the  refuse,  siftings,  sweepings,  and  the  broken 
leaves  and  twigs  of  tea  moulded  into  forms.  The  Tartars  use  this  tea. 
They  reduce  it  to  powder,  and  boil  it  with  the  alkaline  water  of  the  step- 
pes, to  which  salt  and  fat  have  been  added;  and  this  decoction,  mixed 
with  milk,  butter,  and  a  little  roasted  meal,  they  consume  as  an  article  of 
subsistence.  It  is  also  used  in  the  same  manner  as  other  tea. 

Tea  appears  to  have  been  used  from  time  immemorial  in  China,  and  is 
known  to  have  been  common  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  introduced  into  Japan  about  the  beginning  of  the  ninth 
century.  The  Dutch  East  India  Company  introduced  it  into  Europe 
early  in  the  seventeenth  century.  The  first  reference  to  tea  made  by  an 
Englishman  was  in  the  year  1615,  and  is  found  in  the  records  of  the 
English  East  India  Company.  In  1657  a  rather  large  consignment  fell 
into  the  hands  of  Mr.  Thomas  Garraway,  the  person  who  established 
Garraway's  Coffee  House.  The  consumption  of  tea  in  the  United  King- 
dom in  1853  amounted,  according  to  Johnston,  to  58,000,000  pounds 
(25,000  tons),  or  about  one  forty-fifth  part  of  the  estimated  produce  of 
China. 

In  1866  the  amount  entered  for  home  consumption  had  risen  to  98,- 
000,000  pounds.  In  1871,  according  to  the  published  Custom  House  Re- 
turns, the  quantity  consumed  was  3  Ibs.  15  oz.  for  each  member  of  the  com- 
munity. 

The  most  important  constituents  of  tea  are: 

First. — An  astringent  matter  of  the  nature  of  tannic  acid,  which  con- 
stitutes the  source  of  the  bitter  styptic  taste  it  possesses.  In  the  analyses 
furnished  below,  the  amounts  of  this  astringent  matter  stand  in  round 
figures  at  13  and  18  per  cent. 

Second. — A  volatile  oil,  to  which  it  owes  its  peculiar  aroma,  and  which 
only  amounts  to  about  ^  or  f  per  cent. 

Third. — A  crystallizable  body,  of  an  alkaline  nature,  and  rich  in  nitro- 
gen, called  theine.  This,  according  to  the  subjoined  analyses,  only  amounts 
to  about  %  per  cent.,  but  Stenhouse  has  found  from  1  to  1.27  per  cent.,  and 
Peligot's  results  give  more  than  double  this,  viz.,  from  2.34  to  3  per  cent. 


224  A  TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

There  is,  therefore,  considerable  diversity  in  the  results  that  have  been 
obtained  by  different  chemists  upon  this  point.  * 

Composition  of  Tea  (Mulder). 

Black  tea.  Green  tea. 

Essential  oil,          .         .         ...       0.60  0.79 

Chlorophyll, 1.84  2.22 

Wax, 0.00  0.28 

Resin, 3.64  2.22 

Gum, 7.28  8.56 

Tannin, 12.88  17.80 

Theine, 0.46  0.43 

Extractive  matter,         ....     21.36  22.80 

Coloring  substance,      .         .         .         .19.19  23.60 

Albumen, 2.80  3.00 

Fibre, 28.32  17.08 

Ash  (mineral  substances),     .         .       • .       5.24  5.56 

Tea  is  consumed  under  the  form  of  infusion,  made  by  pouring  boiling 
•water  upon  it  and  allowing  it  to  stand  for  a  short  time.  If  boiled,  a  loss 
of  its  characteristic  flavor  would  occur  through  the  dissipation  of  its  aro- 
matic principle,  which  is  very  volatile. 

The  water  used  should  be  neither  particularly  hard  nor  soft,  as  the  for- 
mer impedes  the  extraction  of  the  soluble  principles,  and  the  latter  favors 
the  absorption  of  too  much  of  the  general  extractive  matter,  at  the  sacri- 
fice of  delicacy  of  flavor.  River-water  is  the  best,  and  this  is  employed 
by  the  Chinese.  The  water  should  not  be  allowed  to  remain  long  on  the 
leaves,  as  by  standing,  or  stewing,  the  infusion  loses  its  aroma  and  takes 
up  an  excess  of  extractive  matter  which  gives  a  rough  and  bitter  taste. 
Thus,  the  liquid  quickly  poured  off  contains  more  aroma  and  less  color- 
ing and  astringent  matters,  and  thereby  possesses  a  choicer  flavor  than 
that  which  has  been  allowed  to  stand.  In  China,  tea  is  sometimes  infused 
in  a  teapot  and  sometimes  in  the  cup,  from  which  it  is  drunk  off  the 
leaves.  In  Japan,  the  tea-leaves  are  ground  to  powder  and,  after  infusion 
in  a  teacup,  the  mixture  is  beaten  up  till  it  becomes  frothy,  and  then  the 
whole  is  drunk. 

Dr.  Letheby  says  that  it  is  experimentally  proved  that  an  infusion  of 
tea  is  strong  enough  when  it  contains  0.6  per  cent,  of  extracted  matter, 
and  that  a  moderate-sized  cup,  holding  five  ounces,  would  thus  contain 
about  thirteen  grains  of  the  extract  of  tea. 

Tea  is  usually  measured  by  the  spoon  for  use,  but  the  weight  of  a 
spoonful  varies  much  with  the  different  sorts  of  tea,  and  as  green  tea  is 
rolled  much  closer  and  weighs  heavier  than  black,  a  spoonful  of  the  for- 
mer, apart  from  any  difference  in  composition,  will  make  a  stronger  in- 
fusion than  that  of  the  latter.  Dr.  E.  Smith  has  instituted  a  comparison 
in  reference  to  this  point,  and  the  following  is  the  table  given  by  him 
showing  the  weight  in  grains  of  an  evenly  taken  moderate-sized  caddy- 
spoonful  of  tea,  and  the  number  of  such  spoonfuls  required  to  make  a 
pound. 

*  In  the  Food  Journal,  vol.  L,p.  162,  it  is  stated  that  Stenhonse's  observations 
show  a  range  in  the  amount  of  theine  in  various  teas  from  0.70  to  2.13  per  cent.;  and 
that  Peligot's  results  vary,  but  that  in  his  last  and  most  complete  experiment  he  ob- 
tained 6.21  per  cent. 


ALIMENTARY  SUBSTANCES.  225 

Kind  of  tea.  Weight  of  a  spoon-    Number  of  spoon- 

BLACK —  f ul  in  grains.  f uls  in  a  pound. 

Oolong, 39  179 

Congou,  inferior  quality,    .         .         .         .52  138 

Flowery  Pekoe, 62  113 

Souchong, 70  100 

Congou,  fine, 87  80 

GKEEN — 

Hyson  skin,  (  Not  now  imported  )      .        .58  120 

Twankay,      (      into  England       j"     .         .70  100 

Hyson, 66  106 

Fine  Imperial, 90  77 

Scented  Caper,  an  artificial  preparation,    .103  68 

Fine  Gunpowder, 123  57 

With  regard  to  these  results,  something  may  be  due  to  the  condition 
as  to  form  of  the  tea,  eome  teas  holding  together  in  the  spoon  more  than 
others,  otherwise  a  pound  packet  of  the  first  on  the  list  ought  to  be  three 
times  the  size  of  that  of  the  last. 

The  Chinese  drink  their  tea  in  a  pure  state.  The  Russians  frequently 
squeeze  the  juice  of  lemon  into  it,  and  this  is  said  to  form  an  agreeable 
addition.  The  Germans  often  flavor  it  with  rum,  cinnamon,  or  vanilla. 
In  England  it  may  be  said  to  be  customary  to  add  milk  or  cream,  and 
sugar;  the  one  having  the  effect  of  diminishing  the  astringent  taste,  and 
the  other  being  employed  to  please  the  palate. 

Tea  is  not  to  be  looked  upon  as  constituting  an  article  of  nutrition. 
The  quantity  of  material  furnished  to  the  system  in  the  manner  it  is  used 
is  too  small  to  be  of  any  significance  per  se  in  contributing  to  the  chemi- 
cal changes  which  form  the  source  of  vital  action.  If  not  occupying  the 
position  of  an  article  of  nutrition,  however,  its  extensive  and  widely 
spread  employment  may  be  taken  as  indicating  that  some  kind  of  benefit 
is  derivable  from  its  use,  and  it  is  probably  through  the  nervous  system 
that  this  is  mainly,  if  not  entirely,  produced. 

Much  discordancy  exists  in  the  statements  that  have  been  made  re- 
garding the  effects  of  tea  upon  the  system,  and  an  unfortunate  want  of 
uniformity  prevails  amongst  medical  practitioners  in  the  recommendations 
given  to  the  public  upon  the  subject  of  its  employment.  The  diametri- 
cally opposite  advice  that  is  frequently  found  to  be  given  to  patients,  one 
member  of  the  profession  recommending,  and  another  immediately  after- 
ward prohibiting,  the  use  of  tea,  exhibits  an  arbitrary  course  of  procedure 
which  testifies  to  the  want  of  some  definite  guiding  principle  of  action. 
An  attempt  will  be  made  to  furnish  a  concise  representation  of  what  is 
known,  and  from  this  may  be  drawn  a  basis  for  greater  uniformity  of 
procedure. 

Tea  forms  a  light  beverage,  which  is  neither  heating  to  the  system  nor 
oppressive  to  the  stomach,  in  which  respects  it  differs  from  coffee.  Taken 
in  moderate  quantity,  it  may  be  spoken  of  as  exerting  an  exhilarating  and 
restorative  action  without  stimulating  or  inebriating  like  alcohol.  By 
such  action  it  exerts  a  reviving  influence  when  the  body  is  fatigued,  but 
perhaps  some  of  the  effect  is  also  attributable  to  the  warmth  belonging  to 
the  liquid  consumed.  It  disposes  to  mental  cheerfulness  and  activity, 
clears  the  brain,  arouses  the  energies,  and  diminishes  the  tendency  to  sleep 
— to  such  an  extent,  it  may  be,  in  some  sensitive  persons,  as  to  occasion 
a  painful  state  of  vigilance  or  watchfulness,  and  sleeplessness. 
15 


226  A  TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

The  phenomena  produced  when  tea  is  consumed  in  a  strong  state,  and 
to  a  hurtful  extent,  show  that  it  is  capable  of  acting  in  a  powerful  manner 
upon  the  nervous  system.  Nervous  agitation,  muscular  tremors,  a  sense 
of  prostration,  and  palpitation,  constitute  effects  that  have  been  witnessed. 
It  appears  to  act  in  a  sedative  manner  on  the  vascular  system.  It  also 
possesses  direct  irritant  properties,  which  lead  to  the  production  of  ab- 
dominal pains  and  nausea.  It  promotes  the  action  of  the  skin,  and,  by 
the  astringent  matter  it  contains,  diminishes  the  action  of  the  bowels. 
Green  tea,  as  is  well  known,  possesses  far  more  active  properties  than 
black,  although,  as  previously  stated,  the  two  are  obtained  from  the  same 
plant.  The  difference  between  them  is  dependent  on  the  mode  of  treat- 
meat  to  which  the  leaf  is  subjected  and  the  period  of  gathering  it. 

Tea,  like  coffee,  appeases  the  sensation  arising  from  the  want  of  food, 
and  enables  hunger  to  be  better  borne.  Lehmann  was  of  opinion  that  it 
lessened  the  waste  of  the  body,  but  Dr.  E.  Smith  asserts  that  it  increases 
slightly  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  exhaled,  and  he  thereby  speaks  of  it 
as  promoting  rather  than  checking  chemico-vital  action.  More  conclusive 
evidence,  it  may  be  considered,  is  required  in  reference  to  this  matter  to 
show  that  any  decided  action  either  way  is  exerted. 

To  express  in  a  few  words  the  advantages  derivable  from  the  use  of 
tea,  it  may  be  said  that  it  forms  an  agreeable,  refreshing,  and  wholesome 
beverage,  and  thereby  constitutes  a  useful  medium  for  the  introduction 
of  a  portion  of  the  fluid  we  require  into  the  system.  It  secures  that  the 
water  consumed  is  rendered  safe  for  drinking  by  the  boiling  which  is  ne- 
cessitated as  a  preliminary  operation  in  making  tea.  It  cools  the  body 
when  hot,  probably  by  promoting  the  action  of  the  skin;  and  warms  it 
when  cold,  by  virtue,  it  would  seem,  of  the  warm  liquid  consumed.  In 
a  negative  way  it  may  prove  beneficial  to  health  by  taking  the  place  of  a 
less  wholesome  liquid.  Through  the  milk  and  sugar  usually  consumed 
with  it  in  England,  it  affords  the  means  of  supplying  a  certain  amount — 
and  not  by  any  means  an  insignificant  amount,  viewed  in  its  entirety — of 
alimentary  matter  to  the  system.  Experience  shows  that  it  often  affords 
comfort  and  relief  to  persons  suffering  from  nervous  headache.  It  also 
tends  to  allay  the  excitement  from  and  counteract  the  state  induced  by 
the  use  of  alcoholic  stimulants;  and,  further,  on  account  of  its  antisopo- 
rific  properties,  like  coffee,  it  is  useful  as  an  antidote  in  poisoning  by 
opium. 

Its  use,  particularly  green  tea,  is  objectionable,  in  a  strong  state,  in 
the  case  of  persons  who  are  rendered  watchful  by  it,  and  in  all  irritable 
conditions  of  the  stomach.  The  astringent  matter  it  contains  will  cause 
it  to  impede  digestion,  if  taken  strong  and  in  any  large  quantity  during 
or  shortly  after  a  meal. 

REPRESENTATIVES  OF  TEA. — Before  concluding  this  section  on  tea, 
reference  may  be  made  to  the  leaves  of  certain  plants,  which  are  prepared 
and  extensively  used  in  some  localities  in  the  satne  manner  as  those  of 
the  Chinese  tea-plant. 

Mate,  or  Paraguay  Tea. — This  is  derived  from  the  dried  leaves  of  the 
Hex  Paraguayensis,  or  Brazilian  holly,  a  plant  belonging  to  the  same 
tribe  as  the  holly  of  our  own  country.  It  is  a  native  of  South  America, 
where  it  grows  in  a  wild  state;  and  in  some  parts  of  that  portion  of  the 
world  the  leaves  are  extensively  employed  dietetically  as  tea  and  coffee 
are  in  Asia  and  Europe.  The  leaves,  after  being  dried,  are  reduced  to  a 
coarse  kind  of  powder  before  being  used  for  yielding  the  infusion.  It  is 


ALIMENTARY   SUBSTANCES.  227 

not  correct  to  look  upon  Paraguay  tea  as  a  spurious  substitute  for  Chinese 
tea.  It  is  consumed  upon  its  own  merits,  and  it  forms  a  curious  arid  in- 
teresting fact  that  it  contains  an  active  principle  which  was  at  first  called 
paraguaine,  but  which  has  since  been  found  to  be  identical  with  thelne 
and  caffeine, 

The  chief  constituents  of  Paraguay  tea  are: 

First. — An  astringent  principle  analogous  to  tannic  acid,  which  is 
present  in  sufficient  proportion  to  render  the  fresh  leaves  an  article  of  use 
to  dyers  in  the  Brazils. 

Second. — A  volatile  oil. 

Third. — Theine,  amounting  in  quantity  to  about  1.20  per  cent. 

Paraguay  tea  is  spoken  of  as  being  more  exciting  than  Chinese  tea; 
and,  when  used  in  excessive  quantity,  is  said  to  produce  a  kind  of  deli- 
rium tremens. 

Additional  varieties  of  Paraguay  tea  are  made  from  the  leaves  of  the 
Ilex  gongonha  (called  Brazilian  tea),  Ilex  thecezans,  Psoralea  glandulosa 
(called  Mexican  tea),  and  Capraria  biftora. 

Coffee-leaves. — In  the  islands  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  the  leaves 
of  the  coffee-plant,  which  somewhat  resemble  in  outside  character  those 
of  the  common  laurel,  are  dried  and  used  in  the  manner  of  tea.  They 
yield  an  infusion  which  even  more  approximates  to  that  of  Chinese  tea 
than  does  the  infusion  of  mate,  or  Paraguay  tea.  It  contains  the  same 
kind  of  constituents,  and  the  theine  amounts  to  about  1.26  per  cent.  It 
forms  the  favorite  tea  of  the  dark-skinned  population  of  Sumatra.  In 
taste  and  odor  it  resembles  a  mixture  of  tea  and  coffee. 

Labrador  tea  is  made  from  the  dried  leaves  of  the  Ledum  palustre 
and  Ledum  latifolium.  It  is  very  strong  in  astringent  and  narcotic  prop- 
erties. 

Abyssinian  tea,  called  chaat,  consists  of  the  dried  leaves  of  the  Catha 
edulis,  a  small  tree  allied  to  the  Sageretia  thecezans.  It  is  cultivated  and 
used  extensively  in  Northern  Africa. 

In  "Johnston's  Chemistry  of  Common  Life"  a  list  of  several  other 
plants  is  given,  the  leaves  of  which  are  used  for  infusing  and  consuming 
in  the  same  manner  as  Chinese  tea. 

COFFEE. — Coffee-beans  -constitute  the  seeds  found  within  the  fruit  of 
the  Coffea  Arabica,  a  small  tree  belonging  to  the  tribe  Coffeacece,  of  the 
family  Hubiacece,  which  is  indigenous  in  Southern  Abyssinia. 

The  tree  is  said  to  have  been  transplated  into  Arabia  at  the  beginning 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  the  cultivation  has  since  been  extended  to 
Egypt,  the  West  Indies,  Peru,  Brazil,  Java,  Ceylon,  and  other  warm 
countries.  When  the  climate  is  dry,  abundant  irrigation  is  required  while 
the  tree  is  growing,  but  as  the  fruit  begins  to  ripen  the  water-  is  cut 
off. 

The  fruit  forms  a  succulent  berry,  similar  in  appearance  and  color  to  a 
small  cherry.  Each  berry  contains  usually  two  seeds,  forming  the  coffee- 
bean  of  commerce,  surrounded  by  a  parchment-like  envelope  and  the  fleshy 
pulp. 

To  extract  the  seeds,  the  fresh,  ripe  berries  are  sometimes  bruised  be- 
tween rollers,  and  the  thick,  juicy  pulp  is  then  separated  by  passing 
through  sieves,  upon  which  the  beans  are  retained.  They  are  afterward 
washed  with  water,  and  dried.  The  parchment-like  envelope  is  next  de- 
tached by  a  heavy  wooden  wheel,  and  the  chaff  removed  by  winnowing. 
Sometimes  the  berries  are  dried  in  the  sun,  by  which  the  pulp  and  mem- 


228  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

branous  envelope  become  friable,  and  are  removed  by  lightly  crushing  and 
winnowing. 

The  coffee-bean  is  usually  imported  in  the  above-mentioned  decorti- 
cated state.  It  then  constitutes  a  horny  body,  rounded  on  one  side  and 
flat,  with  a  longitudinal  furrow,  on  the  other,  and  of  a  yellowish,  bluish, 
or  greenish  color.  Sometimes,  however,  it  is  met  with  surrounded  by  its 
membranous  envelope,  and  is  then  called  in  commerce  "  coffee  in  the  husk" 

The  coffee  produced  by  different  countries  presents  variations  in  qual- 
ity and  the  physical  characters  of  the  bean.  The  smallest  bean  is  consid- 
ered the  best.  Mocha  or  Arabian  coffee  is  the  most  highly  esteemed. 
The  bean  is  small  and  round,  and  of  a  dark  yellow  color,  with  a  tinge  of 
green.  This  variety  develops  a  more  agreeable  aroma  than  the  others. 
West  Indian  coffee  is  usually  of  a  greenish  gray  tint,  with  the  ends  of 
the  beans  rounded.  A  slight  difference  exists  in  the  production  of  the 
various  islands.  Jamaica  coffee,  for  instance,  does  not  exactly  resemble 
that  from  Martinique,  and  the  coffee  from  St.  Domingo  is  less  esteemed 
than  either,  and  is  pointed  at  the  two  extremities.  Java  and  East  Indian 
coffee  is  large,  and  of  a  pale  yellow  color.  Ceylon  coffee  is  the  least  prized 
of  all. 

Coffee  is  said  to  have  been  in  use  in  Abyssinia  from  time  immemorial, 
and  in  Persia  from  A.D.  875.  It  was  used  in  Constantinople  about  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  in  spite  of  the  violent  opposition  of  the 
priests;  and  in  1554  two  coffee-houses  were  opened  in  that  city.  It  was 
introduced  into  Europe  in  the  seventeenth  century,  but  the  precise  date 
is  variously  stated  by  different  authorities.  It  was  drunk  in  Venice  soon 
after  1615,  and  brought  to  England  and  France  about  forty  years  subse- 
quently. 

To  show  the  progress  in  the  consumption  of  coffee,  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  in  1699  one  hundred  tons  of  coffee  were  consumed  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  seventy  of  which  were  used  in  England  (Tomlinson).  In  1858 
the  consumption  in  the  United  Kingdom  is  stated  to  have  been  sixteen 
thousand  tons  ("  Chambers's  Encyclopaedia").  About  the  same  time  the 
total  European  consumption  was  something  like  seventy-five  thousand 
tons  (Johnston),  and  the  entire  weight  of  coffee  raised  over  the  world  was 
guessed  to  be  about  six  hundred  millions  of  pounds  (Johnston).  Nearly 
as  much  coffee  is  consumed  in  the  United  Kingdom  as  in  France;  and, 
proportionately  to  its  size,  Belgium,  Payen  says,  consumes  five  times  as 
much  as  France. 

The  coffee  of  commerce  is  formed  of  the  raw  bean,  and  subjection  to 
the  process  of  roasting  is  required  to  place  it  in  a  suitable  condition  for 
the  consumer.  This  is  performed  in  an  iron  cylinder,  made  to  revolve  over 
a  fire.  It  leads  to  the  development  of  the  aroma  and  other  qualities  for 
which  the  article  is  esteemed.  From  the  volatile  nature  of  the  aroma  the 
roasted  coffee  greatly  deteriorates  by  keeping;  hence  the  process  of  roast- 
ing should  not  be  performed  long  before  the  coffee  is  made  use  of. 

Under  the  process  of  roasting,  the  coffee-bean  loses  in  weight  and  gains 
in  bulk  by  expansion.  It  at  the  same  time  changes  in  color,  assuming  a 
reddish  brown,  chestnut-brown,  or  dark  brown,  according  to  the  extent  to 
which  the  roasting  has  been  carried.  The  quality  of  the  coffee  a  great 
deal  depends  upon  the  manner  in  which  the  roasting  has  been  perform- 
ed. If  the  seeds  are  roasted  too  little,  the  desired  aroma  and  empy- 
reumatic  products  are  not  sufficiently  developed,  whilst  if  roasted  too 
much  they  are  partially  dissipated,  and  an  unpleasant  flavor  substituted. 
If  a  full-flavored  coffee  be  desired,  the  darker  shade  of  color  should  be 


ALIMENTARY  SUBSTANCES.  229 

chosen.  In  England,  the  operation  of  roasting  is  conducted  in  large  es- 
tablishments devoted  to  the  purpose,  but  on  the  Continent  it  is  not  uncom- 
mon for  it  to  be  performed  from  time  to  time  on  a  small  scale  by  a  member 
of  the  household.  Before  being  used,  coffee  requires  to  be  ground,  and  the 
remark  that  has  been  made  about  the  roasted  bean  losing  its  aroma  by 
keeping,  applies  with  still  greater  force  to  the  article  when  ground.  To 
grind  it  as  it  is  required  forms  the  best  plan,  but  when  this  is  not  adopted 
it  should  be  preserved  in  a  well  closed  bottle  or  tin. 

The  chief  constituents  of  coffee  are  of  the  same  nature  as  those  men- 
tioned for  tea.  They  are  as  follows: 

First. — A  volatile  oil,  which  gives  to  coffee  the  aroma  it  possesses,  and  is 
developed  by  the  process  of  roasting.  The  amount  of  it  is  less  than  that 
existing  in  tea. 

Second. — Astringent  matter  constituting  a  modification  of  tannin,  and 
called  caffeo-tannic  and  caffeic  acids.  It  is  present  in  much  smaller  quan- 
tity than  tannic  acid  in  tea,  and  amounts  to  about  5  per  cent,  in  raw  coffee. 

Third. — Caffeine.  This  principle,  as  already  mentioned,  is  identical 
with  theine.  The  amount  of  it,  as  estimated  by  different  observers,  in 
coffee  varies  considerably.  Stenhouse  gives  it  as  about  0.75  to  1  per 
cent.,  others  at  3  to  4  per  cent. 

Composition  of  Unroasted  Coffee  ("  Chambers'  Encyclopedia  "). 

Caffeine, 0.8 

Legumine  (vegetable  caseine),    .....  13.0 

Gum  and  sugar,  ........  15.5 

Caffeo-tannic  and  caffeic  acids,  .....  5.0 

Fat  and  volatile  oil, 13.0 

Woody  fibre,       .    '     . 34.0 

Ash, 6.7 

Water, 12.0 


100.0 

An  elaborate  analysis  is  given  by  Payen,*  from  his  own  results,  with 
which  the  above  is  in  close  accord.     It  is  as  follows: 

Composition  of  Coffee  (Payen). 

Cellulose,     .          .        .        .         .        »        .         .        .         .        '.     34. 

Water,  .         .         .         .         .     >VK 12. 

Fatty  matter, ;        .         .  from  10  to  13. 

Glucose,  dextrine,  undetermined  vegetable  acid,       ".         .         .     15.5 
Legumine,  caseine,  etc.,        .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .     10. 

Chloroginate  [caffeo-tannate]  of  potash  and  of  caffeine,  from  3.5  to    5. 
Nitrogenized  structure,         .         .      ^V    '•         ....       3. 

Caffeine, •"•-.-        .         i         ,-        .         .       0.8 

Essential  oil,  ....  '»*•••}-  .  .  •  .  .  0.001 
Aromatic  essence,  .  .  .  '•''**>•*•  .  »  .  -  .  .  0.002 
Mineral  substances,  .  .  .  .  .  ..•""».  6.697 


100.000 


*  Substances  Alimentaires,  p.  414.     Paris,  1865. 


230  A   TREATISE   ON   FOOD   AND   DIETETICS. 

Coffee  is  prepared  for  drinking  both  in  the  form  of  infusion  and  de- 
coction. In  Arabia  and  the  East  a  decoction  of  the  unroasted  article  is 
usually  drunk,  and  the  custom  prevails  of  consuming  the  grounds,  which 
are  looked  upon  as  nutritious,  with  the  liquid.  In  Europe,  however,  cof- 
fee is  always  roasted  before  it  is  used.  The  old  practice  in  England  was 
to  place  the  coffee-pot  over  the  fire  for  the  coffee  to  boil.  In  this  way  a 
larger  amount  of  material  is  extracted,  but  at  the  sacrifice,  it  must  be  said, 
of  flavor,  for  the  aroma  of  coffee  is  of  a  volatile  nature,  and  becomes  dis- 
sipated during  the  process  of  boiling.  To  preserve  the  arotna,  an  infusion 
only  should  be  made,  and  the  appliances  that  have  been  devised  for  mak- 
ing coffee  in  this  way  are  exceedingly  numerous.  The  most  general  plan, 
adopted  is  to  allow  the  boiling  water  to  percolate  through  the  coffee,  dis- 
posed in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  the  grounds  passing  with  the 
liquid. 

As  boiling  leads  to  a  loss  of  aroma,  so  infusing  only  involves  a  waste 
of  some  of  the  extractive  matter,  which  escapes  being  taken  up.  If  econo- 
my is  no  object  this  need  not  be  considered,  a  large  amount  of  coffee  be- 
ing taken  for  use.  If  it  be  desired,  however,  to  turn  the  coffee  to  the 
utmost  account,  both  a  decoction  and  an  infusion  should  be  made;  and 
this  may  be  accomplished  by  boiling  the  grounds  from  which  an  infusion 
has  been  made  with  water,  and  pouring  the  boiling  decoction  over  a  fresh 
portion  of  recently  ground  coffee.  The  boiling  water  has  fully  extracted 
what  the  grounds  would  yield,  and  on  being  poured  over  the  fresh  coffee, 
carries  with  it  the  aroma  and  the  principles  contained  in  an  ordinary  infu- 
sion. The  grounds  last  left^  in  their  turn,  will  serve  to  boil  with  more 
water,  and  yield  a  decoction  for  pouring  over  another  fresh  portion  of  coffee. 
In  this  way  all  the  goodness  is  obtained  without  any  sacrifice  of  aroma. 

As  is  the  case  with  tea,  soft  water  extracts  more  from  coffee  than  hard, 
and  the  addition  of  an  alkali,  as  carbonate  of  soda,  augments  the  extract- 
ing capacity. 

The  extent  to  which  the  coffee  has  been  roasted  influences  the  amount 
of  matter  susceptible  of  extraction.  Payen  says  that  one  litre  (about  If 
pint  in  English  measure)  of  boiling  water  allowed  to  filter  through  100 
grammes  (about  3^  oz.)  of  recently  ground  coffee — and  this  he  gives  as 
about  the  proper  proportion  for  making  coffee — when  the  roasting  has 
been  carried  only  to  the  production  of  a  reddish  brown  color,  extracts  25 
per  cent,  of  its  substance,  and  only  19  per  cent,  when  the  roasting  has 
been  carried  to  a  chestnut-brown. 

According  to  Dr.  Letheby,  an  infusion  of  coffee  is  strong  enough  when 
it  holds  in  solution  3  per  cent,  of  extracted  matter.  Charged  to  this  ex- 
tent, a  moderate-sized  cup  (5  ounces),  he  adds,  should  contain  66  grains 
of  extract  of  coffee,  and  such  proportion  will  be  obtained  when  2  ounces 
of  freshly  roasted  coffee  are  infused  in  a  pint  of  boiling  water. 

Coffee  forms  a  favorite  and  useful  beverage.  The  properties  it  pos- 
sesses fully  justify  the  estimation  in  which  it  is  held.  Like  tea,  it  pro- 
duces an  invigorating  and  restorative  effect  on  the  system,  without  being 
followed  by  any  depression.  It,  however,  exerts  a  more  heating  and 
stimulating  action  than  tea,  and  increases  in  a  decided  manner  the  force 
and  frequency  of  the  pulse.  It  also  differs  in  being  heavier  and  more  op- 
pressive to  the  stomach.  It  arouses  the  mental  faculties  and  the  energies 
generally,  and  so  disposes  to  wakefulness,  but  in  this  latter  respect  its 
influence  is  not  so  powerful  as  that  of  tea.  Taken  in  immoderate  quantity 
it  may  induce  feverishness,  and  various  manifestations  of  disordered  ner- 
vous action,  as  tremor,  palpitation,  anxiety,  and  deranged  vision. 


ALIMENTAEY    SUBSTANCES.  231 

One  of  the  most  valuable  properties  of  coffee  is  its  power  of  relieving 
the  sensation  of  hunger  and  fatigue.  It  exerts  a  marked  sustaining  in- 
fluence under  fatigue  and  privation,  and  thus  enables  arduous  exertion  to 
be  better  borne  under  the  existence  of  abstinence  or  a  deficiency  of  food. 
To  the  soldier  on  active  service  it  forms  a  most  useful  article  on  this 
account.  The  experiments  of  Lehmann  led  him  to  conclude  that  coffee 
diminishes  the  waste  of  the  tissues,  and  causes  food  to  go  further,  but 
whether  this  is  true  is  doubtful.  Gasparin,  however,  from  his  observa- 
tions, also  says  that  coffee  has  the  property  of  rendering  the  elements  of 
the  body  more  stable;  and  thus,  if  not  affording  much  nourishment  itself, 
that  it  economizes  other  nourishment  by  diminishing  the  waste  going  on. 
On  the  other  hand,  Mr.  Squarey  *  could  not  find  that  the  elimination  of 
urea  and  chlorides  was  diminished,  as  might  be  looked  for  if  the  above 
view  were  correct,  under  the  use  of  large  doses  of  coffee,  and  some  later 
researches  of  E.  Roux  f  furnish  evidence  of  a  corroborative  nature. 

"  In  some  constitutions,"  says  Pereira,  "  coffee  acts  on  the  bowels  as  a 
mild  laxative."  "I  have  known,"  he  adds,  "several  persons  in  whom  it 
has  this  effect;  yet  it  is  usually  described  as  producing  constipation." 

Whilst  heating  and  stimulating  to  the  system  in  hot  weather,  coffee 
is  most  serviceable  in  giving  warmth  to  the  body  under  exposure  to  cold. 
Something,  it  must  be  admitted,  is  due  to  the  warm  liquid  consumed,  but 
an  action  beyond  this  is  exerted. 

Consumed,  as  coffee  usually  is,  with  milk  and  sugar,  it  further  forms 
a  medium  for  supplying  direct  nourishment,  and  this  of  no  inconsiderable 
amount,  to  the  system.  Payen  remarks  that  a  litre  (about  a  pint  and  three 
quarters)  of  cafe,  au  lait,  such  as  is  usually  taken  with  the  morning  meal, 
contains  between  5  and  6  ounces  of  solid  matter,  of  which  about  If  ounce 
consists  of  nitrogenous  matter. 

In  addition  to  its  dietetic  value,  considerable  benefit  is  often  derived 
from  the  employment  of  coffee  as  a  therapeutic  agent.  By  virtue  of  its 
antisoporific  properties  it  is  advantageously  administered  as  an  antidote 
in  cases  of  opium-poisoning.  It  is  also  of  service  in  subduing  the  effects 
produced  by  the  immoderate  use  of  alcoholic  stimulants.  •  It  frequently 
affords  relief  in  some  forms  of  nervous  headache,  and  is  well  known  to 
constitute  one  of  the  most  valuable  agents  we  possess  for  controlling  th« 
paroxysms  of  spasmodic  asthma. 

Fictitious  coffee. — A  number  of  articles,  consisting  of  various  beans, 
seeds,  berries,  and  roots,  have  been  used  as  substitutes  for  coffee,  but  in 
none  of  them  does  there  exist  the  characteristic  and  active  principle — 
caffeine,  and  none  therefore  are  endowed  with  the  virtue  of  coffee.  The 
roasted  acorn  is  much  used  on  the  Continent  under  the  name  of  acorn 
coffee,  and  has  been  imported  into  England.  The  best  substitute  for  cof- 
fee yet  discovered  is  said  to  be  that  which  is  known  by  the  name  of 
Swedish  coffee,  and  is  prepared  from  the  Astralagus  JBcaticus. 

CHICCOBY. — Chiccory  is  prepared  from  the  root  of  the  wild  succory  or 
endive  (  Cichorium  Intybus),  the  type  of  a  great  division  of  the  order 
Composites,  known  by  their  milky  juice,  and  to  which  also  belong  the 
dandelion  and  lettuce.  It  was  formerly  used  medicinally  from  possessing 
properties  resembling  those  of  the  dandelion;  and  for  about  100  years  has 
been  employed  as  a  substitute  for  and  admixture  with  coffee.  The  plant 

*  Medico-Chirurgical  Transactions,  vol.  xlix. ,  pp.  1-19,  1806. 
f  Comptes  Rendus,  vol.  Ixxvii.,  p.  365-7,  1873. 


232  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

is  cultivated  in  England,  Belgium,  Holland,  Germany,  and  France,  and 
the  foreign  is  considered  much  superior  to  the  English  growth.  The  roots 
after  being  washed  are  cut  into  small  pieces  and  dried  on  a  kiln.  They 
are  then  roasted  in  iron  cylinders,  which  are  kept  revolving,  just  as  is  done 
in  the  case  of  coffee. 

Roasted  chiccory  contains,  like  coffee,  an  empyreumatic  volatile  oil, 
•which  forms  the  source  of  its  aroma,  and  a  bitter  principle,  but  no  caffeine. 
According  to  the  analysis  of  John,  25  per  cent,  consists  of  watery,  bitter 
extractive  matter. 

Chiccory  yields  a  drink  closely  allied  in  flavor  and  color  to  coffee.  It 
is  very  largely  consumed  on  the  Continent,  not  merely  as  an  adulterant 
of  coffee,  but  as  an  independent  beverage.  In  Belgium,  as  much  as  5 
pounds  a  head  are  used  in  the  year,  counting  the  whole  population;  and 
in  some  parts  of  Germany,  women,  it  is  said,  are  regular  chiccory-topers. 

It  gives  increased  color  and  flavor  to  coffee,  and,  used  as  an  admixture 
to  a  moderate  extent,  is  considered  by  most  persons  to  furnish  an  im- 
provement upon  coffee  alone.  The  preference  shown  is  quite  independ- 
ent of  any  consideration  of  economy.  It  is  employed  upon  its  own  merits, 
and,  when  there  is  no  concealment,  its  addition  to  coffee  cannot  be  looked 
upon  in  the  light  of  an  adulteration. 

The  root  of  the  dandelion  is  sometimes  roasted  and  used  in  the  same 
way  as  chiccory. 

GUABANA. — Brazilian  cocoa,  or  guarana,  is  obtained  from  the  seeds 
of  the  Pauilinia  sorbilis,  a  tree  belonging  to  the  order  /Sapindacece,  or 
soapworts,  which,  according  to  most  botanists,  includes  the  common 
horse-chestnut.  The  tree  grows  abundantly  in  the  province  of  Amazonas, 
along  the  banks  of  the  Tapajos,  Rio  Negro,  etc.,  as  well  as  in  Guiana  and 
Venezuela.  It  is  used  extensively  in  Brazil,  Guatemala,  Costa  Rica,  and 
other  parts  of  South  America  as  a  nervous  stimulant  and  restorative, 
and  also  as  a  refreshing  beverage.  According  to  late  reports,  16,000 
pounds  are  annually  exported  from  the  city  of  Santarem. 

The  fruit,  which  is  about  the  size  of  a  small  walnut,  contains  five  or 
six  seeds.  These  seeds  are  roasted,  and,  after  being  pounded,  are  made 
into  a  thick  paste  with  water  and  formed  into  round  or  oblong  cakes, 
which  are  dried  in  an  oven  or  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  called  guarana- 
bread.  The  cakes  are  scraped  or  grated  when  required  for  use,  and  the 
powder  produced  possesses  a  light  brown  color,  an  odor  faintly  resembling 
roasted  coffee,  and  a  bitter,  astringent  taste. 

It  contains,  in  addition  to  empyreumatic  oil  (developed  by  the  pro- 
cess of  roasting),  and  tannic  acid,  a  substance  called  guaranine  by  Theo- 
dore von  Martius,  but  shown  by  Dr.  Stenhouse  to  be  identical  with 
theine.  This  alkaloid  is  stated  by  Dr.  Stenhouse  to  be  present  to  the  ex- 
tent of  5.07  per  cent.,  or,  according  to  the  results  of  the  same  observer, 
to  the  extent  of  twice  the  amount  contained  in  good  black  tea,  and  five 
times  that  contained  in  coffee:  the  actual  figures  given  for  tea  being  2.13 
per  cent.,  and  for  coffee  0.8  to  1.0  per  cent.  For  Paraguay  tea  the  amount 
mentioned  is  1.25  per  cent. 

The  large  amount  of  tannic  acid  that  enters  into  the  composition  of 
guarana  gives  it  marked  astringent  properties,  whilst,  owing  to  the  guara- 
nine it  contains,  it  exerts  the  same  kind  of  effect  on  the  nervous  system 
as  tea  and  coffee. 

Guarana  is  used  in  South  America  to  some  extent  dietetically,  but 
chiefly  therapeutically,  as  a  stomachic  and  febrifuge,  and  as  an  astringent 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  233 

in  catarrhal  diarrhoea  and  dysentery.  It  is  either  eaten  with  cassava  or 
chocolate,  or  taken  as  a  drink  in  sweetened  water.  In  the  United  States 
it  is  employed  as  a  nervous  stimulant  and  restorative,  and  attention  was 
directed  to  it  some  years  ago  in  France  by  Dr.  Gavrelle,  who  had  held 
the  post  of  physician  to  Don  Pedro  of  Brazil. 

Alcohol,  it  is  stated,  forms  the  only  agent  which  completely  extracts 
its  active  principles.  Ether  and  water  only  do  so  imperfectly.  A  watery 
infusion,  therefore,  will  fail  to  possess  the  virtue  belonging  to  guarana. 

Guarana  appears  for  some  time  to  have  enjoyed  a  high  repute  in 
France  as  a  remedy  for  migraine,  or  sick  headache,  and  attention  has 
been  recently  directed  to  its  employment  for  this  purpose,  in  England, 
by  my  colleague,  Dr.  Wilks.  Articles  upon  the  subject  may  be  seen  in 
the  British  Medical  Journal  for  1872,  and  another  article,  by  Mr.  M.  C. 
Cooke,  is  to  be  found  in  vol.  i.,  third  series,  of  the  Pharmaceutical 
Journal,  p.  221.  As  far  as  experience  goes,  it  seems  that  in  some  cases 
*  of  sick  or  nervous  headache  it  is  capable  of  affording  the  most  marked 
relief,  whilst  in  others  it  utterly  fails  to  produce  any  good  effect.  Its 
virtue  is,  in  all  probability,  due  to  the  guaranine  (theine  or  caffeine)  it 
contains,  which,  as  already  remarked,  is,  according  to  the  analysis  of 
Stenhouse,  present  in  much  larger  proportion  than  in  either  tea  or  coffee. 
Employed  for  the  medicinal  purpose  above  referred  to,  the  quantity  gen- 
erally used  is  about  15  grains  of  the  powder  administered  in  coffee,  water, 
or  some  other  suitable  vehicle. 

COCOA. — Cocoa  constitutes  a  product  derived  from  the  seeds  of  the 
Theobroma  cacao,  a  tree  indigenous  in  South  America,  Mexico,  and  the 
West  Indies,  and  cultivated  also  in  the  Mauritius,  the  Isle  of  Bourbon, 
and  some  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa.  The  term  cocoa,  as  applied  to  this 
product,  must  not  be  looked  upon  as  signifying  that  it  has  any  relation 
to  the  well-known  cocoanut.  It  is  employed  as  a  corruption  of  cacao, 
which  through  want  of  euphony  has  been  excluded  from  popular  use. 
The  generic  name  Theobroma  (food  for  gods — Oeos  /Jpw/xn)  was  given  by 
Linneeus  to  the  tribe  of  plants,  which  includes  several  species,  to  mark 
the  estimation  in  which  he  held  the  product  under  consideration. 

From  the  cacao  tree  small  flowers  grow  on  stalks,  springing  directly 
from  the  stem.  The  flower  is  succeeded  by  an  elongated  thick  fruit 
somewhat  resembling  in  form  the  vegetable  marrow.  The  fruit  consists 
of  a  number  of  seeds  (from  twenty  to  fifty)  arranged  in  regular  rows, 
with  partitions  between  them,  and  surrounded  by  an  acid  and  slightly 
saccharine  pulp.  When  the  fruit  is  ripe,  it  is  gathered  and  collected  in 
earthen  vessels  or  into  heaps  on  the  ground,  where  it  is  allowed  to  re- 
main a  few  days,  during  which  time  it  ferments,  heats,  and  softens.  It 
is  then  opened,  and  the  seeds,  which  are  about  the  size  of  or  rather  thicker 
than  a  plump  almond,  are  separated,  cleansed,  and  dried  in  the  sun.  The 
fruit  is  sometimes  covered  instead  with  earth  until  the  pulp  has  become 
rotten  and  soft,  and  the  cocoa  yielded  is  said  to  be  sweeter  and  better. 

The  use  of  cocoa  is  of  great  antiquity  in  Mexico  and  Guatemala,  and 
chocolate  was  introduced  into  Europe  in  1520  by  the  Spaniards,  who 
long  kept  its  preparation  a  secret.  Cocoa  was  sold  in  the  London  coffee- 
houses soon  after  their  establishment,  about  the  year  1652,  and  in  1660 
its  use  spread  over  Europe,  and  as  far  as  Turkey  and  Persia.  The  pres- 
ent total  annual  consumption  is  said  to  amount  to  about  100,000,000 
pounds.  A  large  quantity  is  used  in  France,  Germany,  Italy,  and  Spain. 
In  England  the  consumption  is  on  a  smaller  scale. 


234  A   TREATISE   ON   FOOD   AND   DIETETICS. 

Cocoa  is  imported  in  the  state  of  dried  and  cleansed  seeds,  consisting 
of  a  crisp,  dark-colored  central  portion  or  kernel,  surrounded  by  a  some- 
what brittle  husk.  The  first  step  in  preparing  it  for  use  is  to  subject  it 
to  the  process  of  roasting,  which  is  performed  in  an  iron  cylinder  like  a 
coffee-roaster,  and  has  for  its  object  the  development  of  aroma.  From 
the  roasted  seeds,  chocolate  and  the  various  forms  of  cocoa  supplied  for 
use  are  prepared. 

Cocoa  nibs  constitute  the  kernels  of  the  roasted  seeds  deprived  of 
husk,  and  roughly  crushed  in  a  machine  called  a  "kibbling  mill."  Nibs 
are  used  for  furnishing  a  decoction.  They  are  gently  boiled  in  water  for 
about  a  couple  of  hours,  and  the  dark-brown  decoction  is  then  simply 
poured  off  the  undissolved  part  of  the  nib.  Used  in  this  way,  only  a 
portion  of  the  kernel  is  extracted  and  consumed,  and  the  beverage  pre- 
sents a  closer  analogy  to  tea  and  coffee  than  that  derived  from  the  other 
cocoa  products,  which,  from  being  prepared  in  such  a  way  as  to  lead  to 
the  whole  substance  of  the  kernel  being  drunk,  furnish  liquids  possessing 
in  addition  to  the  common  properties  of  the  class,  a  high  nutritive  value. 

In  the  other  preparations  of  cocoa,  the  kernel  is  ground  to  a  paste  and 
usually  incorporated  with  some  diluting  material  of  a  starchy  or  saccha- 
rine nature  to  diminish  its  oily  consistence.  Numerous  kinds  of  cocoa 
are  sold,  some  of  them  being  named  from  the  form  given,  the  nature  of 
the  admixture,  or  after  the  manufacturer.  Flaked  cocoa  constitutes  the 
article  simply  ground  to  a  paste  in  a  suitable  mill.  Granulated  cocoa 
is  prepared  by  reduction  to  a  coarse  powder  and  covering  the  particles  • 
with  a  layer  of  sugar  and  starch.  Soluble  cocoa  contains  sugar  as  a 
diluting  substance.  Carageen  Moss,  Iceland  Moss,  and  Lentils  are  used 
as  special  agents  for  incorporation,  and  the  cocoas  bear  the  name  of  the 
agent  prefixed.  To  produce  the  low-priced  forms  of  cocoa,  more  or  less 
of  the  husk  is  ground  up  with  the  kernel,  and  sundry  cheap  diluting  arti- 
cles are  also  used  for  admixture. 

The  preparations  of  cocoa  in  which  sugar  is  employed  as  the  diluting 
article  require  no  preliminary  boiling  or  cooking  for  use.  The  addition 
of  boiling  milk  or  water  suffices.  Those,  however,  in  which  some  kind 
of  starchy  substance  has  been  used  for  admixture  need  boiling  to  prop- 
erly liquefy  and  bring  them  into  a  homogeneous  state  for  drinking. 

Chocolate  constitutes  a  superior  form  of  prepared  cocoa.  It  is  made 
upon  an  extensive  scale  in  France,  where  its  manufacture  has  attained  a 
high  state  of  perfection.  Forming  as  it  does  an  article  of  luxury,  much 
care  is  bestowed  on  its  preparation.  The  seeds,  after  being  sifted  and 
picked,  are  gently  roasted  till  the  desired  aroma  is  developed.  They  are 
then  allowed  to  cool,  and  afterward  lightly  crushed  and  winnowed  to 
separate  the  husk  from  the  kernel.  Different  sorts  of  cocoa  seeds  are 
mixed — the  more  aromatic,  for  instance,  with  the  more  oily — for  the  pur- 
pose of  improving  the  product.  The  cocoa  is  next  ground  by  suitable 
machinery  to  a  perfectly  even  paste.  The  grinding  is  effected  by  revolv- 
ing rollers  over  a  heated  iron  plate,  which  maintains  the  fatty  matter  of 
the  seed  in  a  liquid  state,  and  thus  allows  a  thin  paste  to  be  formed. 
During  the  process  of  grinding,  sugar  is  incorporated  with  the  cocoa  to 
the  extent  of  from  one-third  to  an  equal  part  of  its  weight,  and  just  be- 
fore completion  an  aromatic,  as  vanilla,  cinnamon,  or  whatever  the  taste 
may  direct,  is  added  to  give  the  flavor  required.  The  final  process  con- 
sists in  running  the  liquid  paste  into  moulds;  and,  as  cooling  takes  place, 
it  becomes  solid  and  hard. 

The  husks  rejected  in  the  manufacture  of  chocolate  and  cocoa  are  fre- 


ALIMENT  ART    SUBSTANCES.  235 

quently  sold  to  the  poor,  who  boil  them  in  water  and  obtain  a  wholesome 
beverage  therefrom. 

Cocoa  is  characterized  and  distinguished  from  tea  and  coffee  by  the 
large  amount  of  fatty  and  albuminous  matters  it  contains,  these  princi- 
ples averaging  as  much  as  about  50  and  20  per  cent,  respectively  in  the 
unmanufactured  article. 

The  chief  constituents  of  cocoa  are: 

First. — A  volatile  oil,  to  which  it  owes  its  aroma,  and  which  is  pro- 
duced during  the  process  of  roasting.  The  amount  of  this  oil  is  very 
small. 

Second. — Theobromine  resembles  theine  and  caffeine,  but  is  not  identi- 
cal with  them.  It  is  found  to  contain  a  larger  proportion  of  nitrogen.  All 
analyses  agree  upon  this  point,  although  the  results  of  different  chemists 
are  not  strictly  in  accord  in  the  proportion  of  nitrogen  assigned  to  each. 
The  following  selected  analysis  may  be  given  as  an  illustration  of  the 
relative  ultimate  composition: 

Theobromine.  Theine. 

(Woskresensky.)  (Mulder.) 

Carbon, 46.33  49.48 

Hydrogen, 4.55  5.37 

Nitrogen, 35.38  28.52 

Oxygen, 13.74  16.63 


100.00  100.00 

Although  not  identical  with  theine  and  caffeine,  it  has  been  found  by 
Strecker  that  theobromine  may  be  made  to  yield  caffeine.  Theobromine, 
in  fact,  conjoined  with  methyl,  produces  caffeine,  so  that  caffeine  has 
been  regarded  as  a  methylated  theobromine.  The  quantity  of  theobro- 
mine present  in  cocoa  amounts  to  about  2  per  cent. 

Third. — Fatty  matter,  known  as  cacao  butter.  This  constitutes  a  firm 
fat,  and,  unlike  most  other  fats,  keeps  without  becoming  rancid  on  expo- 
sure to  air.  It  amounts  to  about  half  the  weight  of  the  cocoa. 

Fourth. — Albuminous  matter.  About  one-fifth  part  of  cocoa  is  com- 
posed of  this. 

Fifth.—  Starch. 

The  following,  according  to  Payen's  observations,  represents  the  aver- 
age composition  of  cocoa  of  good  quality  deprived  of  husk  and  not  sub- 
mitted to  roasting: 


Composition  of  Cocoa  (Pay en). 

Cacao  butter, .  48  to  50 

Albumen,  fibrine,  and  other  nitrogenous  matter,  .  21  to  20 

Theobromine,       .          .      v .         .         .         .          .  4  to     2 

Starch,  with  traces  of  sugar,         .         .         .         «  11  to  10 

Cellulose,    .         .         .  '       .      ;  »        ...        .  3  to     2 

Coloring  matter,  aromatic  essence,       .         .         .  traces. 

Mineral  matter,    .         .      :  ,   .      .         .         . ;    ••••«  3  to     4 

Water, 10  to  12 

100      100 


236  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD   AND   DIETETICS. 

Looked  at  dietetically,  cocoa  possesses,  though  in  a  milder  degree, 
the  properties  of  tea  and  coffee;  but  it  stands  apart  from  these  articles 
in  the  high  nutritive  power  which  its  composition  gives  it.  Containing, 
as  pure  cocoa  does,  twice  as  much  nitrogenous  matter,  and  twenty-five 
times  as  much  fatty  matter  as  wbeaten-flour,  with  a  notable  quantity 
of  starch  and  an  agreeable  aroma  to  tempt  the  palate,  it  cannot  be  other- 
wise than  a  valuable  alimentary  material.  It  has  been  compared  in  this 
respect  to  milk.  It  conveniently  furnishes  a  large  amount  of  agree- 
able nourishment  in  a  small  bulk,  and  in  South  America  cocoa  and  maize- 
cakes  are  used  by  travellers,  and  form  a  food  several  days'  supply  of 
which  is  easily  carried. 

Chocolate  and  the  various  preparations  of  cocoa  are  usually  con- 
sumed with  milk;  and,  taken  with  bread,  will  suffice,  in  the  absence  of 
any  other  kind  of  food,  to  furnish  a  good  repast.  A  preparation  of  cocoa 
and  condensed  milk  is  made  and  sold  in  closed  tins  by  the  Condensed 
Milk  Company.  Thus  preserved,  the  admixture  is  ready  for  use  at  any 
time,  requiring  only  the  addition  of  water. 

Whilst  possessing  highly  nutritive  properties,  its  richness  in  fat  ren- 
ders cocoa  heavy  and  oppressive  to  a  delicate  stomach.  It  is  therefore 
apt  to  disagree  with  the  invalid  and  dyspeptic. 

The  remarks  that  have  been  made  regarding  the  nutritive  capacity  of 
chocolate  and  prepared  cocoa  do  not  apply  to  cocoa  nibs  in  the  manner 
they  are  used.  In  the  former  case  the  entire  article  is  consumed;  whereas 
in  the  latter  only  a  decoction  of  the  coarsely  crushed  seed  is  employed, 
and  this  contains  but  a  portion  only  of  its  constituents.  Indeed,  the  de- 
coction of  the  nibs  forms  a  beverage  holding  a  closely  analogous  position 
to  tea  and  coffee. 

Fictitious  cocoas. — In  the  United  States  the  earth-nut,  ground-nut, 
or  pea-nut  (Arachis  hypogozci),  a  kind  of  oily,  underground  pea,  is  roasted 
and  converted  into  a  spurious  form  of  cocoa,  and  also  largely  grown  for 
the  table  and  for  the  production  of  oil.  In  Spain,  also,  the  root  of  the 
Cyperus  esculentus,  or  earth  chestnut,  is  roasted  and  used  as  a  substitute 
both  for  coffee  and  chocolate.  Neither  of  these  products  contain  any 
theobromine. 

COCA. — There  is  yet  another  article  belonging  to  the  group  under 
consideration  remaining  to  be  spoken  of,  which  must  not  be  confounded 
on  account  of  its  approaching  similarity  of  name  with  that  which  has  just 
been  described.  The  leaves  of  the  Erythroxylon  Coca  are  employed  in 
South  America  for  furnishing  a  beverage  which  is  consumed  in  the  same 
way  as  tea,  coffee,  and  cocoa.  In  Bolivia  and  Peru  they  are  used  by  the 
natives  for  chewing,  and  are  said  to  produce  powerful  effects  upon  the 
system.  In  Europe  they  have  been  sometimes  administered  as  a  medici- 
nal agent.  They  contain  a  nitrogenized  crystallizable  principle  called 
cocaine,  which  closely  agrees  in  its  chemical  relations,  and  is  identical,  it 
is  asserted,  in  its  physiological  action,  with  theine,  caffeine,  guaranine, 
and  theobromine.  In  the  British  Medical  Journal,  vol.  i.,  p.  510,  1874, 
there  is  to  be  found  a  communication  by  Dr.  Alexander  Bennett  upon  the 
properties  of  this  principle,  and  it  has  been  made  the  subject  of  investi- 
gation (vide  British  Medical  Journal,  vol.  ii.,  1874)  by  the  Committee 
of  the  British  Medical  Association  for  investigating  the  antagonism  of 
medicines. 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  237 


ALCOHOLIC  BEVERAGES. 

There  are  several  beverages  derived  from  various  sources  in  use  which 
contain  alcohol.  The  starting-point  of  all  is  a  vegetable  product  in 
which  starch  or  sugar  is  present.  Fermentation  is  either  allowed  to  oc- 
cur spontaneously,  as  in  the  case  of  wine;  or  else  set  up  by  the  addition 
of  a  ferment,  as  in  that  of  beer.  In  this  artificial  way  only  is  it  that 
alcohol  is  developed,  and  whilst  the  beverages  containing  it  all  agree  in 
exerting  the  same  kind  of  stimulating  action  on  the  system,  they  differ 
in  their  effects  in  other  respects,  according  to  the  associated  constituents 
that  may  happen  to  be  present.  Their  chief  properties  are  due  to  alcohol, 
but  their  other  constituents  must  by  no  means  be  regarded  as  playing  an 
unimportant  part. 

The  position  held  by  alcohol  in  an  alimentary  point  of  view  has  been 
discussed  in  a  previous  part  of  this  work  (vide  p.  82  et  seq.\  It  will  be 
there  seen  that  much  divergence  of  opinion  has  prevailed  upon  the  prime 
question,  -whether  alcohol  is  to  be  regarded  as  possessing  any  alimentary 
value  or  not.  It  will  suffice  here  to  refer  the  reader  to  what  has  already 
been  mentioned,  and  to  state  that  the  weight  of  evidence  appears  to  be 
in  favor  of  the  affirmative.  A  small  portion  seems  undoubtedly  to  es- 
cape from  the  body  unconsumed,  but  the  main  part  of  the  alcohol  that  may 
be  ingested  is  lost  sight  of,  and  presumably  from  being  turned  to  account 
in  the  system.  In  the  next  few  pages  the  general  effects  of  the  alcoholic 
beverages  will  be  spoken  of,  preparatory  to  attention  being  given  to  their 
separate  consideration. 

Apart  from  any  effect  due  to  oxidation  or  consumption  within  the 
system — apart,  in  other  words,  from  any  direct  alimentary  application — 
the  liquids  of  the  class  under  consideration  exert  a  marked  influence  upon 
the  functions  of  the  body.  Taken  in  moderate  quantity  they  increase  the 
activity  of  the  circulation.  The  heart  beats  more  rapidly.  The  pulse 
becomes  not  only  more  frequent,  but  at  the  same  time  fuller.  The  arteries 
dilating  allow  the  blood  to  flow  more  freely  to  the  capillaries,  thus  lead- 
ing to  turgescence  of  the  small  cutaneous  vessels,  and  accounting  for  the 
flushing  of  the  face  that  is  noticeable.  It  has  been  affirmed  that  the  tem- 
perature is  lowered.  Dr.  Parkes,  however,  from  his  recent  thermometrio 
observations,  remarks  that  there  is  but  little  change  induced  in  the  tem- 
perature of  the  axilla  and  rectum  of  healthy  men,  but  that  -what  change 
occurs  is  in  the  direction  of  increase.  The  warm  blood  from  the  in- 
terior circulating  more  freely  over  the  surface,  imparts  a  temporary  glow 
to  external  parts,  but  the  outside  is  warmed  at  the  expense  of  the  inside. 
The  amount  of  urinary  secretion  is  increased,  the  appetite  augmented, 
digestion  promoted,  the  nervous  system  stimulated,  and  the  mental  facul- 
ties exhilarated.  In  moderate  quantities,  in  short,  observation  shows  that 
the  alcoholic  beverages  act  as  a  general  stimulant. 

It  has  been  asserted  that  alcohol  diminishes  tissue-metamorphosis,  and 
economises  the  consumption  of  material  in  the  body.  Amongst  his  other 
inquiries,  Dr.  Parkes  has  given  attention  to  this  point  of  consideration, 
and  failed  to  observe  the  production  of  any  alteration  of  importance  in 
the  elimination  of  nitrogen — a  phenomenon  which  may  be  taken  as  a 
measure,  other  circumstances  being  equal,  of  tissue-destruction.  It  ap- 
pears unlikely,  in  the  face  of  the  chemical  results,  he  remarks,  "  that  it 
can  enable  the  body  to  perform  more  work  on  less  food,  though,  by  quick- 
ening a  failing  heart,  it  may  enable  work  to  be  done  which  otherwise 


238  A    TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

could  not  be  so.  It  may  thus  act  like  the  spur  in  the  side  of  a  horse, 
eliciting  force,  though  not  supplying  it."  A  discrepancy  exists  in  the 
results  of  the  experiments  of  different  authorities  upon  the  elimination 
of  carbonic  acid,  and  upon  this  point  precise  data  obtained  by  the  im- 
proved method  of  investigation  adopted  at  the  present  day  are  wanted. 

Dr.  Parkes  has  submitted  to  direct  investigation  the  question  whether 
the  effect  of  alcohol  is  to  increase  or  diminish  the  facility  with  which 
work  is  performed.  In  one  of  his  series  of  observations  ('•  Proceedings 
of  the  Royal  Society,"  vol.  xx.,  p.  412,  1872),  a  soldier  passed  a  period 
of  three  days  performing  a  certain  amount  of  work  without  the  use  of 
brandy;  and,  after  three  days  of  rest,  another  period  of  three  days'  work 
with  twelve  ounces  of  brandy  per  diem,  administered  in  four-ounce  doses, 
at  10  A.M.,  2  P.M.,  and  6  P.M.  This  man  was  requested  to  observe  as 
closely  as  he  could  whether  he  did  the  work  better  with  or  without  the 
brandy.  He  commenced  the  brandy  period,  it  is  stated,  with  the  belief 
that  the  brandy  would  enable  him  to  perform  the  work  more  easily,  but 
ended  with  the  opposite  conviction.  The  work  performed  was  chiefly 
done  in  the  two  hours  immediately  succeeding  each  dose  of  brandy.  The 
two  hours'  work  after  the  first  four  fluid  ounces  appeared  to  be  accom- 
plished equally  well  with  and  without  the  brandy.  The  man,  it  is  said, 
could  tell  no  difference  except,  to  use  his  own  words,  "  the  brandy  seemed 
to  give  him  a  kind  of  spirit  which  made  him  think  he  could  do  a  great 
deal  of  work,  but  when  he  came  to  do  it  he  found  he  was  less  capable 
than  he  thought."  After  the  second  four  ounces  of  brandy,  at  2  P.M., 
he  felt  hot  and  thirsty,  but  on  the  first  two  days  thought  he  worked  as 
well  as  on  the  water  days.  On  the  third  day,  however,  the  report  says 
that  he  had  palpitation  of  the  heart,  and  was  surprised  to  find  that  he  was 
obliged  to  stop  from  time  to  time  because  of  his  breathing  not  being  so 
good.  The  third  four  fluid  ounces  of  brandy,  taken  at  6  P.M.,  produced 
on  all  three  days  very  marked  narcotic  effects.  The  account  given  is  that 
"  immediately  after  taking  it  he  became  heavy,  felt  the  greatest  indispo- 
sition to  exert  himself,  and  could  hardly  refrain  from  throwing  down  his 
spade  and  giving  up  his  work.  He  worked  with  no  vigor,  and  on  the 
second  evening  thought  his  muscular  power  decidedly  lessened.  On  the 
third  evening  it  was  raining;  he  could  not  dig,  but  took  walking  and 
running  exercise  under  cover.  On  attempting  to  run,  he  found,  to  his 
great  surprise,  as  he  is  a  particularly  fast  and  good  runner,  that  he  could 
not  do  so.  He  had  palpitation,  and  got  out  of  breath,  and  was  obliged 
to  stop." 

The  experience  of  this  man  harmonizes  with  the  advice  that  is  given 
by  guides  and  others  who  are  in  the  habit  of  undertaking  the  ascent  of 
mountains.  Spirits,  they  say,  take  away  the  strength  from  the  legs,  and 
should,  therefore,  be  avoided  during  a  fatiguing  expedition. 

Some  further  evidence  has  also  recently  been  published  by  Dr.  Parkes, 
upon  the  subject  under  consideration,  drawn  from  the  experience  of  the 
Ashanti  campaign  of  1874.*  In  the  introduction  to  the  report  he  says, 
"The  first  effect  of  alcohol,  when  given  during  a  march  in  a  moderate 
dose  (for  example  what  is  equal  to  one  fluid  ounce  of  absolute  alcohol) 
[the  amount  contained  in  about  2£  fluid  ounces  of  ordinary  spirits]  is  re- 
viving, but  this  effect  is  transient.  As  shown  both  in  the  report  and  in 
the  first  appendix,  the  reviving  effect  goes  off  after,  at  the  utmost,  two 

*  Report  on  the  Issue  of  a  Spirit  Ration  during  the  Ashanti  Campaign  of  1874. 
Churchilla,  1875. 


ALIMENTARY   SUBSTANCES.  239 

and  a  half  miles  of  additional  march,  and  sometimes  much  before  this  ; 
then  the  previous  languor  and  sense  of  exhaustion  not  only  return,  but 
are  sometimes  more  intense;  and  if  alcohol  is  again  resorted  to,  its  effects 
now  are  less  satisfactory.  Its  reviving  power  is  usually  not  so  marked, 
and  its  peculiar  anaesthetic  and  narcotizing  influence  can  often  be  dis- 
tinctly traced.  The  men  feel  heavy,  dull,  disinclined  to  march,  and  are 
less  willing  and  cheerful." 

Surgeon  Kynsey,  in  relating  his  personal  experience,  said,  "  Some  of 
the  marches  between  the  Prah  and  Coomassie  were  very  long,  and  as  we 
got  far  up  the  country  and  near  the  enemy,  although  the  actual  length  of 
the  march  was  short,  still  it  extended  over  a  great  many  hours.  On  a 
few  of  these  occasions  I  was  induced  to  try,  from  excessive  fatigue,  the 
effects  of  a  little  spirit,  with  the  following  result.  At  first  the  fatigue 
seemed  to  me  to  be  less;  I  felt' decidedly  better.  But  as  I  marched  on, 
and  the  effects  of  the  spirit  disappeared,  I  felt  decidedly  less  able  to 
march,  and  the  sense  of  fatigue  became  much  more  intensified,  so  much 
so  that  I  never  took  the  smallest  portion  of  spirit  during  a  march  but  I 
regretted  doing  so." 

Sergeant  Perrin  was  of  opinion  that  *'if  the  rum  [the  form  of  spirit- 
ration  issued]  had  been  given  on  the  march  itself  it  would  have  done  no 
good,  only  harm.  His  reason  for  sa}ring  so  was  that  on  two  or  three  oc- 
casions on  the  march  one  of  the  doctors  gave  him  a  glass  of  grog;  the 
effect  was  reviving  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  and  after  that  he  felt  a  great 
deal  more  languid  than  he  did  before." 

Whilst  the  general  testimony  resulted  in  condemnation  of  the  employ- 
ment of  spirits  as  a  restorative  during  the  fatigue  of  marching,  the  evi- 
dence on  the  other  hand  went  strongly  to  show  that,  issued  after  the 
day's  fatigue  was  over,  the  spirit-ration  exerted  a  beneficial  reviving  ef- 
fect, and  afterward  induced  an  increased  feeling  of  warmth  accompanied 
by  the  promotion  of  sleep.  Upon  these  points  Corporal  Hindley,  who 
had  been  always  a  temperate  man  and  never  in  the  habit  previously  of 
taking  spirits,  expressed  himself  as  follows: — "Had  two  rations  of  rum 
(a  ration  equal  to  2%  fluid  ounces)  on  the  way  to  the  Prah,  taken  in  the 
evening  just  before  going  to  bed.  Thought  it  useful;  when  there  was  no 
issue,  felt  chilly  and  cold  at  night;  felt  warmer  when  he  had  taken  the 
rum,  and  slept  better;  had  no  doubt  about  feeling  warmer  and  sleeping 
better.  On  the  next  day  felt  no  ill-effects  from  the  rum." 

The  writings  of  Dr.  Anstie  and  Dr.  Parkes  agree  in  assigning  about  1 
fluid  ounce  of  absolute  alcohol,  which  is  equivalent  to  2  to  2$  fluid  ounces 
of  ordinary  spirits,  as  the  limit  of  moderation  for  a  dose,  or  the  quantity 
that  can  be  disposed  of  in  the  organism  of  an  adult  male  without  produ- 
cing any  perceptible  injurious  effect  upon  the  bodily  functions.  Up  to 
this  quantity  its  action,  as  already  described,  is  that  of  a  stimulant;  but 
beyond,  it  begins  to  exert  a  narcotizing  influence,  and,  when  taken  to 
excess,  a  more  or  less  profound  state  of  narcotism,  as  common  observation 
but  too  abundantly  testifies,  may  be  induced.  The  effects  now  witnessed 
upon  the  general  system  are  no  longer  those  of  a  stimulant,  but  exactly 
the  reverse,  and  hence  to  describe  its  action  in  large  doses  it  may  be  spoken 
of  as  a  depressant  and  narcotic. 

It  has  been  stated  that,  when  consumed  in  moderate  quantity,  the 
alcoholic  beverages  appear  to  encourage  the  appetite  and  promote  diges- 
tion. Taken  in  excessive  quantity,  however,  nothing  with  greater  cer- 
tainty destroys  the  appetite  and  impairs  digestion. 

Popular  belief  sanctions  the  practice  which  is  adopted  by  many  of 


240  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND   DIETETICS. 

swallowing  a  mouthful  of  brandy  or  some  other  neat  spirit  after  partaking 
of  an  indigestible  article  of  food.  Now,  alcohol  consumed  in  this  way,  by 
stimulating  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach,  and  exciting  an  in- 
creased flow  of  gastric  secretion,  is  calculated  in  reality  to  afford  assist- 
ance to  digestion,  in  harmony  with  the  traditional  idea  that  is  entertained 
and  that  experience  may  be  assumed  to  have  suggested.  Should  it  be 
introduced,  however,  in  larger  quantity  into  the  stomach,  an  opposite  re- 
sult is  to  be  looked  for.  The  alcohol  now,  by  virtue  of  the  amount  pres- 
ent, will  throw  down  the  nitrogenous  digestive  principle — pepsine — in  a 
solid  form,  and  so  destroy  the  energy  of  the  solvent  juice.  Thus,  whilst 
a  small  quantity,  by  its  stimulant  action,  may  assist  digestion,  a  large 
quantity  stops  it,  and  accounts  for  the  rejection  of  food  in  an  undigested 
state  that  is  frequently  noticed  to  occur  after  the  too  free  indulgence  in 
alcoholic  liquids  at  or  after  a  meal. 

The  effects  of  strong  alcoholic  liquids  taken  repeatedly  to  a  prejudicial 
extent  are  well  known  to  the  practical  physician.  By  direct  contact  it 
acts  upon  the  stomach,  and  leads  to  a  destruction  of  its  secreting  tubules. 
Nothing  with  such  certainty  impairs  the  appetite  and  the  digestive  power 
as  the  continued  use  of  strong  alcoholic  liquids.  From  the  stomach  the 
alcohol  is  absorbed,  and  with  its  distribution  through  the  system  it  inter- 
feres with  nutrition,  and  leads  to  a  general  textural  deterioration.  Upon 
certain  organs,  however,  its  effects  are  more  manifest  than  upon  others. 
The  liver,  kidneys,  and  nervous  system,  for  instance,  very  strikingly  suf- 
fer, a  diseased  state  being  set  up,  which  forms  a  distinctly  recognizable 
source  of  death.  Nothing,  indeed,  as  a  rule,  with  greater  certainty  leads 
to  premature  death  than  alcoholic  intemperance,  and  the  managers  of  in- 
surance offices  are  well  acquainted  with  this  fact. 

It  has  been  mentioned  that  one  of  the  immediate  effects  of  the  inges- 
tion  of  alcohol  is  turgescence  of  the  small  cutaneous  vessels  of  the  face, 
producing  the  flushed  appearance  that  is  noticeable.  A  frequent  repe- 
tition of  this  condition  leads  ultimately  to  its  permanent  establishment, 
and  thus  accounts  for  the  well-known  visage  acquired  by  the  Baccha- 
nalian. 

I  have  been  hitherto  referring  to  the  action  of  alcohol  per  se,  and  in 
spirits  we  have  little  or  nothing,  it  maybe  considered,  besides  this  action 
to  deal  with,  except,  perhaps,  in  the  case  of  hollands  and  gin,  which  pos- 
sess diuretic  properties,  due  to  the  flavoring  agent  (juniper)  added.  In 
the  primary  fermented  liquids,  however,  there  are  associated  ingredients 
which  give  rise  to  the  production  of  modified  and  additional  effects  upon 
the  system.  The  beverages,  for  instance,  which  are  rich  in  saccharine  and 
extractive  matters,  as  particularly  stout,  porter,  and  the  heavier  ales,  pos- 
sess a  nourishing  and  fattening  power  which  does  not  belong  to  a  simple 
alcoholic  liquid.  Such  beverages  also  are  apt  to  occasion  headache  and 
gastric  derangement,  or  what  falls  under  the  denomination  of  biliousness, 
in  those  who  lead  a  sedentary  mode  of  life,  whilst  a  lighter  and  purer  al- 
coholic drink  may  be  found  to  agree.  Again,  gout  appears  to  be  the  off- 
spring, not  of  a  simple  alcoholic  liquid,  but  of  alcohol  in  combination  with 
saccharine  and  extractive  matter;  for  observation  shows  that  it  is  not  the 
spirit,  but  the  beer  and  port  wine  drinker  that  is  especially  liable  to  be- 
come the  subject  of  the  disease.  As  alcohol  alone  is  not  the  source  of 
gout,  neither,  it  may  be  said,  are  the  saccharine  and  extractive  matters 
without  the  alcohol.  It  seems  as  though  these  solid,  imperfectly  fer- 
mented matters  underwent,  under  the  influence  of  the  presence  of  alcohol, 
a  defective  assimilation  in  the  system,  and  so  gave  rise  to  the  development 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  241 

of  the  morbid  products,  which  form  the  source  of  the  chief  manifestations 
of  the  disease. 

BEEE. — Beer  consists  of  a  fermented  infusion  of  malt  flavored  with 
hops,  and  is  a  beverage  of  great  antiquity.  Barley  is  moistened  with 
water,  and  allowed  to  germinate  to  a  certain  extent.  It  is  then  placed 
upon  a  kiln,  where  it  is  exposed  to  heat  and  dried,  and  the  amount  of  heat 
employed  determines  the  kind  of  malt  produced.  Pale  malt,  which  is 
used  for  brewing  ale,  is  dried  at  a  temperature  below  140°.  Porter  and 
stout  derive  their  color  from  malt  that  has  been  dried  at  a  higher  temper- 
ature; and  malt,  called  high  dried,  patent,  or  black  malt,  is  specially  made 
for  employment  as  a  coloring  agent  by  roasting  the  grain  in  cylinders,  in 
the  same  manner  as  coffee. 

The  object  of  malting  is  the  conversion  of  the  starch  of  the  grain  into 
dextrine  and  sugar.  This  in  part  occurs  during  the  process  of  germination, 
the  change  being  effected  by  the  action  of  a  nitrogenous  principle  of  the 
nature  of  a  ferment,  which  is  known  as  diastase,  and  which  is  developed 
during  germination.  Kiln-dried  malt,  however,  yields  a  larger  amount  of 
saccharine  extract  than  that  which  has  been  allowed  to  dry  spontaneously 
in  the  air;  hence  the  conversion  is  still  carried  on  during  the  exposure  to 
heat  in  the  kiln.  Still  unchanged  starch  remains,  but  the  requisite  con- 
ditions are  present  for  the  completion  of  the  change  during  the  prelimi- 
nary part  of  the  brewing  process. 

Brewing  consists  of  three  operations.  In  the  first  place,  an  infusion 
of  the  malt  is  obtained.  This  is  then  boiled  with  hops,  and  the  product 
is  afterward  made  to  undergo  fermentation. 

The  malt  after  being  crushed,  is  placed  in  the  mash  tun,  and  water  at 
a  temperature  of  about  160°  Fahr.  is  poured  upon  it.  The  two  are  well 
stirred  together,  and  subsequently  left  covered  over  for  a  few  hours.  This 
operation  is  called  mashing,  and  the  liquid  which  results  from  it,  sweet 
wort.  The  water  takes  up  the  saccharine  matter  contained  in  the  malt, 
and,  under  the  influence  of  the  heat  and  moisture,  the  diastase  acts  upon 
the  unchanged  starch  existing,  and  completes  its  conversion  into  sugar. 
Indeed,  the  diastase  present  is  capable  of  effecting  the  transformation  of 
a  much  larger  amount  of  starch  into  sugar  than  that  which  the  malt  itself 
contains;  and  hence  a  certain  quantity  of  unmalted  barley  or  other  grain 
can  be  utilized  in  making  a  "  wort  "  for  fermentation.  The  excise  regula- 
tions of  England  do  not  permit  the  use  of  unmalted  grain  for  brewing,  but 
by  distillers  it  is  largely  employed.  In  Belgium,  potato  starch,  it  seems, 
is  somewhat  extensively  used  in  brewing,  upon  the  principle  explained,  in 
the  place  of  grain.  The  saccharine  quality  of  the  wort  may  be  also  in- 
creased by  the  addition  of  sugar  itself,  and  a  prepared  sugar  (probably 
grape-sugar)  is  sold  to  brewers  for  this  purpose,  and  is  considered  by  them 
to  give  improvement  to  the  beer. 

The  wort,  which  has  a  marked  sweet  taste,  is  next  transferred  to  a 
copper,  and  boiled  with  the  appropriate  quantity,  according  to  the  kind 
of  beer  intended  to  be  produced,  of  hops.  By  this,  the  liquid  acquires 
the  aromatic  bitterness  belonging  to  beer,  and  the  effect  of  the  hops,  seems 
further  to  exert  a  preservative  influence  over  the  product.  The  liquid  is 
now  drawn  off  and  strained  from  the  hops,  and  placed  in  shallow  coolers 
for  the  temperature  to  be  lowered  as  quickly  as  possible.  Refrigeration 
is  also  sometimes  further  aided  by  special  measures  for  the  purpose. 
When  sufficiently  cooled,  the  concluding  process  is  performed,  which  con- 
sists of  adding  yeast,  and  allowing  fermentation  to  occur.  The  addition 
16 


242  A  TREATISE    ON   FOOD   AND   DIETETICS. 

of  yeast  is  not  indispensable,  for  fermentation,  it  is  found,  will  occur 
without  it,  but  a  considerably  longer  time  is  required.  On  this  account 
it  is  usual  to  start  the  fermentation  with  yeast,  and  by  the  end  of  a  few 
hours  signs  of  the  commencement  of  the  process  are  visible,  and  within 
three  or  four  days'  time  it  is  over.  In  the  absence  of  yeast  it  requires  a 
day  or  two  for  fermentation  to  commence,  and  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks 
to  be  completed,  but  the  resulting  beer  is  said  to  have  a  more  vinous  flavor 
than  ordinarily  brewed  beer,  and  to  keep  longer  without  becoming  sour. 

By  the  process  of  fermentation  the  sugar  of  the  wort  is  converted 
into  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid — the  latter  escaping,  and  the  former  giving 
to  the  beer  its  intoxicating  property.  When  the  process  is  over,  the  fer- 
mented liquid  is  either  allowed  to  clarify  spontaneously,  or  the  suspended 
matter  is  carried  down  by  the  use  of  finings.  It  is  lastly  stored  and  al- 
lowed to  ripen. 

Scrupulous  attention  requires  to  be  paid  to  all  the  minor  points  con- 
nected with  the  art  of  brewing.  The  quality  of  the  beer  and  its  power  of 
keeping  not  only  depend  on  the  amount  and  quality  of  the  materials  used, 
but  equally  as  much  on  the  skill  and  care  with  which  the  several  steps  of 
the  operation  of  brewing  are  carried  out.  The  composition  of  the  water 
used  exerts  a  more  or  less  marked  influence  on  the  product.  The  spring 
water  of  Burton-on-Trent  is  well  known  to  stand  in  high  repute  for  the 
pale  and  bitter  ales  which  are  now  so  largely  consumed,  and  it  is  sup- 
posed that  the  sulphate  of  lime  contained  in  it  aids  in  clarifying  and  pro- 
ducing a  bright  and  clear  liquid. 

Several  varieties  of  beer  are  prepared.  The  term  ale  is  applied  to  that 
which  is  made  from  pale  malt.  Vastly  different  qualities  are  sold,  depending 
upon  the  amount  of  malt  and  hops  employed:  the  former  giving  strength 
in  alcohol,  the  latter  in  bitterness.  Formerly  the  strong  alcoholic  ales  were 
chiefly  in  request,  but  latterly  the  popular  taste  has  changed,  and  it  is 
now  a  light,  bitter  ale  which  is  held  in  the  highest  esteem.  This  was  first 
especially  prepared  for  the  Indian  market,  and  hence  the  name  of  Indian 
pale  ale,  by  which  it  is  known  in  addition  to  that  of  bitter  ale.  Great  care 
and  attention  require  to  be  bestowed  on  the  manufacture  of  this  bever- 
age, and  on  account  of  its  clearness  and  brightness,  and  its  delicate  color 
and  taste,  the  best  materials  only  can  be  employed.  Its  richness  in  the 
aromatic-bitter  principle  of  the  hop  gives  it  its  predominant  character, 
but  at  the  same  time,  whilst  containing  a  moderate  amount  of  alcohol,  the 
quantity  of  extractive  matter  is  low,  and  fermentation  has  been  carried  to 
an  extent  to  render  it  comparatively  free  from  sugar.  Porter  is  prepared 
from  and  is  dependent  for  its  strength  on  pale  malt,  but  high  dried  malt 
is  added  to  communicate  color  and  flavor.  It  is  looked  upon  as  more  easy 
of  digestion  and  assimilation  than  ale  of  a  corresponding  quality.  Stout 
constitutes  a  beverage  of  the  same  nature  as  porter.  Its  chief  character- 
istic is  the  large  proportion  of  extractive  matter  that  is  present.  What 
is  called  London  Cooper  is  generally  understood  to  represent  a  mixture 
of  stout  and  porter,  but  a  distinct  beer,  occupying  an  intermediate  posi- 
tion between  the  two,  is  also  brewed  and  sold  under  this  denomination. 

Beer  contains  the  following  ingredients:  water,  alcohol,  sugar,  dex- 
trine aud  other  allied  substances,  nitrogenous  matter,  traces  of  fatty 
matter,  aromatic,  bitter,  and  coloring  principles,  saline  matter,  variable 
quantities  of  carbonic  and  acetic  acids. 

The  alcohol,  sugar  and  its  allies,  and  the  bitter  principle,  form  the  con- 
stituents which  give  to  beer  its  characteristic  properties. 

The  alcohol  varies  in  different  kinds  of  beer  from  1  or  2  to  about  9  or 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  243 

10  per  cent,  by  volume.  The  following  is  the  proportion  according1  to  the 
analysis  of  Brande,  the  amount  referring  to  alcohol  of  the  sp.  gr.  0.825  at 
60°  Fahr.,  which  consists  of  89  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol  and  11  per 
cent,  of  water: 

Alcohol,  sp.  gr.  0.825, 
per  cent. ,  by  measure. 

Burton  ale, 8.88 

Edinburgh  ale, 6.23 

London  ale  (average),          .....     6.20 

Brown  stout,      .         .         .         .         .         .         .6.80 

London  porter  (average),  .....     4.20 

London  small  beer  (average/}     ....     1.28 

Adopting  mean  numbers,  a  pint  (20  ounces)  of  beer  will  contain  about 
one  ounce  of  alcohol  (Parkes). 

The  amount  of  solid  extractive  matter  derived  from  the  malt  (chiefly 
sugar  and  other  carbohydrates)  varies  from  about  4  to  15  per  cent.  It  is 
lowest  in  the  bitter  and  highest  in  the  strong  and  sweet  ales  and  stout. 
Subjoined  are  the  results  of  special  analyses  of  certain  beers  for  malt  ex- 
tract and  alcohol: 

Malt  extract,      Alcohol,        Analyzed 
per  cent.          per  cent.  by 

Barclay  &  Perkins'  London  porter,  .     6.0  5.4  Kaiser. 

London  porter,        .          .          .         .  .6.8  6.9  Balling. 

Barton  ale,     .       '.'    "•"".-        .         .  .  14.5  5.9  Hoffmann. 

Scotch  ale  (Edinburgh),          .         .  .10.9  8.5  Kaiser. 

An  imperial  pint  of  good  porter  yields  in  general  about  an  ounce  and 
a  half  of  extract  (Brande). 

Beer  is  a  refreshing,  exhilarating,  nutritive,  and,  when  taken  to  ex- 
cess, an  intoxicating  beverage.  Its  nutritive  properties  are  due  to  the 
extractive  matter,  consisting  principally  of  carbohydrates,  which  it  con- 
tains, and  observation  sufficiently  testifies  that  beer  which  is  highly 
charged  with  extract  exerts  a  decidedly  fattening  influence.  Its  bitter 
principle  renders  it  a  stomachic  and  tonic.  A  light  beer  well  flavored  with 
the  hop  is  calculated  to  promote  digestion,  and  may  be  looked  upon  as 
constituting  one  of  the  most  wholesome  of  the  alcoholic  class  of  beverages. 
It  is  not  all,  however,  who  can  drink  beer  without  experiencing  incon- 
venience. In  the  case  of  persons  of  a  bilious  temperament,  also  with 
dyspeptics,  and  sometimes  others,  it  is  apt  to  excite  headache,  heaviness, 
and  other  sensations  which  fall  under  the  popular  designation  of  "  bilious- 
ness." The  stronger  beers,  taken  continuously  in  excess,  induce  a  full 
and  plethoric  state,  and  are  liable,  particularly  if  conjoined  with  sedentary 
habits,  to  result  in  the  accumulation  of  defectively  oxidized  products,  as 
uric  acid,  etc.,  in  the  system,  and  so  lead  to  the  developement  of  gout. 

CIDER,  PERRY. — These  form  fermented  beverages,  derived  respec- 
tively from  the  juice  of  the  apple  and  the  pear.  Fruit  that  is  not  fit  for 
eating,  on  account  of  its  acid,  bitter,  or  rough  taste,  may  be  made  use  of 
for  their  manufacture.  The  fruit  is  crushed  to  a  pulp,  and  this  is  sub- 
jected to  pressure  for  the  extraction  of  the  juice.  The  amount  of  juice 
yielded  nearly  equals  half  the  weight  of  the  pulp  employed.  The  juice 
contains  the  elements  required  for  starting  fermentation,  and  on  exposure 
to  air  at  the  appropriate  temperature  the  formation  of  alcohol  takes  place, 


244  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD   AND   DIETETICS. 

a  froth  collecting  on  the  surface  and  a  sediment  subsiding.  This  consti- 
tutes the  most  delicate  part  of  the  operation,  and  upon  the  manner  in 
which  it  is  conducted  depends,  in  a  great  measure,  the  quality  of  the  pro- 
duct. If  allowed  to  proceed  too  far,  the  process  passes  into  the  acetous 
fermentation,  and  the  liquid  becomes  sour  and  thin,  and  if  not  far  enough 
the  product  is  thick  and  unpalatable.  The  fermentation,  by  rights,  should 
lead  to  a  spontaneous  clarification.  When  a  pale  product  is  required  the 
pulp  is  submitted  to  pressure  immediately  after  crushing.  If  the  pulp  be 
left  for  some  hours  it  undergoes  a  change,  which  leads  to  a  coloration  of 
the  juice.  The  fruit  should  be  taken  at  its  maximum  richness  in  saccha- 
rine matter,  and  for  this  it  should  be  gathered  when  ripe,  and  afterward 
stored  away  for  a  month  or  six  weeks,  to  allow  it  to  mature. 

Cider  and  perry  are  closely  analogous  liquids,  but  have  a  different 
flavor.  The  following  represents  the  percentage  of  spirit  in  the  samples 
that  were  examined  by  Brande: 

Alcohol,  sp.  gr.  0.825  at  60°  P., 
per  cent.,  by  measure. 

Cider,  highest  average,  .  .  .  .  .9.87 
Ditto,  lowest  do.,  .  .  .  .  ,  .  5.21 
Perry,  average  of  four  samples,  ....  7.26 

In  some  localities  cider  and  perry  are  consumed  as  the  common  drink, 
taking  the  place  of  beer  elsewhere.  They  constitute  agreeable,  whole- 
some, and  refreshing  stimulating  beverages  when  in  a  perfectly  sound 
condition.  Their  proneness,  however,  to  undergo  the  acetous  fermenta- 
tion renders  it  necessary  that  they  should  be  drunk  with  caution,  for  in  a 
sour  state  they  are  apt  to  occasion  colic  and  diarrhoea  with  those  who  are 
not  in  the  habit  of  constantly  taking  them. 

WINE. — The  term  wine,  when  employed  alone,  is  understood  to  sig- 
nify the  fermented  juice  of  the  grape.  The  word,  however,  is  also  used 
in  a  more  comprehensive  way,  being  applied  to  the  fermented  liquids  ob- 
tained from  fruits  generally,  and  likewise  other  vegetable  products.  But, 
thus  employed,  a  prefix  is  attached  expressive  of  the  source  of  the  article, 
as,  for  instance,  with  orange  wine,  rhubarb  wine,  ginger  wine, parsnip 
wine,  Jioney  wine,  etc.  It  is  only  to  the  fermented  juice  of  the  grape 
that  the  succeeding  remarks  are  intended  to  refer. 

Wine  constitutes  a  beverage  that  appears  to  have  been  known  from 
the  earliest  periods  of  history.  Until  toward  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century  the  greater  portion  of  the  wine  consumed  in  England  was  derived 
from  France.  In  consequence  of  the  hostilities  that  then  broke  out  be- 
tween the  two  countries,  a  duty  was  for  a  time  imposed  on  French  wines 
of  so  heavy  a  nature  as  to  be  almost  prohibitory  to  their  introduction. 
Political  influences  were  now  also  directed  toward  encouraging  the  impor- 
tation and  consumption  of  port,  and  soon  the  wines  of  Portugal  assumed 
the  place  that  had  been  previously  occupied  by  those  of  France.  As 
regards  sherry,  this  is  shown  to  have  been  well  known  in  England  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  by  a  work,  published  in  1G19,  entitled  "  Pasquil's 
Palinodia,  and  his  Progresse  to  the  Taverne,  where,  after  the  survey  of 
the  sellar,  you  are  presented  with  a  pleasant  pvnte  of  Poeticall  Sherry." 
The  author  extols  sherry,  against  which  "  no  fiery  red-faced  claret,"  he 
says,  can  stand.  Much  of  the  "  sack  "  formerly  in  use  appears  to  have 
been  sherry,  and  this  is  corroborated  by  the  following  quaint  lines  taken 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  245 

from  the  above-mentioned  work,  which  contain  also  an  allusion  to  several 
other  drinks: 

"  Strong  hoop'd  in  bonds  are  here  constrain'd  to  tarry, 

Two  kinsmen  neere  allyde  to  sherry  sack, 
Sweet  Malligo,  and  delicate  canary, 
Which  warme  the  stomacks  that  digestion  lacke." 

"  The  broth  with  barley  sodden, 
i  Compares  not  with  this  licker, 
The  drayman's  beere  is  not  so  cleere, 

And  foggy  ale  is  thicker : 
Metheglin  is  too  fulsome, 

Cold  cyder  and  raw  perry, 
And  all  drinks  stand  with  cap  in  hand, 

In  presence  of  old  sherry. 
Then  let  us  drinke  old  sacke,  old  sacke,  boyes, 

Which  makes  us  blythe  and  merry." 

The  import  duties  have  always  largely  influenced  the  consumption  of 
wines,  and  previous  to  1861  no  distinction  was  made  between  the  light 
•wines  of  France  and  Germany  and  the  strong  wines  of  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal. This  necessarily  told  seriously  in  a  commercial  point  of  view  against 
the  former  on  account  of  the  difference  in  character  belonging  to  the  two 
classes  of  wines;  for  not  only  do  the  stronger  go  farther,  but  a  bottle 
•when  opened  may  be  kept  and  gradually  drunk  instead  of  spoiling  unless 
immediately  consumed.  In  consequence  of  the  altered  tariff  introduced 
by  Mr.  Gladstone,  the  year  1861  will  in  all  probability  be  hereafter  looked 
upon  as  forming  an  important  era  in  the  history  of  wine  consumption  in 
England.  Great  changes  have  even  already  been  produced  by  the  more 
equitable  adjustment  of  the  import  duty  which  admits  light  wines  at  a 
lower  rate  than  the  strong.  All  wines  containing  less  than  26  per  cent, 
of  proof  spirit  (and  this  will  include  all  natural  wines — that  is  to  say, 
wines  which  constitute  simply  the  fermented  juice  of  the  grape,  without 
any  addition  of  spirit)  are  now  admitted  at  Is.  per  gallon;  while  if  con- 
taining above  26  per  cent,  the  wine  is  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  class 
of  brandied  or  fortified  wines,  and  is  charged  with  the  higher  duty  of  2s. 
6d.  per  gallon,  the  maximum  strength  allowed  being  42  per  cent,  of 
proof  spirit — a  strength  which  may  be  looked  upon  as  fairly  including 
all  beverages  that  can  justly  lay  claim  to  the  title  of  wine.  Liquids  con- 
taining over  the  42  per  cent,  are  regarded  as  falling  within  the  category 
of  spirits,  and  are  thereupon  taxed  at  a  much  higher  rate. 

On  account  of  the  free  trade  which  has  thus  been  opened  out  by  the 
present  arrangements  of  the  duties  on  wines,  a  large  number  of  formerly 
unknown  varieties  of  natural  wines  now  find  their  way,  to  the  advantage 
it  may  be  considered  of  the  public,  from  different  countries  into  England, 
and  afford  an  extensive  choice  even  to  the  consumer  of  moderate  means. 
Although  falling  under  one  generic  name,  these  products  of  different 
countries  present  wide  differences  in  their  general  characters  and  proper- 
ties. Now,  constituting  as  it  does  an  article  which  is  capable  of  afford- 
ing valuable  therapeutic  aid,  and  called  upon  as  the  medical  practitioner 
so  frequently  is  to  advise  which  kind  of  wine  is  the  most  suitable  for  his 
patient,  it  becomes  necessary  that  he  should  possess,  as  a  part  of  his 
professional  knowledge,  information  that  will  enable  him  to  give  a  judi- 
cious recommendation — indeed,  it  is  scarcely  too  much  to  say  that  for 
those  who  practice  amongst  the  well-to-do  classes,  an  acquaintance  with 
the  distinctive  virtues  of  the  various  wines  to  be  met  with  around  us  is 


246  A   TKEATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

as  essential  to  his  success  as  a  knowledge  of  the  properties  of  the  several 
drugs.  The  subject  is  an  extensive  one,  but  I  will  endeavor  to  treat  it 
in  as  concise  a  manner  as  is  consistent  with  due  regard  to  the  claims  of 
explicitness. 

Our  starting-point  is  the  grape.  A  few  words  are,  therefore,  necessary 
upon  the  nature  of  this  fruit.  It  is  a  succulent  berry,  provided  with  a 
thin  but  tough  enveloping  structure  or  skin,  which  fulfils  the  office  of 
confining  the  central  juicy  substance  and  preserving  it  from  contact  with 
the  air. 

The  skins  of  some  grapes  are  colorless  or  yellow,  whilst  others  are  im- 
pregnated with  a  deep  blue  coloring  matter,  from  which  the  color  of  red 
wine  is  derived,  for  this,  like  other  vegetable  blues,  becomes  reddened  in  the 
presence  of  an  acid.  Chemistry  shows  that  in  both  varieties  of  grape  the 
skins  contain  a  considerable  amount  of  astringent  matter  under  the  form 
of  tannic  acid,  and  likewise  a  certain  quantity  of  a  waxy  material  which 
may  be  looked  upon  as  evidently  designed  by  its  intercepting  action  on 
the  passage  of  water  to  protect  the  fruit  from  the  influence  of  wet  on  the 
outside  and  impede  the  escape  of  moisture  from  within. 

The  pulp  or  central  fleshy  part  of  the  grape  constitutes  an  organized 
structure  comprising  a  mass  of  delicate  vesicles  holding  the  juice  of  the 
fruit.  Thus,  instead  of  being  loose  and  free  to  run  out  when  the  berry  is 
cut  in  half,  the  juice  is  retained  in  receptacles  which  require  to  be  broken 
up  before  it  is  in  a  position  to  escape.  It  is  this  which  necessitates  the 
process  of  crushing,  either  by  treading  or  the  agency  of  machinery,  which 
is  had  recourse  to  for  procuring  the  juice  as  the  first  step  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  wine. 

Except  in  a  particular  variety,  named  the  tintilla  or  teinturier  grape, 
the  fleshy  part  of  the  fruit  is  devoid  of  color,  or  only  possesses  a  faint 
yellowish  or  pinkish  tint,  although  the  skin  may  be  deeply  colored.  The 
fresh  juice,  therefore,  of  the  red  and  black  presents  the  same  appearance 
as  that  of  the  white  grape.  The  coloring  matter  of  the  husk,  indeed,  as 
it  exists  in  the  fruit,  is  in  a  fixed  or  insoluble  state,  and  it  is  only  after  the 
juice  has  fermented  that  it  possesses  the  power  of  dissolving  it  out  so  as 
to  lead  to  its  presence  in  wine.  In  the  above-named  exceptional  variety, 
however,  the  berry  is  pervaded  throughout  with  coloring  matter  in  a  dis- 
solved state,  and  thus  the  juice  is  dyed  with  it  like  that  of  the  elderberry 
and  black  currant.  The  vine  in  question  is  specially  cultivated,  it  is  said, 
in  some  localities  to  be  employed  for  increasing  the  color  of  wines  obtained 
from  other  grapes. 

Imbedded  in  the  substance  of  the  pulp  are  the  little  hard  masses  con- 
stituting the  seeds,  and  known  as  the  pips  or  stones.  These,  unlike  the 
pulp,  but  like  the  husk,  are  rich  in  astringent  matter,  which  gives  rise  to 
the  rough  taste  that  is  perceived  when  they  are  crunched  between  the 
teeth.  Chemistry  shows  that  they  also  contain  a  certain  amount  of  fatty 
matter. 

As  the  grape-stalks  are  frequently  placed  in  the  fermenting  vat  to- 
gether with  the  fruit,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  these,  like  the  husks  and 
stones,  contain  tannic  acid,  and  thus  help  to  give  astringency  to  a  wine 
into  the  preparation  of  which  they  have  been  allowed  to  enter. 

Such  is  the  constitution  of  the  fruit  which  forms  the  basis  of  the  vari- 
ety of  products  comprehended  under  the  term  wine.  Now,  of  the  varia- 
tion existing  in  the  article  under  consideration,  a  part  is  dependent,  it  is 
true,  upon  the  process  of  manufacture,  but  a  part  also  is  attributable  to 
the  characters  of  the  grape  employed.  It  is  not  difficult  to  realize  that 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  247 

the  differences  existing  in  the  qualities  of  the  fruit  should  exert  their  in- 
fluence upon  the  article  obtained  from  it.  The  variety  of  vine,  the  soil 
upon  which  it  is  grown,  the  particular  surroundings  of  the  locality,  the 
general  climate  of  the  place,  the  climate  peculiar  to  the  year,  and  the  de- 
gree of  ripeness  of  the  fruit,  all  produce  their  modifying  influence  and  tell 
upon  the  character  of  the  wine.  Ordinarily  the  juice  of  the  grape  is  de- 
void of  any  decided  fragrance,  and  the  aroma  of  the  wine  is  developed 
during  fermentation  and  from  the  changes  occurring  as  time  advances 
after  bottling;  but  in  some  instances  —  and  the  muscat  grape  affords  a 
noticeable  example  —  the  fruit  possesses  a  pronounced  aroma  which  is 
communicated  to  the  wine  obtained  from  it. 

The  constituents  of  the  grape  which  produce  the  most  prominent  in- 
fluence upon  the  character  of  a  wine  are  the  acids  and  sugar,  and  these 
vary  in  amount  to  a  very  marked  extent  under  different  circumstances. 

As  already  mentioned,  tannic  acid  is  encountered  in  the  husks,  pips, 
and  stalks.  This  gives  the  quality  of  roughness  or  astringency  to  a 
wine.  It  does  not  exist  in  the  juice.  The  acids  met  with  here  are  malic 
and  tartaric,  the  former  preponderating  in  proportion  in  the  unripe,  the 
latter  in  the  ripe  fruit.  As  the  fruit  advances  to  maturity  the  amount 
of  acid  originally  present  undergoes  diminution,  and  notably  of  the  two 
acids,  the  malic.  This  ensues  (in  common  with  what  occurs  during  the 
ripening  of  fruit  in  general)  as  a  result  of  the  influence  of  the  light  and 
heat  of  the  sun.  With  this  diminution  of  acidity  an  increase  takes  place 
in  the  amount  of  sugar;  and  thus,  as  sour  fruit  becomes  sweet,  its  acquired 
absence  of  sourness  must  not  be  entirely  attributed  to  loss  of  acids,  for 
the  increase  in  the  amount  of  sugar  will  have  the  effect,  according  to  its 
extent,  of  covering  or  concealing  the  taste  of  acidity. 

The  amount  of  free  acid  present  in  the  juice  of  grapes  produced  by 
different  countries,  and  in  different  seasons,  varies  from  about  0.3  to  1.5 
per  cent.,  reckoned  under  the  form  of  tartaric  acid.  For  the  production 
of  good  wine  it  is  said  that  the  proportion  should  not  exceed  about  0.5 
per  cent.  From  what  has  been  stated,  it  will  readily  be  understood  that 
it  is  especially  in  the  more  northern  wine-producing  localities,  as,  for  in- 
stance, the  Rhine  and  Moselle  districts,  that  the  disadvantage  arising 
from  an  excess  of  acidity  is  most  experienced.  A  great  deal  of  uncer- 
tainty, dependent  upon  the  character  of  the  season,  is  here  found  to  ex- 
ist. It  is  only  in  good  years,  indeed,  that  the  grapes  sufficiently  ripen  to 
give  rise  to  a  thoroughly  satisfactory  product,  and  in  bad  years  they  may 
remain  too  sour  in  some  places  to  yield  an  acceptable  wine.  The  propor- 
tionate amount  of  acid  is  sometimes  artificially  diminished  by  diluting 
the  juice  and  adding  sugar.  Thus,  a  larger  yield  of  less  acid  wine  is  af- 
forded, but  at  the  expense  of  quality  in  other  respects,  as  the  general 
constituents  of  the  juice  are  thereby  thrown  out  of  their  proper  relation. 

Of  all  the  constituent  elements  of  the  grape,  the  sugar  must  be  looked 
upon  as  holding  the  position  of  first  importance,  because  it  is  the  basis 
of  fermentation,  and  without  it  there  could  be  no  production  of  wine. 
Chemists  enumerate  several  varieties  of  sugar,  and  recognize  differences 
in  their  chemical  and  physical  properties,  and  also  to  some  extent  in  their 
composition.  The  kind  of  sugar  met  with  in  the  grape  is  named  after 
the  fruit  itself,  and  also  called  glucose.  This,  however,  admits  of  further 
differentiation,  and,  instead  of  one  absolutely  identical  form  of  sugar  being 
present,  two  modifications  are  found  to  exist.  The  one  is  susceptible  of 
crystallization,  and  crystallizes,  indeed,  into  the  little,  hard,  granular  masses 
that  are  to  be  met  with  in  raisins  which  have  been  kept  for  some  time. 


248  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

It  also  has  a  right-handed  rotatory  influence  over  polarized  light,  and  for 
this  reason  has  received  the  name  of  dextrose.  The  other  is  non-crystal- 
lizable,  and  from  possessing  the  power  of  turning  the  ray  of  polarized 
light  to  the  left  has  been  styled  laevulose.  Both  of  these  forms  of  sugar 
constitute  well-known  modifications  obtainable  from  a  variety  of  other 
sources  beside  the  grape.  They  are  both  susceptible  of  undergoing  fer- 
mentation, and  otherwise,  indeed,  agree  in  manifesting  the  same  chemical 
behavior. 

The  amount  of  sugar  present  in  grape-juice  is  subject  to  very  exten- 
sive variation.  It  may  range,  it  is  said,  between  about  10  and  30  per 
cent.  As  with  the  acids,  but  in  an  inverse  manner,  the  quantity  is  sig- 
nificantly influenced  by  climate  and  season.  Whilst  under  the  power 
exerted  by  the  rays  of  the  sun  the  sourness  of  fruit  disappears,  the  qual- 
ity of  sweetness  becomes  developed,  and  in  proportion  to  the  heat  of  the 
climate  and  season  so  is  the  degree  of  sweetness  attained.  Hence,  it  is 
to  the  grape  grown  in  hot  countries,  as  Spain,  Portugal,  Madeira,  Italy, 
Cyprus,  etc.,  that  we  must  look  for  the  largest  amount  of  sugar.  The 
effect  of  different  summers  is  most  conspicuous  in  cooler  climates,  and, 
as  will  readily  be  understood,  it  is  especially  toward  the  fall,  or  when  the 
grape  is  ripening,  that  the  character  of  the  season  produces  the  greatest 
influence  on  the  amount  of  saccharine  matter.  Upon  the  full  ripening 
of  the  grape  will  depend  the  quality  of  the  wine,  but  quality  and  quan- 
tity, it  may  be  remarked,  by  no  means  necessarily  go  together,  for  in 
some  years  the  yield  may  be  large  and  the  quality  bad,  \vhilstin  others 
the  reverse  may  hold  good.  For  the  production  of  good  wine  the  grape- 
juice,  it  is  stated,  must  contain  not  less  than  about  20  per  cent,  of  sugar. 

A  warm  and,  it  may  further  be  said,  a  dry  summer  is  propitious, 
then,  for  wine-production;  and  to  obtain  wine  that  best  combines  body, 
freedom  from  undue  acidity,  and  a  rich,  vinous  flavor,  we  must  look  to 
those  countries  where  the  grape  acquires  the  fullest  ripeness,  and  con- 
tains a  maximum  of  sugar  and  minimum  of  acid  and  watery  element.  In 
some  districts,  indeed,  for  the  production  of  the  choicest  wines,  as  for  in- 
stance the  Chateau  d'\rquem  in  the  Sauterne  district,  the  bunches  are  left 
on  the  vines  and  the  berries  gathered  separately  as  they  successively 
attain  the  fullest  ripeness.  Tokay,  which  is  renowned  for  its  luscious 
and  full  vinous  character,  is  even  prepared  from  grapes  that  have  been 
allowed  to  remain  on  the  vine  till  the  early  frosts  have  set  in,  and  till 
they  have  undergone  a  certain  amount  of  desiccation,  by  which  the  juice 
has  acquired  a  higher  concentration.  It  is  only  in  the  case  of  white 
wines,  however,  that  this  fullest  ripeness  or  over-ripeness  is  allowed  to 
be  attained.  In  the  case  of  the  red  wines  it  is  necessary  for  the  sake  of 
color  that  the  grapes  should  be  gathered  earlier;  for,  as  will  be  seen  fur- 
ther on,  the  solution  of  the  coloring  matter  of  the  husk  is  effected  by  the 
free  acid  of  the  juice  in  combination  with  the  alcohol  developed  during 
fermentation,  and  the  less  the  quantity  of  acid  the  less  the  amount  of 
coloring  principle  taken  up. 

It  has  been  Stated  that  sugar  is  a  necessary  constituent  of  grape-juice 
in  relation  to  wine-production,  because  it  forms  the  fermenting  principle. 
There  is  yet  another  essential  ingredient,  viz.,  the  ferment,  or  principle  to 
excite  fermentation.  This  consists  of  nitrogenous  matter  under  the  form 
of  albumen,  and  is  usually  deposited  as  lees  during  the  process  of  fermen- 
tation. Properly  fermented  wine  retains  but  little  nitrogenous  matter. 
Imperfectly  fermented  wine  retains  more,  and  thus  becomes  liable  to 
spoil  from  the  tendency  to  further  change  which  its  presence  gives  rise  to. 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  249 

The  astringent  matter,  however,  which  is  present  in  red  wines  exerts  a 
certain  amount  of  counteracting  influence  by  its  preservative  and  pre- 
cipitating effects. 

The  first  step  in  the  manufacture  of  wine  after  the  grapes  have  been 
gathered,  is  to  crush  them,  in  order  that  the  juice  may  be  liberated  from 
its  containing  vesicles.  The  process  was  formerly  accomplished  by  the 
operation  of  treading,  but  is  now  chiefly  effected  by  the  aid  of  rollers. 
Care  is  taken  to  avoid  crushing  the  pips  and  stalks,  as  too  much  astrin- 
gent matter,  etc.,  would  otherwise  become  taken  up.  So  long  as  the  juice 
is  contained  within  the  grape,  and  is  thus  protected  from  contact  with 
the  air,  it  is  not  observed  to  undergo  fermentation.  With  the  expressed 
juice,  on  the  other  hand,  and  to  this  the  term  "  must"  is  applied,  fermen- 
tation soon  sets  in  under  exposure  to  an  appropriate  temperature.  No 
ferment  is  required  to  be  added;  the  nitrogenous  matter  present  supplies 
what  is  wanted  for  starting  the  change  as  soon  as  it  is  brought  into  con- 
tact with  the  atmosphere.  It  is  evidently  the  exclusion  of  air  by  the 
skin  which  prevents  fermentation  from  occurring  whilst  the  juice  is  con- 
tained within  the  fruit. 

The  process  of  crushing  having  been  accomplished,  the  juice  is  either 
at  once  expressed  and  fermented  alone,  or  else  the  whole  is  fermented 
together  for  a  Avhile,  and  then  expression  performed.  In  the  former  case, 
whether  black  or  white  grapes  are  used,  a  non-colored  and  non-astringent 
product  is  the  result;  in  the  latter,  astringent  matter  is  taken  up  from 
the  skins  and  stones,  and  from  the  stalks  also  when  these  are  allowed  to 
be  present.  Coloring  matter  likewise  is  dissolved  out,  so  as  to  produce  a 
dark-colored  wine,  when  colored  grapes  have  been  employed.  The  color 
of  the  liquid  becomes  gradually  deeper  as  fermentation  proceeds,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  exercise  of  the  solvent  power  which  is  enjoyed  by  the 
newly  developed  alcohol  in  combination  with  the  pre-existing  acid.  The 
watery  juice  of  the  grape  simply  impregnated  with  its  acid  fails  to  touch 
the  coloring  matter.  Directly  alcohol,  however,  is  present,  it  becomes 
taken  up,  and  with  it  also  astringent  matter  is  dissolved;  for  the  two  so 
far  comport  themselves  alike  in  this  respect  and  accompany  each  other, 
that  the  rule  may  be  laid  down,  the  deeper  the  color  the  rougher  the 
flavor  of  a  wine.  When  contact  with  the  skins  has  been  sufficiently  pro- 
longed for  the  desired  color  and  astringency  to  be  communicated,  the 
fermented  liquor  is  separated  from  the  "  mark "  by  expression.  The 
"  mark,"  or  expressed  residue,  still  contains  a  quantity  of  coloring  matter 
and  other  vinous  substances,  and  sometimes  a  spurious  wine  is  made  from 
it  by  mixing  it  with  a  solution  of  sugar  and  allowing  fermentation  to 
occur. 

The  fermenting  stage  varies  in  duration  according  to  the  prevailing 
temperature.  In  warm  localities  it  may  be  over  in  two  or  three  days, 
whilst  in  cooler  districts  it  may  last  considerably  longer.  As  it  com- 
mences, the  "  must "  becomes  more  turbid  than  it  was  originally,  and  ap- 
pears to  be  in  motion  from  the  ascent,  in  little  bubbles,  of  the  carbonic 
acid  gas  which  is  generated.  The  temperature  of  the  liquid  increases, 
and  a  froth  collects  on  the  surface,  due  to  the  escaping  gas.  After  the 
process  has  acquired  its  maximum  activity,  and  has  begun  to  quiet  down, 
the  contents  of  the  fermenting  vat  require  to  be  stirred  up,  so  that  all  the 
elements  may  be  brought  into  fresh  contact.  Happily  for  our  personal 
satisfaction,  this  is  now,  certainly  in  all  large  establishments,  effected  by 
mechanical  means,  but  formerly  the  revolting  practice  prevailed  of  men  in 
a  naked  state  entering  the  vats  for  the  purpose,  and  it  was  thought  that 


250  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

the  temperature  of  the  body  was  useful  in  promoting  fermentation.  It 
is  stated  that  several  men  thus  employed  have  in  the  course  of  time  been 
killed  by  the  carbonic  acid  gas  accumulated  above  the  surface  of  the  fer- 
menting liquid. 

The  character  of  a  wine  is  materially  influenced  by  the  temperature  at 
•which  fermentation  takes  place,  and  this  happens  to  be  allowed  to  re- 
main dependent  on  that  which  chances  to  belong  to  the  locality  and  sea- 
son; hence,  partly,  the  source  of  the  variation  noticeable  in  the  wines  of 
different  countries  and  years. 

By  active  fermentation,  for  instance,  at  a  high  temperature,  a  disap- 
pearance of  sugar  occurs  before  time  has  been  permitted  for  the  develop- 
ment of  bouquet  and  flavor.  The  vinous  elements  become  exhausted  or 
destroyed,  and  the  resulting  wine  is  thin  and  poor,  and,  after  quickly  ma- 
turing, shows  signs  of  possessing  defective  lasting  power.  This  defective 
lasting  power  is  advanced  as  a  justification  for  the  custom  that  has  arisen 
of  "fortifying,"  or  adding  spirit  to  the  wine  produced  for  exportation 
from  hot  countries,  as  Spain,  Portugal,  Madeira,  and  the  Cape.  It  is 
well  known  that  the  wines  which  we  receive  from  these  countries  are  in  a 
"  fortified  "  state,  whilst  those  derived  from  cooler  countries,  as  France, 
Germany,  etc.,  contain  no  added  spirit,  and  thereby  constitute  "  natural  " 
wines.  In  the  former,  after  the  fermentation  has  advanced  to  a  certain 
point,  the  spirit  is  added  to  check  its  further  progress  before  the  saccha- 
rine matter  is  wholly  exhausted.  Through  the  saccharine  and  extractive 
matters  thus  left,  the  wine  possesses  a  body  and  fruitiness  which  would 
have  been  lost  had  fermentation  been  allowed  to  continue  undisturbed; 
and  out  of  such  body  and  fruitiness  are  generated  those  choice  vinous 
qualities  which  become  slowly  developed  as  the  liquid  matures. 

In  France,  Germany,  Hungary,  etc.,  where  a  cooler  climate  prevails, 
fermentation  occurs  with  less  rapidity,  and  is  allowed  to  proceed  until  it 
comes  to  a  spontaneous  termination.  Here,  then,  the  transformation  of 
saccharine  matter  is  permitted  to  go  on  until  it  is  quite  or  nearly  lost, 
and,  in  consequence,  there  is  produced  a  drier  or  less  fruity  wine,  and  one 
which  takes  less  time  to  mature.  With  wines  of  this  class  also,  a  stronger 
bouquet  or  aroma  is  developed,  either  as  a  result  simply  of  the  slower 
fermentation  or  of  the  more  acid  quality  of  the  grape,  for  the  free  acid  is 
concerned  in  combination  with  the  alcohol  in  the  formation  of  the  ethe- 
real products  which  contribute  to  furnish  the  aroma.  The  Rhine  and 
Moselle  districts,  which  are  amongst  the  most  northern  of  wine-producing 
localities,  yield  wines  that  are  particularly  characterized  by  the  amount 
of  aroma  they  possess,  and  it  is  here,  as  previously  stated,  that  the  grape 
contains  the  largest  proportion  of  acid. 

Notwithstanding  fermentation  may  have  advanced  to  a  complete  ex- 
haustion of  the  saccharine  matter,  the  amount  of  alcohol  produced  does 
not  nearly  equal  that  found  in  the  "  fortified  "  wines.  It  suffices  for  pre- 
serving the  wine  whilst  in  closed  casks  and  bottles,  but  not  for  giving  it 
the  power  enjoyed  by  the  other  variety  of  keeping  when  opened  and 
brought  into  contact  with  the  air.  Should  it  happen,  further,  through 
lowness  of  temperature  or  otherwise,  that  fermentation  has  not  pro- 
ceeded with  sufficient  activity  or  to  a  proper  extent,  a  wine  devoid  even 
of  lasting  properties  in  cask  and  bottle  will  be  produced,  on  account  of 
the  incomplete  exhaustion  and  precipitation  of  the  ferment. 

Looking  at  the  influence  that  is  evidently  exerted  by  the  temperature 
at  which  the  process  of  fermentation  is  carried  on,  it  is  somewhat  surpris- 
ing that  means  have  not  been  yet  devised  and  had  recourse  to  for  secur- 


SUBSTANCES.  251 

ing  a  fixed  condition,  and  thus  rendering  the  operation  independent  of 
the  local  circumstances  that  may  happen  to  prevail. 

As  time  proceeds,  and  fermentation  diminishes  in  activity,  the  liquid 
begins  to  grow  clearer  by  thro  wing  down  a  sediment  called  "  lees."  This 
consists  of  exhausted  ferment,  with  other  organic  substances  and  cream  of 
tartar.  The  latter  is  deposited  on  account  of  its  sparing  solubility  in 
spirit,  and  is  therefore  proportionate  to  the  amount  of  alcohol  developed. 
The  wine  is  now  racked  off  from  the  "  lees  "  into  casks,  to  prevent  the 
acetous  fermentation  setting  in.  Here  vinous  fermentation  still  continues 
slowly,  and  more  sediment  of  the  same  nature  as  before  subsides,  the  cream 
of  tartar  belonging  to  it  being  thrown  in  a  crystalline  form,  and  con- 
stituting what  is  known  as  "argol."  Again  the  wine  is  racked  and  trans- 
ferred to  other  casks;  and  the  process  is  repeated,  it  may  be,  two  or 
three  times  more.  Much  depends  upon  the  care  and  attention  bestowed 
upon  these  rackings  of  the  wine  performed  during  the  first  year;  and 
another  point  that  equally  requires  to  be  looked  after  is  filling  up  the 
casks  as  occasion  requires,  to  compensate  for  the  loss  occurring  from 
soakage  and  evaporation,  and  prevent  an  empty  space  existing.  The 
wine,  during  this  storage,  is  undergoing  changes  which  result  in  the  ulti- 
mate development  of  its  special  flavor,  bouquet,  and  other  vinous  proper- 
ties, as  the  stage  of  maturation  advances. 

The  empty  casks  which  receive  the  wine  in  the  process  of  racking  are 
usually  fumigated  prior  to  use  by  burning  some  sulphur  (a  brimstone- 
match  is  sometimes  used)  within  them,  with  the  view  of  exerting  a  pre- 
servative effect. 

One  more  step  remains  to  be  described.  Wine  is  usually  subjected 
to  the  finishing  operation  of  "fining."  This  is  effected  by  the  addition 
of  an  agent  like  the  white  of  egg  or  isinglass,  which,  undergoing  precip- 
itation by  the  action  of  the  wine,  leads  to  the  suspended  impurities  being 
entangled  and  carried  down.  By  being  thus  clarified,  wine  is  not  only 
from  its  clearness  and  brightness  rendered  more  pleasing  to  the  eye,  but, 
through  the  separation  of  the  floating  organic  matter,  acquires  increased 
keeping  power. 

It  appears  to  be  the  prevailing  custom  in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  the 
south  of  France  to  dust  the  grapes  over  previous  to  being  crushed  with 
plaster-of-Paris,  which  consists  of  burnt  gypsum  or  sulphate  of  lime. 
Sometimes  the  plaster  is  added  to  the  must  instead.  The  object  of  this 
practice,  which  is  styled  "  plastering,"  is  not  intelligible,  but  it  has  the 
effect  of  leading  to  an  alteration  of  the  saline  constitution  of  the  wine, 
which  certainly  there  is  no  ground  for  regarding  as  beneficial.  Chalk  or 
carbonate  of  lime  would  have  the  effect  of  neutralizing  or  removing 
acidity,  but  not  so  the  sulphate  of  lime.  This  substance  leads  to  the  re- 
moval, by  precipitation  in  combination  with  lime,  of  the  greater  part  of 
the  tartaric  acid,  but  it  gives  in  its  place  an  equivalent  amount  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  which,  combining  with  potash,  furnishes  the  sulphate  of 
potash  in  substitution  for  the  natural  cream  of  tartar  of  the  wine.  A 
"plastered"  wine  thus  contains  more  sulphuric  acid  than  is  naturally 
yielded  by  the  grape,  and  through  this  it  may  be  recognized  by  the 
analyst.  Dr.  Hassall's  analyses  corroborate  the  statement  made  by  Dr. 
Thudichum,  that  all  the  sherries  imported  into  England  are  "plastered.'* 
Marsala  and  Madeira  have  been  found  by  Dr.  Hassall  to  be  in  a  corre- 
sponding state  to  sherry. 

In  the  case  of  champagne  and  other  sparkling  wines,  a  supplemental 
operation  has  to  be  performed  to  give  them  their  effervescent  character. 


252  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

After  having  been  fermented  in  the  usual  way,  the  wine  is  allowed  to 
remain  till  the  following  spring  to  become  bright  and  clear.  It  is  then 
bottled  and  dosed  with  a  concentrated  solution  of  sugar.  This  leads 
to  a  second  fermentation  occurring  within  the  bottles,  and  from  the  car- 
bonie  acid  gas  this  time  being  prevented  from  escaping,  the  special 
quality  belonging  to  the  wine  is  acquired.  During  the  process  the  wine 
throws  down  a  further  sediment,  which  is  collected  at  the  neck  of  the 
bottle,  the  bottles  being  inverted  for  the  purpose.  By  an  operation 
which  is  called  "  disgorging,"  the  sediment  is  permitted  to  be  blown  off, 
and  the  bottles  finally  are  securely  corked  and  wired.  After  the  lapse  of 
a  little  time  the  wine  becomes  ready  for  use.  For  the  better  classes  of 
champagne  the  dosing  is  made  not  simply  with  a  solution  of  sugar,  but 
with  what  is  styled  "  liqueur."  This  consists  of  a  specially  fine-flavored 
wine  mixed  with  sugar,  and  generally  also  brandy.  The  champagnes  for 
different  countries  are  dosed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce  the  kind  of 
wine,  as  to  sweetaess  or  dryness,  suited  to  the  market. 

We  have  now  reached  the  point  for  the  consideration  of  wine  itself. 
It  has  been  seen  that  fermentation  constitutes  the  essential  part  of  the 
process  attending  its  production,  and  the  two  constituents  of  the  grape- 
juice  which  are  directly  concerned  in  the  occurrence  of  this  phenomenon 
are  sugar  and  albuminoid  matter — or  the  fermentescible  body  and  the  fer- 
ment. The  main  and  indispensable  change,  then,  connected  with  the  con- 
version of  grape- juice  into  wine,  is  the  disappearance  of  sugar  and  its 
replacement  by  alcohol.  There  are  many  minor  changes  secondarily  in- 
duced by  or  consequent  upon  the  phenomenon  of  fermentation,  and 
although  these  may  only  occur  to  an  insignificant  extent,  yet  their  in- 
fluence is  great  upon  the  character  of  the  wine. 

Under  a  chemical  point  of  view,  wine  is  a  complex  product  containing 
components  which  are  in  part  derived  directly  from  the  grape;  in  part 
owe  their  source  to  fermentation;  and  in  part  spring  from  the  changes 
which  occur  during  the  process  of  maturation.  A  knowledge  of  its 
chemical  composition  may  be  spoken  of  as  affording  useful  information 
regarding  its  general  characters,  besides  revealing  the  existence  of  so- 
phistication. At  the  same  time,  however,  too  much  stress  must  not  be 
laid  on  the  results  furnished  by  chemical  analysis.  It  is  true  that  the 
more  prominent  qualities  are  dependent  upon  the  extent  to  which  the 
leading  constituents  exist,  and  this  information  chemistry  can  supply, 
but  there  may  be  differences  in  the  character  of  wines  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance in  relation  to  marketable  value,  and  no  clue  to  them  shall  be 
afforded  by  the  figures  of  the  analyst.  The  palate  and  the  stomach  form 
the  true  guide  for  settling  whether  a  wine  is  choice  and  good.  "The 
stomach,"  says  Dr.  Druitt,  "  is  the  real  test-tube  for  wines,  and  if  that 
quarrels  with  it,  no  chemical  certificate  or  analysis  is  worth  a  rush." 

It  would  be  out  of  place  to  enter  minutely  into  the  chemistry  of  wine, 
but  something  requires  to  be  said  upon  the  subject,  and  its  leading  con- 
stituents will  be  examined  in  the  following  order:  Alcohol,  sugar,  astrin- 
gent matter,  coloring  matter,  extractive  matter,  acids,  ethers,  and  volatile 
oil. 

Although  chemistry  displays  the  existence  of  the  above-enumerated 
principles  in  wine,  yet  in  its  action  upon  the  system  it  may  be  considered 
that  we  have  not  to  deal  with  the  separate  and  independent  effects  of 
these  principles,  but  with  those  of  a  liquid  in  which  the  ingredients  are 
so  amalgamated,  incorporated,  or  blended  together,  as  to  produce  a 
homogeneous  whole.  For  example,  if  we  look  to  alcohol,  which  consti- 


ALIMENTARY   SUBSTANCES.  253 

tutes  its  most  influential  component,  the  effects  of  a  certain  amount  of 
this  principle,  as  it  is  contained  in  wine,  are  not  identical  with  those  of  the 
same  amount  diluted  to  an  equal  extent  with  water.  The  alcohol  appears 
to  become  blended  with  the  other  ingredients,  and  in  this  state  to  exert 
a  somewhat  modified  action  upon  the  system.  One  of  the  advantages, 
and  perhaps  the  chief,  which  wine  derives  from  keeping,  is  probably 
attributable  to  this  blending  of  its  constituents.  It  is  well  known  to 
acquire  a  uniformity  of  flavor  by  age,  which  stands  in  contrast  to  the 
crudeness  and  the  mixed  tastes  belonging  to  it  in  a  new  state.  Even 
made-up  wine  may,  in  the  course  of  time,  lose  much  of  its  objectionable 
nature,  and  become  passable  by  acquiring  an  amalgamated  condition. 

Alcohol. — This  forms  the  most  potent  ingredient  of  wine,  being  that 
which  gives  to  it  its  intoxicating  properties.  Besides  holding  the  posi- 
tion named,  it  must  also  be  looked  upon  as  playing  an  important  part  in 
relation  to  the  article  itself,  on  account  of  the  preservative  influence  it 
exerts. 

The  special  object  attained  by  fermentation  is  the  production  of  this 
principle,  and  unless  extraneously  added  during  the  preparation  of  the 
wine,  its  amount  is  dependent  on  that  of  the  sugar  primarily  contained  in  the 
fermenting  liquid.  One  atom  of  grape-sugar  becomes  resolved  into  two 
atoms  of  alcohol  and  two  of  carbonic  acid  (new  notation).  This,  looking 
at  the  formulae  of  the  bodies,  is  equivalent  to  saying  that  from  180  parts, 
by  weight,  of  dry  grape-sugar,  92  parts  of  alcohol  are  produced — in  other 
words,  every  two  parts  of  sugar  yield  about  one  of  alcohol. 

With  this  information  it  is  easy  to  determine  what  should  constitute 
the  range  of  alcoholic  strength  of  a  natural  wine.  For  example,  reckon- 
ing that  grape-juice  contains,  in  accordance  with  what  has  been  previously 
mentioned,  from  10  to  30  per  cent,  of  sugar;  that  all  the  sugar  undergoes 
fermentation;  and  that  none  of  the  alcohol  is  lost,  an  alcoholic  strength 
will  be  given  of  from  (about)  5  to  15  per  cent,  by  weight,  which  corre- 
sponds with  about  10  to  30  per  cent,  of  proof  spirit.  Theoretically,  there- 
fore, a  natural  wine  should  not  contain  more  than  30  per  cent,  by  weight 
of  proof  spirit,  but,  practically,  it  will  not  contain  so  much;  for,  apart 
from  the  whole  of  the  sugar  being  transformed  solely  in  the  one  direction, 
there  must  needs  be  a  reduction  of  strength  to  some  extent  by  the  loss  of 
alcohol  occurring  by  evaporation  during  the  process  of  fermentation. 

Natural  wine,  it  may  be  stated,  rarely  contains  more  than  22  per  cent. 
by  volume  of  proof  spirit.  The  ordinary  range  is  from  18  to  22.  The 
maximum  strength  allowed  by  the  English  Government  for  the  lower  rate 
of  import  duty  is  26  per  cent.,  and  this,  it  may  be  considered,  is  sufficiently 
high  to  include  all  natural  wines.  Indeed,  independently  of  the  amount 
of  saccharine  matter  in  the  juice,  the  extent  of  alcoholic  strength  is  lim- 
ited by  the  action  of  the  alcohol  generated,  for  directly  a  certain  quantity 
is  present  a  check  is  put  upon  the  further  progress  of  fermentation,  and 
the  excess  of  sugar  remains  unfermented.  Thus,  although  the  juice  may 
have  been  artificially  sweetened  by  the  addition  of  sugar,  or  the  propor- 
tion of  sugar  increased  by  the  partial  desiccation  of  the  grapes  or  the  eva- 
poration of  the  juice,  only  a  limited  alcoholic  strength  can  be  acquired  as 
the  result  of  fermentation.  It  may  further  be  remarked  that,  as  the  pres- 
ence of  a  certain  quantity  of  alcohol  puts  a  stop  to  the  progress  of  fer- 
mentation, so  does  the  existence  of  sugar  beyond  a  certain  proportion  in- 
terfere with  its  commencement.  There  is  a  limit,  in  other  words,  to  the 
strength  of  a  saccharine  liquid  that  can  be  thrown  into  fermentation. 

The  "fortified"  wines  contain,  upon  an  average,  about  34  or  36  per 


254  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

cent,  by  volume  of  proof  spirit.  These  wines,  which  include  such  as  port, 
sherry,  Madeira,  etc.,  reach  us  from  the  warmer  wine-producing  countries. 
After  fermentation  has  advanced  to  a  certain  point,  spirit  is  added,  and 
thus  further  change  is  stopped,  and  the  wine  acquires,  by  virtue  of  its 
increased  alcoholic  strength,  a  keeping  power  under  exposure  to  air  which 
is  not  enjoyed  by  the  unfortified  product.  The  fortified  class  is  allowed 
by  the  English  customs  a  range  of  alcoholic  strength  of  from  26  to  42  per 
cent.-of  proof  spirit,  and  the  maximum  limit  may  be  looked  upon  as  fairly 
including  all  liquids  that  can  justly  lay  claim  to  the  title  of  wine. 

From  what  has  been  stated,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  relative  average 
strength  of  natural  and  fortified  wines  may  be  represented  by  saying  that 
the  former  kind  contains  about  one-fifth  and  the  latter  one-third  of  its 
bulk  of  proof  spirit;  or,  expressing  it  in  a  more  familiar  way,  about  five 
glasses  of  the  natural  and  three  glasses  of  the  fortified  wine  contain  the 
equivalent  of  one  glass  of  brandy. 

By  keeping  in  cask,  wine  increases  in  alcoholic  strength.  This  is  to 
be  accounted  for  by  wood  being  more  easily  penetrated  by  water  than  by 
alcohol.  Thus  it  happens  that  water  is  lost  by  evaporation  from  the  out- 
side of  the  cask  in  larger  quantity  than  the  alcohol,  and  the  wine  is  left  in 
a  more  concentrated  condition. 

The  process  for  ascertaining  the  amount  of  alcohol  in  wine  is  very  sim- 
ple. It  consists  in  distilling  over,  say  half,  from  a  given  quantity,  adding 
distilled  water  to  the  product  to  bring  it  to  the  same  measure  as  that  of 
the  wine  employed,  and  then  taking  the  sp.  gr.  From  this  may  be  learnt, 
by  the  tables  published,  the  percentage  of  alcohol  present. 

Besides  the  formation  of  alcohol,  the  process  of  fermentation  is  at- 
tended with  the  production  of  small  amounts  of  glycerine  and  succinic 
acid.  These  principles  thus  constitute  ingredients,  to  a  small  extent,  of 
wine,  but  they  cannot  be  regarded  as  of  any  significance. 

Sugar. — Some  wines  are  free,  or  nearly  free,  from  sugar,  while  others 
contain  varying  amounts,  the  condition  depending  upon  the  extent  to 
which  fermentation  has  been  carried.  In  natural,  thoroughly  fermented 
wines,  as  claret,  Burgundy,  hock,  etc.,  there  may  be  none,  or,  if  any,  only 
an  insignificant  quantity.  In  fortified  wines,  on  the  other  hand,  as  port, 
sherry,  Madeira,  etc.,  more  or  less  sugar  is  usually  found,  on  account  of 
fermentation  having  been  artificially  checked  by  the  added  spirit  before 
the  process  was  over.  As  these  wines  are  kept,  however,  the  amount  un- 
dergoes a  gradual  diminution  from  some  kind  of  metamorphosis  occurring 
other  than  that  of  fermentation.  Although  a  fortified  wine,  there  are 
some  kinds  of  sherry  to  be  met  with  which  are  free,  or  next  to  free,  from 
sugar.  In  what  are  classified  as  sweet  wines,  as,  for  example,  Tokay, 
Constantia,  Malmsey,  Lachryma  Christi,  Tent,  Malaga,  etc.,  the  quantity 
of  sugar  may  amount  to  as  much  as  20  per  cent.  Here  the  process  of 
fermentation  is  impeded  by  the  large  amount  of  sugar  originally  present 
in  the  "  must,"  owing  to  the  grapes  having  been  allowed  to  become  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  dried  before  being  employed — indeed,  some  of  these  products 
possess  a  distinct,  raisin-like  flavor. 

The  natural  wines  which  are  characterized  by  sweetness  are  of  low 
alcoholic  strength,  for  in  proportion  as  sugar  is  retained,  so  is  there  a 
diminished  production  of  alcohol.  Sweet  and  strong  are  therefore  irre- 
concilable qualities  in  a  natural  state,  and  if  combined  imply  the  existence 
of  added  spirit. 

Whatever  sugar  is  present  ought  to  be  found  in  the  state  of  grape- 
sugar,  but  the  analytical  examination  of  wine  sometimes  displays  the  ex- 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  255 

istence  of  cane-sugar.  It  is  especially  with  cheap  sherries  that  this  is  no- 
ticeable, and  it  affords  unmistakable  evidence  of  adulteration. 

^Astringent  matter. — The  astringent  matter  of  wine  consists  of  tannic 
acid,  and  is  derived  from  the  skins,  stones,  and  stalks  of  grapes.  The 
white  wines,  which  are  prepared  from  the  expressed  juice  of  grapes  only, 
are  free  from  astringent  matter.  In  the  manufacture  of  the  red  wines  the 
skins  and  stalks  of  the  grapes  are  allowed  to  remain  in  the  fermenting 
vat,  and,  as  a  consequence,  astringent  matter  is  taken  up.  Sometimes,  also, 
a  part  of  the  astringent  matter  met  with  in  wine  is  derived  from  the  oak 
cask  in  which  it  has  been  kept. 

On  account  of  their  freedom  from  astringent  matter,  the  white  wines 
possess  a  more  delicate  taste  than  the  red.  In  red  wines  the  amount  of 
astringent  matter  at  the  commencement  maybe  so  great  as  to  render  them 
almost  undrinkable.  On  keeping,  however,  the  tannic  acid  becomes  de- 
posited in  association  with  albuminous  and  coloring  matters  and  bitar- 
trate  of  potash  (cream  of  tartar),  and  forms  the  crust  which  is  observed 
to  collect.  At  first  the  crust  settles  coarsely  and  thickly,  but  year  by  year 
the  deposit  becomes  less  and  less,  and  at  length  may  assume  the  shape  of 
thin,  filmy  flakes,  which,  floating  in  the  wine,  produce  what  is  known  as 
"  beeswing."  With  this  deposition  of  crust  the  wine  loses  its  hard  taste 
and  becomes  soft  and  mellow,  and  according  to  its  roughness  to  begin  with, 
so  will  be  the  length  of  time  required  for  maturing.  As  soon  as  it  ceases 
to  deposit  it  no  longer  improves  by  keeping,  but  commences,  in  fact,  to 
deteriorate.  By  virtue  of  its  effect  in  combining  with  and  carrying  down 
the  albuminous  matter  of  wine,  and  thereby  preventing  any  further  change, 
tannic  acid  must  be  looked  upon  as  exerting  a  preservative  influence. 

A  brown,  humus-like  substance,  which  has  been  named  apothema  by 
Berzelius,  gradually  undergoes  formation  as  a  product  of  the  oxidation 
of  tannic  acid.  This  substance  is  not  quite  insoluble  in  wine.  Enough 
is  dissolved  to  give  the  yellow  or  tawny  color  belonging  to  port  wine 
which  has  lost  its  other  coloring  matter  by  age.  It  is  the  source  of  the 
color  which  the  skins  of  white  grapes  acquire  in  conversion  into  raisins. 

Coloring  matter. — Much  variation  exists  as  regards  the  color  of  wines. 
Some  are  pale  to  an  extent  to  be  almost  colorless,  whilst  others  are  more 
or  less  deeply  colored,  the  color  passing  either  through  shades  of  yellow 
and  brown  or  red  and  blue. 

Except  in  the  case  of  the  teinturier  grape,  the  juice  of  grapes  is  color- 
less, and  hence,  when  wine  is  made  from  the  juice  alone,  or  with  the  exclu- 
sion of  the  husk  from  the  fermenting  vat,  the  product  is  nearly  colorless, 
no  matter  whether  white  or  black  grapes  have  been  employed.  Full  ripe- 
ness of  the  grape  adds  a  little  to  the  tint,  and  on  this  account  the  cham- 
pagne grape  is  not  allowed  to  attain  a  maximum  state  of  maturity,  as 
paleness  is  considered  a  desirable  quality  for  the  wine  to  possess.  If  in 
preparing  light-colored  wine  from  white  grapes  the  skins  are  allowed  to  be 
present  during  fermentation,  a  deeper  colored  product  is  obtained  than 
from  the  juice  alone,  and  this  passes  through  a  darker  shade  of  yellow 
toward  brown  as  age  advances,  owing  to  the  gradual  oxidation  of  tannic 
acid,  and  its  conversion  into  apothema,  as  already  explained.  It  is 
further  a  common  practice,  as  with  dark-colored  sherries,  for  instance,  to 
artifically  color  them  in  the  following  manner:  the  "  must  "  obtained  from 
very  ripe  grapes  is  evaporated  in  large  pans  till  a  deep  brown  sirupy  liquid 
is  obtained,  a  part  of  the  sugar  being  caramelized  during  the  process.  This 
is  added  to  the  wine  till  the  required  shade  of  yellow  or  brown  is  pro- 
duced. Sometimes  even  the  coloring  is  effected  by  the  direct  addition  of 


256  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD   AITD   DIETETICS. 

caramel  or  burnt  sugar,  but  this  is  liable  to  communicate  a  bitter  taste, 
and  thereby  injure  the  natural  flavor  of  the  wine.  Pale  wines  frequently 
acquire  a  certain  amount  of  color  through  being  kept  in  oak  casks. 

The  red  wines  derive  their  color  from  the  husks  of  black  grapes. 
These  contain  the  coloring  matter  in  an  insoluble  form,  and  thus  the  juice 
escapes  being  impregnated  with  it.  Although  insoluble  in  the  fresh  juice, 
it,  however,  undergoes  solution  when  in  contact  with  the  fermented  juice, 
the  rationale  being  that  the  presence  of  alcohol  in  combination  with  the 
acids  of  the  juice  gives  rise  to  the  production  of  a  liquid  possessing  a 
solvent  power  which  the  original  aqueous  liquid  did  not.  As,  then, 
alcohol  becomes  developed  in  the  mixture  of  husks  and  fermenting  juice, 
the  coloring  matter  is  taken  up. 

The  coloring  matter  under  consideration  is  primarily  blue,  and  like 
other  kinds  of  vegetable  blue  is  reddened  by  an  acid.  Thus  it  is  that  as 
the  acidity  of  the  grape  diminishes  during  the  process  of  ripening,  the 
color  changes  from  red  to  dark  blue.  In  wines  the  color  also  varies  ac- 
cording to  the  amount  of  free  acid  present.  This  may  be  exemplified  by 
adding  an  acid  to  a  wine  possessing  a  bluish  black  color.  It  will  be  ob- 
served to  become  sensibly  reddened.  If  afterward  some  ammonia  should 
be  poured  in,  the  color  will  be  restored.  Wines  presenting  a  decidedly 
red  tint  may  be  rendered  bluish  black  by  means  of  the  same  agent. 

It  is  well  known  that  red  wines  become  paler  as  their  age  increases. 
This  arises  from  the  coloring  matter  being  deposited  with  the  progress  of 
formation  of  the  crust.  The  astringent  and  coloring  matters  indeed 
closely  follow  each  other.  As  the  red  color  disappears,  so  the  yellow, 
which  is  common  to  both  red  and  white  wines,  becomes  more  visible:  in 
the  first  place  because  it  is  less  obscured,  and  next  because  it  is  gradually 
heightened  by  the  conversion  of  tannic  acid  into  apothema.  In  this  way 
the  production  of  the  tawny  color  of  old  port  is  accounted  for. 

It  is  stated  that  the  teinturier  grape  is  specially  cultivated  in  some 
localities  for  furnishing  coloring  matter  to  wine.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  the  juice  of  this  grape  is  deeply  stained,  like  that  of  the  black  cur- 
rant, elderberry,  and  some  other  fruits.  Foreign  agents,  as  black  cherries, 
bilberries,  and  particularly  elderberries  and  logwood,  it  is  also  asserted, 
are  frequently  used  for  supplying  color;  and  by  their  agency,  white 
wines,  it  is  further  alleged,  are  sometimes  dyed  for  the  purpose  of  being 
sold  as  red. 

Extractive  matter. — In  addition  to  the  sugar,  and  the  astringent  and 
coloring  matters  which  have  been  described,  there  are  some  undefined 
solid  organic  principles  present  in  wine  which  are  classified  as  "  extrac- 
tives" The  whole  of  these  solid  ingredients  grouped  together  comprise 
what  is  understood  as  forming  the  "  body  "  of  wine.  When  the  amount 
of  solid  matter  is  large,  it  is  chiefly  due  to  the  presence  of  sugar.  • 

Acids. — Wine  always  contains  more  or  less  free  acid.  The  acids, 
malic  and  tartaric,  existing  in  the  grape  exist  also  in  its  fermented  juice, 
and  moreover  the  alcoholic  may  be  followed  to  some  extent  by  the  acetous 
fermentation,  especially  in  poor  wine,  and  thus  lead  to  the  presence  of  a 
proportionate  amount  of  acetic  acid.  Leaving  out  of  consideration  the 
production  of  this  latter  acid,  the  extent  of  acidity  of  a  wine  will  depend 
upon  that  of  the  grape  from  which  it  has  been  manufactured.  There  may 
be  no  perceptible  acid  taste  when  fermentation  has  not  been  fully  carried 
out,  on  account  of  the  sugar  thereby  present  disguising  it;  but  whenever 
fermentation  has  been  completed  some  amount  of  acidity  is  recognizable, 
because  the  whole  of  the  sugar  has  been  converted  into  alcohol,  and  there 


ALIMENTARY  SUBSTANCES.  257 

is  nothing  to  cover  or  conceal  the  acids  which  naturally  existed  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent  in  the  grape.  The  taste  therefore  affords  no  criterion  of 
the  real  acidity  of  a  wine.  A  sweet  wine,  indeed,  may  contain  consider- 
ably more  acid  than  one  which,  through  being  dry,  presents  a  certain  de- 
gree of  recognizable  acidity. 

As  might  naturally  be  inferred  from  what  has  been  stated,  it  is  the 
wines  derived  from  the  coolest  wine-producing  localities,  as,  for  instance, 
particularly  the  Rhine  and  Moselle  districts,  which  contain  the  largest 
proportion  of  acid.  Where  the  climate  is  such  that  the  grape  is  apt  to 
fail  in  attaining  full  ripeness,  undue  acidity  is  a  common  defect,  and  spe- 
cial measures,  which  are  uncalled  for  in  warmer  and  more  congenial  local- 
ities, may  require  to  be  had  recourse  to,  to  give  the  wine  a  suitable  char- 
acter for  drinking.  Sometimes  sugar  is  added  to  the  wine  itself  to  cover 
its  acidity,  and  thereby  render  it  palatable.  Sometimes  the  "  must "  is 
diluted  to  reduce  its  percentage  acidity,  and  then  sweetened  m  order  that 
it  may  yield  by  fermentation  the  requisite  alcoholic  strength.  A  wine 
manufactured  in  this  way,  whilst  being  provided  with  the  ordinary  amount 
of  alcohol,  will  contain — leaving  out  of  consideration  the  acids — a  relative 
deficiency  of  the  other  vinous  elements.  Sometimes  the  undue  acidity  is 
removed  by  direct  neutralization  with  the  carbonate  of  lime  or  soda.  A 
process  ingeniously  suggested  by  Liebig  effects  the  separation  of  a  portion 
of  the  acid  by  precipitation  as  cream  of  tartar.  To  the  wine  some  neu- 
tral tartrate  of  potash  is  added,  which  combines  with  its  free  tartaric  acid, 
and  carries  it  down  as  the  comparatively  insoluble  bitartrate  or  cream  of 
tartar. 

The  effect  of  fermentation  is  to  some  extent  to  lead  to  a  reduction  of 
acidity.  A  portion  of  the  tartaric  acid  belonging  to  the  fruit  exists  in 
combination  with  potash  under  the  form  of  bitartrate.  Now  this  salt  is 
very  much  less  soluble  in  an  alcoholic  than  in  an  aqueous  liquid.  Hence 
in  proportion  as  alcohol  is  present  the  salt  becomes  thrown  down,  and  be- 
ing an  acid  salt  a  reduction  of  acidity  is  thereby  effected.  It  collects  in- 
side the  cask,  and  is  known  as  "  argol."  The  deposition  also  proceeds 
after  the  wine  is  bottled,  and  helps  to  give  rise  to  the  sweetness  and  mel- 
lowness acquired  by  keeping.  In  the  case  of  the  red  wines,  it  falls  in  com- 
pany with  the  astringent  and  coloring  matters,  and  thus  contributes  to  the 
production  of  the  crust.  In  the  case  of  white  wines,  it  takes  the  form  of 
colorless  crystals,  which  may  be  seen  adhering  to  the  cork  and  lying  in 
the  bottle,  looking  something  like  powdered  glass. 

A  great  deal  of  unnecessary  stress  has  been  attached  to  the  question 
of  the  amount  of  free  acid  in  wine  in  relation  to  the  production  of  acidity 
of  stomach.  The  wines  containing  the  smallest  amount  of  acid  are  such 
as  sherry,  marsala,  and  port;  whilst  hock,  moselle,  light  claret,  and  some 
Greek  wines  may  be  spoken  of  as  standing  at  the  opposite  end  of  the 
scale.  But,  because  these  latter  contain  the  most  acid,  they  are  not 
thereby  rightly  to  be  shunned  on  the  score  of  greater  liability  to  produce 
acidity.  Indeed,  experience  shows  that  it  is  not  acids  which  particularly 
favor  the  production  of  acidity  of  stomach,  but  in  reality  articles  contain- 
ing sugar,  and  especially  where  the  sugar  is  in  an  unstable  condition,  as 
it  is  in  wine,  and  thence  more  prone  to  undergo  the  acid  fermentation. 
Nothing,  in  fact,  is  more  productive  of  the  trouble  in  question  than  the 
concoction  which  is  retailed  out  under  the  name  of  sherry  at  many  eating 
and  drinking  establishments,  and  which  analysis  shows  to  contain  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  sugar.  The  presence  of  a  moderate  amount  of  acid 
does  no  harm;  on  the  contrary,  it  may  afford  assistance  to  digestion.  The 
17 


258  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

wine,  however,  should  not  be  sufficiently  sour  to  be  disagreeable  to  the 
palate,  and  the  kind  of  sourness  which  is  to  be  regarded  as  decidedly 
objectionable  is  that  arising  from  the  acetous  fermentation.  A  wine 
which  has  acquired  sourness  from  such  a  source  is  no  longer  sound,  and 
apt,  if  drunk,  to  occasion  general  derangement  of  the  alimentary  canal. 

Ethers  and  volatile  oil. — These  constitute  the  source  of  the  special 
flavor  and  aroma  of  wine,  and  give  to  it  the  distinctive  characters  it  pos- 
sesses. They  doubtless  contribute  to  produce  a  portion  of  the  exhilarat- 
ing effects  it  exerts,  for  the  exhilarating  power  of  a  given  quantity  of 
wine  cannot  be  wholly  accounted  for  by  the  alcohol  it  contains.  The 
value  of  a  wine  is  more  determined  by  the  quality  and  amount  of  these 
ingredients  than  by  its  alcoholic  constituent. 

Some  wines — muscat  forms  a  striking  example — possess  an  aroma 
which  excites  a  reminiscence  of  the  fresh  fruit,  and  is  in  fact  derived 
directly  from  the  grape.  It  is  probably  due  to  an  essential  oil,  and  is  in- 
creased in  quantity  by  increasing  ripeness  of  the  fruit.  Wines  possess- 
ing it  are  called  "  aromatic  wines."  Besides  this  kind  of  aroma,  which 
belongs  only  to  the  product  derived  from  certain  grapes,  wine  possesses 
an  aroma  which  is  peculiarly  vinous,  as  it  arises  out  of  the  results  of  fer- 
mentation. This  becomes  more  pronounced  as  the  wine  ages  in  bottle. 
It  is  occasioned  by  the  development  of  ethereal  products,  through  the 
reaction  of  the  acids  and  alcohol  upon  each  other.  It  constitutes  the 
"  bouquet "  of  wine,  and  is  met  with  in  greater  quantity  in  wine  made 
from  grapes  which  have  not  arrived  at  full  ripeness;  hence  its  predomi- 
nance in  the  productions  of  the  cooler  wine-growing  localities,  as  particu- 
larly the  Rhine  and  Moselle  districts.  (Enanthic  ether  is  the  name  which 
has  been  applied  by  Liebig  and  Pelouze  to  the  chief  ethereal  product  be- 
longing to  wine.  It  is  obtainable  only  in  exceedingly  minute  quantity; 
but,  possessing  a  very  strong  vinous  smell,  a  small  amount  goes  a  long 
way. 

The  flavoring  of  wines  is  carried  on  upon  an  extensive  scale  to  suit 
the  market  of  the  country  to  which  they  are  sent.  Choice  wines  are 
reserved  and  added  year  by  year  to  a  stock  which  is  kept  expressly  for 
use  as  a  flavoring  medium.  Wines  are  also  blended  so  as  to  furnish 
through  successive  years  a  product  of  the  same  flavor,  strength,  and  ap- 
pearance, independently  of  the  variation  that  may  belong  to  different 
vintages. 

Cette,  Marseilles,  and  Bordeaux  are  notorious  places  for  "doctoring1" 
wine.  Cette  in  particular  bears  an  unenviable  name  on  account  of  the 
undisguised  manner  in  which  the  fabrication  of  wine  is  carried  on.  By 
the  skill  acquired  in  the  art  of  imitation,  an  article  to  represent  a  wine 
of  any  character  or  age  can  be  supplied  to  order  at  a  few  hours'  notice. 

Wines  are  generally  named  after  the  locality  producing  them.  In 
the  description  that  will  now  be  given  of  their  respective  characters,  it 
will  be  convenient  to  group  the  products  of  different  countries  together 
under  separate  heads.  Each  country  yields  a  wine  possessing  distinctive 
features  of  its  own.  The  wines  may  be  of  the' same  character,  but  there 
is  a  flavor  peculiar  to  each,  which  is  readily  perceptible.  The  product  of 
one  country  which,  as  a  wine,  may  be  quite  as  good  as  or  even  better 
than  that  of  another,  may  nevertheless  be  held  in  less  repute  because  it 
does  not  conform  with  a  conventional  idea  founded  upon  what  the  palate 
has  been  accustomed  to. 

Whilst  wines  differ  considerably  in  their  drinkable  characters,  each 
should  possess  a  clean,  sound,  and  simple  taste.  It  should  give  an  idea 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  259 

of  unity  in  contradistinction  to  the  mixed  tastes  belonging  to  a  made-up 
article;  and  there  should  be  an  absence  of  anything  indicating  change  or 
fermentescibility.  The  impression  produced  upon  the  palate  by  tasting 
alternately  in  succession  a  pure  and  a  sophisticated  wine  is  exceedingly 
striking,  and  brings  out  strongly  the  mixed  character  of  the  latter. 

A  good  wine  promotes  the  appetite,  exhilarates  the  spirits,  and  in- 
creases the  bodily  vigor.  It  should  have  body  or  substance  (which  is 
different  from  alcoholic  strength),  and  give  rise  to  a  sense  of  satisfaction 
instead  of  leaving  a  craving,  empty,  or  hungry  feeling  such  as  is  produced 
by  a  thin  and  sour  drink. 

As  regards  their  general  characters,  wines  are  spoken  of  as:  Natural 
or  light,  fortified  or  strong,  red,  white,  sweet  or  fruity,  dry  or  thor- 
oughly fermented,  full-bodied,  thin,  acidulous,  astringent,  and  sparkling. 

French  wines. — The  natural  wines  of  France,  which  formerly  consti- 
tuted the  principal  wine  consumed  in  England,  and  which  from  political 
considerations  were  for  a  considerable  time  displaced  by  the  fortified 
wines  of  Portugal,  have  been  latterly  advancing  into  more  general  use 
amongst  us,  especially  since  the  alteration  of  the  import  duty  in  1801. 
Clarets,  Burgundies,  and  Champagnes  are  productions  of  France  with 
which  every  one  is  acquainted.  Besides  these  natural  wines,  a  strong  or 
fortified  wine  (Roussillon  is  an  example)  is  produced  in  the  south  of 
France,  which  approximates  in  character  to  the  wines  of  Portugal. 

Clarets  are  derived  from  the  Bordeaux  district.  They  constitute  red 
wines,  and  of  the  several  varieties  the  best  known  are  such  as  Lajite, 
Xatour,  La  Rose,  Margaux,  Jfouton,  Pauillac,  St.  Julien,  St.  JSmilion, 
etc.  Some  of  the  above  brands  bear  the  prefix  of  Chateau,  this  being  ap- 
plied to  the  wine  made  from  the  vines  which  grow  immediately  around 
the  chateau  of  the  producer,  in  contradistinction  to  that  derived  from  the 
surrounding  properties.  White  wines  are  also  supplied  from  the  Bor- 
deaux district.  They  comprise  such  as  Sauterne,  Vin-de-  Grave,,  Jfarsac, 
and  an  exceedingly  choice  production,  the  Chateau  d?  Yquem.  The 
clarets,  or  red  Bordeaux  wines,  contain  no  added  spirit.  Their  alco- 
holic strength  averages  from  18  to  20  per  cent,  of  proof  spirit.  Being 
fully  fermented,  they  are  rendered  more  or  less  free  from  sugar,  and  con- 
stitute, therefore,  dry  wines.  They  are  light,  agreeable,  and  refreshing  to 
drink,  have  a  delicate,  fragrant  odor,  and  a  slightly  rough  or  astringent 
taste,  without,  in  good  wine,  any  unpleasant  acidity.  The  white  wines 
of  the  Bordeaux  class,  like  white  wines  generally,  are  finer  flavored,  and 
have  a  more  delicate  perfume  and  less  astringency  than  the  red.  The 
Chateau  d'Yquern  is  a  specially  choice,  full-flavored  wine,  with  a  particu- 
larly luscious  character,  due  to  the  richness  in  saccharine  matter  of  the 
grape  from  which  it  is  made,  acquired  by  being  allowed  to  remain  oh  the 
vine  till  over-ripe  before  being  gathered. 

With  the  moderately  exhilarating  and  the  other  properties  that  the 
clarets  possess,  they  form  an  exceedingly  valuable  kind  of  stimulant,  both 
for  the  healthy  and  the  sick.  There  is  scarcely  any  condition  in  which 
they  are  calculated  to  disagree.  They  form  a  most  suitable  beverage  for 
persons  of  a  gouty  or  rheumatic  disposition,  and  also  for  the  dyspeptic. 
It  may  be  said  that  they  are  not  prone  to  turn  sour  upon  the  stomach 
themselves,  nor  to  cause  other  articles  to  become  sour;  neither  do  they 
provoke  headache  nor  derangement  in  those  who  are  subject  to  bilious 
disorders. 

Buryundles  are  derived  from  the  southern  districts  of  the  central 
parts  of  France — that  portion  of  France,  it  may  be  said,  which  is  most 


260  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

propitious  to  the  growth  of  the  grape.  As  -with  Bordeaux  wine,  so  with 
Burgundy,  both  red  and  white  varieties  are  produced.  Of  the  red,  Clos 
de  Vmigeot,  Chambertin,  Romance,  Vblnay,  Pommard,  Reaune,  and 
Macon  form  well-known  brands;  and  of  the  white,  Chablis,  Pouillyy 
Jfeursault,  and  Montrachet. 

The  wines  of  the  Rhone  districts,  consisting  of  such  as  Cote  Rotie, 
Hermitage  red  and  white,  and  Beaujolais  (which  has  risen  rapidly  into 
notoriety  as  a  reasonable  priced  wine  during  the  last  ten  or  twelve  years), 
are  generally  classed  with  Burgundies. 

In  character  Burgundy  is  a  richer,  fuller-bodied,  or  more  generous 
wine  than  claret.  With  a  choice  aroma  and  strong  wine  flavor,  it  pos- 
sesses a  trace  of  bitterness.  To  appreciate  its  qualities  to  the  fullest  ex- 
tent, it  should  be  served  in  the  middle  of  dinner,  with  the  roast  meat  or 
game.  Therapeutically,  it  is  a  valuable  agent  where  poverty  of  blood  or 
an  ill-nourished  state  of  the  system  exists.  In  such  cases  it  is  decidedly 
to  be  preferred  to  claret.  An  idea  prevails  that,  unlike  claret,  Burgundy 
encourages  the  development  of  gout.  This  may  be  so  with  a  very  sump- 
tuous wine  presenting  an  approximation  to  port,  but  there  is  reason  to 
think  that  the  charge  is  unfounded  in  the  case  of  the  ordinary  Burgun- 
dies that  are  supplied  for  use. 

Beaujolais  may  be  ranked  as  occupying  a  place  between  Burgundy 
and  claret.  Whilst  wanting  the  fulness  of  body  of  the  former,  it  is  a 
rather  stouter  wine  than  the  latter. 

Champagnes  are  the  produce  of  several  parts  of  France,  but  the  most 
renowned  brands  are  derived  from  the  department  of  the  Marne — Reims 
forming  the  centre  of  the  district  on  the  northern,  and  Epernay  that  on 
the  southern  side  of  the  river.  They  are  classified  as  sparkling  and  still, 
and  sweet  and  dry,  and  the  better  qualities  are  distinguished  by  the  name 
of  the  producer.  Amongst  well-known  and  favorite  brands  may  be  men- 
tioned those  of  Roederer,  Pommery  and  Greno,  Moet,  Clicquot,  Jules 
Mumm,  Giesler,  and  Perrier  Jouet.  In  good  wines  the  carbonic  acid  is 
so  incorporated  with  the  liquid  as  to  escape  slowly,  or  "  creamily  "  as  it  is 
termed,  when  the  bottle  is  opened. 

Champagne,  whilst  only  possessing  the  alcoholic  strength  of  natural 
wines  (Griffin's  analysis  of  a  sample  snowed  18  per  cent,  of  proof  spirit), 
is  characterized  in  its  effects  upon  the  system  by  the  rapidity  of  its  action 
as  a  stimulant  and  restorative.  As  it  acts  more  rapidly  and  strongly,  so 
its  effects  also  pass  off  more  quickly.  It  may  be  described  as  a  volatile 
stimulant,  with  a  more  transitory  action  than  other  beverages  of  the 
alcoholic  class.  It  is  a  useful  wine  for  exciting  the  flagging  powers  in 
cases  of  exhaustion.  It  also  has  a  tendency  to  allay  irritability  of  the 
stomach,  and  in  some  cases  of  vomiting  may  be  found  to  be  retained 
when  other  stimulants  are  rejected.  Unless  in  a  good  sound  state,  how- 
ever, there  is  scarcely  any  wine  that  is  so  calculated  to  upset  the  stomach. 
To  give  it  effervescence  sugar  is  added  after  its  introduction  into  the  bot- 
tle, for  the  purpose  of  inducing  a  second  fermentation,  and  until  this  fer- 
mentation is  complete  the  wine  must  be  looked  upon  as  in  a  state  of 
change,  and  thereby  apt  to  excite  changes  of  the  food  within  the  stomach, 
which  tend  to  interfere  with  the  natural  course  of  digestion.  Unless  the 
elements  of  the  wine,  also,  are  in  proper  relation  and  of  proper  goodness, 
it  is  apt  to  acquire  ascescent  and  obnoxious  properties,  from  the  vinous 
passing  into  the  acetous  fermentation. 

Besides  Champagne,  France  produces  other  sparkling  wines,  the  most 
notable  of  which  are  sparkling  Burgundies,  both  white  and  red;  a  spark- 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  261 

ling  Hermitage;  and  also  a  wine  closely  resembling  and  oi'ten  doing  duty 
for  Champagne,  which  is  produced  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhone,  and  styled 
St.  Peray. 

The  south  of  France,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Pyrenees,  is  the  seat 
of  production  of  quite  a  different  kind  of  wine  from  the  varieties  that  have 
been  referred  to.  The  wine  in  question,  of  which  Roussillon  and  Masdeu 
furnish  examples,  belongs  to  the  fortified  class.  It  forms  a  French  rep- 
resentative of  the  red  wines  of  Portugal,  but  does  not  nearly  come  up 
to  them  in  quality,  and  has  something  of  the  Burgundy  or  claret  char- 
acter about  it.  It  sometimes  passes  under  the  names  of  Burgundy  Port 
and  French  Port.  In  Thudichum  and  Dupre's  analytical  table  the  alco- 
holic strength  of  Roussillon  stands  at  30. 2  per  cent,  of  proof  spirit. 

German  wines. — With  the  exception  of  what  is  known  as  Hambro* 
sherry  (a  low-priced  fortified  wine  of,  as  its  name  implies,  a  sherry-like 
nature),  which  is  not  grown,  but  fabricated  at  and  shipped  from  Hambro', 
the  German  wines  form  natural  products.  They  are  of  light  alcoholic 
strength,  and  are  characterized  by  their  marked  and  peculiar  aroma  or 
fragrance,  and  their  acidulous  nature.  These  properties  render  them 
grateful  and  refreshing  to  drink,  as  well  as  an  excitant  of  the  appetite. 
They  thus  form  a  specially  appropriate  beverage  at  the  commencement 
of  dinner.  On  account  of  the  northern  situation  of  the  country,  and  the 
variation  in  the  climate  of  different  years,  they  exhibit  a  wider  range  of 
difference  in  quality  according  to  the  season  (a  hot  and  dry  season  being 
that  which  is  most  propitious)  than  the  products  of  more  southern  lati- 
tudes. Notwithstanding  the  greatest  care  in  the  process  of  manufacture, 
a  want  of  brightness  characterizes  the  wines  of  Germany.  Hence  the 
custom  of  drinking  them  from  colored  glasses,  the  effect  of  which  is  to 
conceal  from  view  that  which  might  displease  the  eye. 

The  German  wines  produced  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  generally 
pass  in  this  country  under  the  name  of  hock.  They  are  mostly  white, 
and  the  best  known  and  most  esteemed  varieties  are  such  as  Johannis- 
berg,  Steinberg,  Rudesheim,  JHarcobrunn,  Rauenthal,  Hockheim,  and 
JSTierstein.  A.ssmannshduser  represents  a  red  variety  of  hock. 

The  wines  produced  on  the  banks  of  the  Moselle  agree  in  their  gen- 
eral characters  with  hocks  or  Rhine  wines,  but  they  are  somewhat  more 
acid  in  taste,  and  have  less  body.  Excellent  sparkling  wines  are  made 
both  in  the  Rhine  and  Moselle  districts. 

Hungarian  wines. — In  general  character  the  wines  of  Hungary  may 
be  said  to  resemble  those  of  France  more  closely  than  those  of  any  other 
country.  With  the  exception  of  Tokay,  which  has  long  been  prized 
amongst  us  as  one  of  the  choicest  of  wines,  they  were  but  little  known 
in  this  country  previous  to  the  notice  they  received  at  the  International 
Exhibition  of  1862.  Since  then  they  have  risen  rapidly  in  public  estima- 
tion, and  now  meet  with  an  extensive  consumption.  They  are  good 
specimens  of  a  light  or  natural  wine,  with  a  distinctive  flavor  of  their 
own.  Both  red  and  white  wines  are  produced,  and  the  varieties  are 
sufficiently  numerous  to  present  to  the  uninitiated  a  somewhat  perplex- 
ing list  of  names.  Of  the  red  wines,  the  Carlowitz  is  the  best  known  in 
England.  It  possesses  good  body,  a  full  alcoholic  strength  for  a  natural 
wine,  a  slight  astringency,  and  freedom  from  saccharine  matter.  It  may 
be  said,  indeed,  to  constitute  a  generous  wine  of  its  class,  and  in  this  re- 
spect may  be  compared  to  Burgundy.  Next  to  Carlowitz,  Ofner,  per- 
haps stands  in  highest  estimation.  The  white  wines  are  specially  char- 
acterized by  their  softness  and  richness  of  grape  flavor.  The  Ru&ter  and 


262  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

(Edettlmrg  are  good  and  exceedingly  agreeable-drinking  wines.  But 
Tokay  far  excels  them  all,  and  holds,  in  fact,  a  unique  position.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  universally  famed  of  wines,  and  always  commands  a  price 
which  places  it  only  within  reach  of  the  wealthy.  It  is  made  of  the  juice 
which  flows  spontaneously  from  the  finest  over-ripe  grapes.  It  ranks 
amongst  the  sweet  wines,  but  with  its  sweetness  it  possesses  "  an  exceed- 
ingly rich,  aromatic,  mouth-filling  wine-flavor"  (Druitt).  It  is  usually 
drunk  as  a  delicacy  toward  the  end  of  dinner,  but  may  be  advantageously 
recommended  for  rousing  the  powers  and  giving  life  to  the  enfeebled 
invalid.  s 

Greek  wines. — These  wines  are  less  known  in  England  than  those 
which  have  been  as  yet  referred  to.  A  somewhat  numerous  list  is  pre- 
sented for  selection.  They  constitute  natural  wines,  with  a  high  alco- 
holic strength  for  their  class.  The  white  are  clean,  fresh,  and  agreeable- 
drinking,  whilst  the  red  have  fulness  and  roughness  belonging  to  the 
better  kinds,  with  some  degree  of  tartness  in  the  cheaper  kinds.  Like 
other  stout  wines  they  undergo  marked  improvement  on  being  kept. 
Kephisia,  St.  Elie,  Noussa,  Patras,  Thera,  and  Santorin  form  represent- 
atives of  dry  wine,  whilst  Vinsanto,  Lachryma  Christi,  and  Cyprus 
constitute  Greek  products  of  the  sweet  wine  class. 

Italian  wines. — A  few  wines  reach  this  country  from  Italy.  The  red 
wines  are  full-colored,  full-bodied,  and  dry,  with  a  decided  quality  of 
roughness.  White  Capri,  named  from  the  rocky  island  standing  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Bay  of  Naples  which  yields  it,  is  an  exceedingly  refresh- 
ing, wholesome,  and  pleasant-drinking  light  wine,  particularly  for  sum- 
mer use.  A  sparkling  Asti  is  imported,  but,  probably  owing  to  defective 
preparation,  it  lacks  stability  and  brightness.  Although  much  drunk  and 
favorably  thought  of  in  Italy,  it  cannot  compete  with  the  other  sparkling 
wines  placed  at  our  disposal  in  England. 

Australian  wines. — Australia  promises  to  stand  high  as  a  wine-pro- 
ducing country,  possessing  the  favorable  conditions  it  does  for  the  growth 
of  the  grape,  and  starting  as  it  has  done  with  the  careful  manufacture  of 
a  pure  article.  Both  red  and  white  wines  are  imported  into  England 
from  more  vineyards  than  one,  and  it>  may  be  said  of  the  best  that  they 
are  rich,  full-bodied,  agreeable-drinking  wines,  without  hardness  or 
acidity.  Whilst  of  the  nature  of  Bordeaux  and  Burgundy,  they  have  an 
aroma  which  is  peculiarly  their  own,  and  which  gives  them  a  character 
distinct  from  the  products  of  other  countries. 

Port  and  other  wines  of  Portugal. — Port,  like  the  wines  of  hot  coun- 
tries in  general,  as  sherry,  Marsala,  Madeira,  and  Cape,  belongs  to  the 
fortified  class.  Spirit  is  added  after  fermentation  has  advanced  to  a  cer- 
tain point,  to  check  its  further  progress,  and  give  the  wine  increased 
keeping  power.  Thus,  a  wine  of  an  alcoholic  strength  averaging  about 
.'J6  per  cent,  of  proof  spirit  is  produced,  instead  of  about  20,  as  with  the 
natural  or  unfortified  varieties.  If  made  without  being  fortified,  the 
produce  of  Portugal  presents  a  close  resemblance  in  character  to  Bur- 
gundy, but  wine  of  this  sort  is  not  to  any  notable  extent  exported  for 
the  English  market,  on  account  of  its  alleged  want  of  sufficient  keeping 
power  for  transport. 

Port  is  a  wine  which  possesses  when  new  a  considerable  amount  of 
saccharine  matter,  which  gives  it  a  marked  fruity  character.  In  the  first 
place,  the  grapes,  from  the  warm  climate  in  which  they  are  grown,  ac- 
quire a  sweetness  which  is  not  attained  under  exposure  to  a  less  amount 
of  heat;  and  next,  as  has  been  mentioned,  fermentation  is  stopped  before 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  263 

the  sugar  has  become  exhausted.  The  wine  is  also  rich  in  astringent 
and  other  extractive  matters,  and  thus  possesses,  as  it  is  termed,  a  full 
body.  By  keeping,  the  astringent  in  conjunction  with  the  coloring  mat- 
ter becomes  gradually  deposited  under  the  form  of  crust.  The  saccha- 
rine matter  also  undergoes  transformation,  and  in  this  way  the  wine  loses 
its  rough,  sweet,  and  fruity  taste,  and  acquires  what  is  known  as  the 
character  of  dryness.  There  is  no  wine  which  improves  more  by  keeping 
than  port.  From  possessing  a  roughness  or  harshness  and  confusion  of 
flavors  which  may  be  absolutely  unpleasant  to  the  palate,  it  tones  down 
^  in  the  course  of  time  to  a  pure,  mellow,  and  homogeneous  liquid.  Not 
only  are  some  of  the  objectionable  elements  deposited,  and  the  others 
blended  or  incorporated  together,  but,  by  the  reaction  of  the  acid  and 
alcoholic  principles  upon  each  other,  ethereal  products  become  developed 
which  give  the  aroma  or  bouquet  that  forms  so  choice  a  feature  belonging 
to  the  ripened  or  matured  wine. 

It  is  a  common  practice  amongst  dealers  to  mix  different  sorts  of  port 
with  the  view  of  meeting  the  taste  of  the  consumer,  and  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  some  of  the  most  pleasant-drinking  wines  are  produced  in 
this  way.  It  is  said  to  be  only  in  certain  years  that  a  wine  is  good  enough 
to  stand  alone,  and  when  so  allowed  to  remain  it  is  called  a  "  vintage 
wine." 

Port  stands  pre-eminent  amongst  wines  as  a  full,  rich,  and  strength- 
giving  stimulant.  It  is  of  great  service  in  enfeebled  states  of  the  system, 
and  particularly  during  convalescence  from  fever  and  other  debilitating 
diseases.  Its  astringency  gives  it  a  special  value  where  there  is  also  diar- 
rhoea to  control.  For  everyday  use,  while  suiting  many,  it  is  far  too  heavy 
for  others.  By  dyspeptics,  the  gouty,  persons  suffering  from  attacks  of 
bilious  or  sick  headache,  and  those  passing  urinary  red  sand  it  should,  as 
a  rule,  be  shunned.  Drunk  in  excess  it  tends  to  induce  a  plethoric  state, 
and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  not  only  is  it  an  excitant  of  gouty  at- 
tacks Avhere  the  gouty  disposition  exists,  but  that  the  gouty  habit  may 
be  developed  through  its  influence.  It  seems  to  be  the  presence  of  im- 
perfectly fermented  matter  in  association  with  the  spirit — and  the  same 
holds  good  with  regard  to  other  alcoholic  beverages — that  gives  it  its  per- 
nicious properties  in  relation  to  gout. 

Port,  some  years  back,  was  largely  consumed  amongst  the  upper  classes 
as  an  after-dinner  wine.  At  the  present  time  its  place  may  be  said  to  be 
taken  by  claret,  and,  whatever  the  cause,  it  is  now  rare  in  society  to 
come  across  men  who  admit  that  port  agrees  with  them.  If  not  drunk  so 
much,  however,  amongst  the  upper  classes,  there  has  been  no  falling  off  in 
its  consumption  in  England;  and  this,  because  it  now  finds  its  way  into 
the  houses  of  small  tradesmen,  and  others,  where  formerly  it  was  unknown. 

A  limited  quantity  of  white  wine  reaches  us  from  Portugal.  Bucellas 
is  a  white  Portuguese  dinner  Avine,  which,  a  short  time  since,  met  with  a 
somewhat  extensive  consumption,  but  is  now  seldom  heard  of.  ^Lisbon, 
also,  is  a  white  wine  derived  from  Portugal.  White  port  is  likewise  to  be 
obtained,  but  is  not  often  come  across. 

Sherry  and  other  Spanish  wines. — Under  the  generic  name  of  sherry 
are  included  the  ordinary  white  wines  of  Spain.  The  heat,  dryness,  and 
equality  of  the  climate  give  advantages  which  render  Spain  a  most  suc- 
cessful wine-producing  country.  Sherry  has  long  held  a  high  position  in 
public  estimation  as  a  wholesome  and  clean-drinking  wine.  Like  the 
other  products  of  hot  countries  it  is  subjected  to  the  addition  of  spirit, 
and  its  alcoholic  strength  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  port.  Unbrandied 


264  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

sherry  is  often  advertised,  but  the  wine  in  an  unfortified  state  is  only  ex- 
ceptionally imported  into  England  and  consumed. 

Several  kinds  of  sherry  are  met  with,  varying  in  color,  body,  and  taste. 
There  are  the  pale,  golden,  and  brown*  and  some  are  thin  and  dry,  whilst 
others  are  full-bodied  and  rich.  Naturally,  the  wine  is  pale,  but  to  suit 
the  market,  color  and  body  are  given  by  the  addition  of  "  must "  (grape 
juice)  which  has  been  evaporated  down  until  it  has  assumed  the  condition 
of  a  thick  and  dark-colored  syrupy  liquid.  This,  as  may  be  inferred,  not 
only  adds  to  its  color  and  fulness,  but  also  modifies  its  taste. 

Certain  sherries  are  characterized  by  distinct  names,  as,  for  instance, 
Amontillado,  Vino  di  JPasto,  Montilla,  and  Manzanilla.  These  are  all 
dry  wines,  and  are  often  found  free  or  almost  free  from  saccharine  mat- 
ter. Genuine  Amontillado  has  a  choice  dry,  nutty  flavor,  and  Manzanilla 
a  decided  bitterness. 

A  pure  and  dry  sherry  may  be  said  to  constitute  one  of  the  most 
wholesome  liquids  for  general  use  of  the  fermented  class.  It  is  devoid  of 
astringency,  and  has  not  the  strength-giving  properties  of  port,  but  forms 
a  wine  that  may  be  drunk  when  other  wines  disagree.  There  are  some 
dyspeptics  who  complain  of  its  producing  acidity,  but,  as  a  rule,  it  is 
borne  well,  alike  by  those  who  suffer  from  dyspepsia  and  gout.  A  pure 
dry  wine,  however,  must  be  selected  for  consumption. 

The  product  known  as  Hambrc?  sherry  is  a  made-up  article.  Ham- 
burg is  not  a  wine-growing  but  a  wine-fabricating  locality.  Much  of  the 
cheap  sherry  sold,  and  a  great  portion  of  that  supplied  at  refreshment- 
rooms  and  public-houses,  is  derived  from  this  source.  It  is  this  which 
often  brings  sherry  into  disrepute  by  occasioning  acidity,  headache,  and 
other  symptoms  of  gastric  derangement;  and  on  account  of  the  term 
Hambro'  having  acquired  a  character  of  reproach,  the  article  is  sometimes 
named  after  the  river  instead  of  the  town,  and  thence  styled  Elbe  sherry. 

There  are  various  sweet  wines  derived  from  Spain.  Malaga  is  a  sweet 
luscious  wine  of  low  alcoholic  strength.  Paxarette  is  another  wine  of  an 
allied  nature.  JRota  Tent,  which  is  chiefly  used  in  England  for  sacramen- 
tal purposes,  is  also  a  sweet  wine,  with  a  low  percentage  of  spirit.  Sack 
is  a  name  of  antiquity  as  applied  to  wine.  The  sack  of  Shakespeare  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  a  Spanish  wine  which  held  the  place  of  our  sherry. 
The  sack  of  the  present  day  belongs  to  the  group  of  sweet  wines,  and  is 
brought  chiefly  from  Madeira,  and  Palma,  one  of  the  Canary  Islands. 

A  considerable  quantity  of  red  wine  is  likewise  now  imported  from 
Spain.  It  is  known  as  Tarragona,  or  Spanish  port,  and  possesses  the  ad- 
vantages of  being  a  low-priced,  sound,  and  full-bodied  wine.  It  may  be 
spoken  of  as  forming  the  best  substitute  for  port  that  is  furnished. 

Marsala. — This  forms  a  Sicilian  wine,  which  has  attained  considerable 
repute,  and  is  largely  consumed  in  this  country.  It  is  used  in  the  same 
way  as  sherry,  for  which  it  constitutes  a  good,  moderate-priced  substi- 
tute. A  price  that  will  procure  a  good  Marsala  will  only  purchase  an 
indifferent  sherry,  and  there  is  much  truth  in  the  remark  that  for  persons 
of  moderate  means  it  is  far  better  that  they  should  drink  a  good  Marsala 
than  a  bad  sherry.  It  is  rather  a  full-bodied  wine,  not  so  free  from  sac- 
charine matter  as  a  dry  sherry,  and  of  about  the  average  alcoholic 
strength  of  wines  of  the  fortified  class. 

Madeira. — This  is  one  of  the  choicest  of  the  fortified  wines.  The 
amount  produced  can  never  pass  beyond  certain  limits,  on  account  of  the 
restricted  area  of  the  island  for  the  growth  of  the  vine;  and,  latterly, 
from  the  severity  with  which  the  vine  disease  prevailed,- its  production 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  265 

had  almost  ceased  altogether,  for  nothing  less  than  rooting  up  the  old 
plants  and  replacing  them  with  new  was  necessitated.  Time  will  be  re- 
quired for  these  new  plants  to  arrive  at  a  state  of  perfection,  but,  from 
the  accounts  that  are  given,  the  yield  of  wine  is  satisfactorily  increasing, 
and  the  island  promises  soon  again  to  become  a  flourishing  wine-produ- 
cing country. 

Madeira  is  characterized  by  the  fulness  of  its  body  and  the  choiceness 
of  its  arorna.  It  is  a  wine  which,  like  port,  greatly  improves  by  keeping, 
and  its  mellowness  is  found  to  be  further  increased  by  transport  to  a  hot 
country  and  back.  Hence  the  practice  of  shipping  Madeira  to  the  East 
Indies  and  back,  and  it  is  probable  to  the  effects  of  the  heat  and  agita- 
tion that  the  improvement  is  due. 

The  wine  known  as  Malmsey  is  supposed  to  have  taken  its  name  from 
Malvasia,  a  small  island  in  the  Archipelago.  It  was  formerly  derived 
from  that  and  other  islands,  viz.,  Cyprus  and  Candia  in  the  Archipelago, 
as  well  as  the  peninsula  of  Morea.  The  Malmsey  wine  now  met  with 
mostly  reaches  us  from  Madeira.  It  is  a  sweet  and  luscious  wine  made 
from  grapes  grown  under  a  hot  sun  and  allowed  to  hang  on  the  vines  till 
partially  withered.  As  is  well  known,  historical  report  says  that  the 
Duke  of  Clarence,  brother  of  Edward  IV.,  on  being  condemned  to  die, 
and  being  allowed,  from  his  position,  to  choose  the  manner  of  death,  se- 
lected drowning  in  a  butt  of  Malmsey. 

Cape  or  South,  African  wines. — Formerly,  when  colonial  were  admit- 
ted at  a  lower  duty  than  foreign  wines,  these  were  introduced  on  an  exten- 
sive scale,  but  now  that  they  do  not  enjoy  this  advantage  they  are  not 
much  heard  of.  The  productions  in  question  reach  us  as  cheap  imitations 
of  port,  sherry,  and  Madeira;  but  there  is  one  Cape  wine  of  wide  renown, 
viz.,  Constantia,  which  stands  upon  its  own  merits,  and  ranks  high  in 
public  estimation  as  a  sweet  or  luscious  wine. 

MISCELLANEOUS  FRUIT  AND  OTHER  WINES. — Wine  is  made  not  only 
from  the  grape,  but  also  from  the  juice  of  various  other  kinds  of  fruit, 
and  likewise  from  the  juice  of  other  parts  of  plants  containing  sugar. 
Orange  wine,  currant  wine,  plum  wine,  gooseberry  wine,  and  many  others, 
for  example,  are  derived  from  fruits;  whilst  palm  wine,  maple  wine,  pars- 
nip wine,  etc.,  are  derived  from  other  vegetable  products.  Each  possesses 
distinctive  characters  of  its  own.  None  will  bear  comparison  for  purity 
and  choiceness  of  flavor  with  the  fermented  liquid  derived  from  the  grape. 
It  is  not  deemed  necessary  to  devote  space  to  their  special  consideration. 

Mead  or  Metheglin  is  a  wine  prepared  from  honey  and  water.  It  is  a 
fermented  liquid  of  great  antiquity  in  England,  but  is  not  much  consumed 
now.  It  is  rarely  to  be  met  with,  indeed,  except  amongst  the  peasantry 
in  certain  localities.  It  is  of  moderate  alcoholic  strength,  and  of  variable 
sweetness,  according  to  the  amount  of  unfermented  honey  remaining.  By 
keeping,  it  improves  and  acquires  a  peculiar  fragrance. 

SPIRITS. — Spirits  are  the  product  of  distillation  of  fermented  liquids, 
and  have  as  their  base  the  alcohol  which  is  formed  during  the  process  of 
fermentation.  Fermented  liquids  have  been  known  from  the  earliest 
periods  of  antiquity,  but  it  was  not  till  the  twelfth  century  that  the 
method  of  obtaining  spirit  by  distillation  was  discovered  by  Abucasis. 
As  the  alcohol  passes  over,  it  is  accompanied  by  other  volatile  products, 
and  thus  the  odor  and  flavor  of  the  spirit  vary  with  the  source  from  which 
it  is  obtained.  This  applies  to  the  product  of  first  distiHation,  and  ac- 


266  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

counts  for  the  well-known  difference  that  is  noticeable  in  the  various 
spirits,  such  as  brandy,  whiskey,  rum,  etc.,  that  are  supplied  for  use.  By 
repeated  distillation,  or  rectification  as  it  is  termed,  the  alcohol  may  be 
separated  from  the  other  principles  through  their  difference  in  volatility, 
and  made  to  lose  the  identity  that  belonged  to  the  original  spirit.  It 
clings,  however,  very  tenaciously  to  water,  and  can  only  be  separated 
from  this  associate  by  admixture  with  an  agent,  as  pearlash  (carbonate  of 
potash),  quicklime,  etc.,  which  has  a  strong  affinity  for  it,  and  holds  it 
back  whilst  the  alcohol  distils  over.  It  is  in  this  way  that  pure  or  abso- 
lute alcohol  is  obtained,  a  liquid  having  a  sp.  gr.  at  60°  Fahr.  of  0.794, 
and,  therefore,  being  considerably  lighter  than  water. 

Pure  or  absolute  alcohol,  which  has  been  referred  to,  is  only  employed 
for  chemical  purposes.  What  is  called  rectified  spirit  consists  of  alcohol 
with  16  per  cent,  of  water,  the  mixture  having  a  sp.  gr.  of  0.838  at  60° 
Fahr.  Proof  spirit  consists  of  an  admixture  of  alcohol  and  water  in  nearly 
equal  proportions,  viz.,  49  parts  by  weight  of  the  former,  and  51  of  the 
latter,  and  has  a  sp.  gr.  of  0.920  at  60°  Fahr.  Both  these  latter  are  used 
for  making  the  tinctures  of  pharmacy. 

Proof  spirit  is  taken  in  England  as  the  Government  standard  for  levy- 
ing the  Excise  and  Customs  duty.  According  to  the  proportion  of  alcohol 
and  water,  so  will  be  the  sp.  gr.,  and  tables  have  been  framed  showing  the 
relation  between  the  two,  and  thus  enabling  the  strength  of  the  spirit  to 
be  determined  when  the  sp.  gr.  has  been  ascertained,  which  is  usually 
done  by  means  of  an  instrument  called  the  hydrometer.  With  a  larger 
proportion  of  alcohol  than  exists  in  proof  spirit  the  sp.  gr.  is  lowered,  and 
the  spirit  is  said  to  be  over  proof,  whilst  conversely  with  a  less  proportion 
it  is  raised,  and  the  spirit  is  said  to  be  underproof.  From  the  ascertained 
sp.  gr.  can  be  learnt,  with  the  aid  of  the  tables  supplied,  how  much  per- 
cent, either  over  or  under  proof  a  spirit  may  be;  and  in  this  way,  with  a 
given  duty  per  gallon  for  proof  spirit,  the  charge  to  be  levied,  reckoned 
at  a  proportionate  rate,  can  be  calculated  for  spirits  of  any  other  strength. 
It  is  necessary,  however,  that  the  spirit  under  examination  should  consist 
only  of  alcohol  and  water;  and,  where  any  foreign  matter  is  present,  its 
separation  must  be  effected  by  distillation,  and  the  bulk  of  the  distilled 
product  raised  to  that  of  the  original  liquid  by  the  requisite  addition  of 
distilled  water,  just  as  requires  to  be  done  for  ascertaining  the  alcoholic 
strength  of  a  simple  fermented  liquid,  like  wine,  beer,  etc. 

Spirits  as  they  reach  the  consumer,  whilst  presenting  a  certain  range 
of  variation,  may  be  said  to  be  of  about  the  strength  of  proof  spirit,  or  to 
consist,  in  other  words,  of  about  equal  parts  of  absolute  alcohol  and 
water. 

Brandy. — Brandy  (a  corruption  from  the  German  Branntwein,  French 
Brandevin,  burnt  wine,  or  wine  subjected  to  the  influence  of  heat)  is  the 
name  applied  to  the  spirit  procured  from  the  distillation  of  wine.  Its 
quality  varies  with  the  kind  of  wine  from  which  it  is  obtained,  and  the 
care  with  which  the  process  of  distillation  is  carried  out.  It  is  chiefly 
white  wine  that  is  used,  on  account  of  its  yielding  a  more  delicate  and 
agreeable  flavored  spirit  than  red.  The  most  esteemed  brandy  is  that 
which  is  made  in  France,  and  the  districts  of  Cognac  and  Armagnac  are 
more  renowned  than  any  others  for  the  quality  of  the  product.  As  first 
distilled,  like  other  spirits,  brandy  is  a  colorless  liquid.  By  keeping  in 
an  oak  cask  it  acquires  a  pale-sherry  tint  from  the  tannic  acid  which  it  ex- 
tracts. Dark  brandies  are  artificially  colored  with  caramel.  The  flavor  and 
aroma  of  brandy  are  due  to  the  cenanthic  ether  and  other  volatile  products 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  267 

belonging  to  wine  which  pass  over  with  the  alcohol  and  water  in  the  pro- 
cess of  distillation.  As  with  wine,  from  which  it  is  derived,  the  flavoring 
principles  become  modified  and  the  brandy  improved  by  keeping.  Thus  it 
is  that  old  Cognac  possesses  a  delicacy  of  flavor  which  does  not  belong  to 
new.  When  first  imported  it  is  generally  1  or  2  per  cent,  over  proof,  but 
its  strength  decreases  by  storage  in  cask.  As  sold,  it  may  be  as  much  as 
10  or  15  or  more  per  cent,  under  proof.  Brande  places  the  average 
strength  of  brandy  at  42  per  cent,  by  measure  of  absolute  alcohol. 

Brandy  occupies  the  first  place  in  public  estimation  of  all  the  ardent 
spirits.  Its  purity  and  the  delicacy  of  its  flavor  give  it  the  position  that 
it  holds,  and  render  it  suitable  for  selection  in  any  case  where,  either  die- 
tetically  or  therapeutically,  a  spirit  is  required.  It  is  a  popular  remedy 
for  sickness,  diarrhoea,  exhaustion,  spasms,  and  for  correcting  indigestion, 
or  stimulating  the  digestion  of  an  indigestible  article  of  food.  Burnt 
brandy  is  often  specially  useful  in  protracted  sickness,  and  will  be  some- 
times found  to  be  retained  when  other  articles  are  rejected. 

Rum. — In  the  West  and  East  Indies,  molasses,  the  skimmings  from 
the  sugar  boilers,  etc.,  are  mixed  with  water,  fermented,  and  subsequently 
submitted  to  distillation.  The  distilled  product  is  afterward  colored 
with  partially  burnt  sugar,  and  constitutes  rum.  Rum  is  a  spirit  that  im- 
proves greatly — acquiring  a  fine,  mellow,  soft  flavor — by  keeping.  Its 
alcoholic  strength  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  brandy.  Jamaica  rum  is 
considered  the  best.  Sliced  pine-apples  are  sometimes  placed  into  pun- 
cheons containing  the  finer  qualities  of  rum,  and  the  product  is  known  as 
pine-apple  rum. 

Whiskey. — The  term  whiskey  is  stated  to  be  a  corruption  of  the  Celtic 
word  usquebaugh — water  of  life.  The  article  constitutes  one  of  the  corn 
spirits,  but,  unlike  gin,  is  derived  from  the  malted  grain.  It  is  usually 
made  from  malted  barley.  The  peculiar  flavor  which  it  possesses  is  due 
to  the  effect  of  kiln-drying  upon  the  grain,  and  during  this  process  the 
nature  of  the  fuel  employed  produces  its  influence  on  the  character  of  the 
product,  the  use  of  peat  and  turf  fires  giving  the  smoky  aroma  which  is- 
looked  upon  as  a  desirable  product.  As  with  brandy  and  rum,  whiskey  is 
a  spirit  which  greatly  improves  by  keeping,  a  soft  and  mellow  taste  being 
thereby  communicated  to  it.  If  the  flavor  be  not  objected  to,  whiskey 
may  be  used  in  precisely  the  same  way  as  brandy,  with  which  it  closely 
corresponds  in  alcoholic  strength.  Scotland  and  Ireland  are  the  countries 
that  are  famed  for  the  production  of  whiskey.  A  difference  exists  in  the 
flavor  of  the  products  of  the  two  countries,  but  when  of  good  quality  they 
may  be  regarded  as  of  equal  repute  and  utility. 

Gin,  Geneva,  Hollands,  or  /Schiedam. — The  spirit  comprehended  un- 
der these  names  was  originally,  and,  for  some  time,  wholly,  imported  into 
this  country  from  Holland.  It  is  a  corn  spirit,  derived  chiefly  from  un- 
malted  grain,  which,  after  distillation,  is  purified  by  the  rectifier,  and  sub- 
sequently flavored,  principally  with  juniper  berries.  The  name  Geneva 
is  derived  from  Genievre,  the  French  for  the  juniper  plant  and  berries, 
and  this  by  corruption  has  been  shortened  into  gin.  When  the  manufac- 
ture of  Geneva,  or  gin,  was  started  in  England,  the  Dutch  spirit  fell  under 
the  designation  of  Holland  Geneva,  Hollands,  and  Schiedam,  the  latter 
being  derived  from  the  export  town  of  that  name. 

In  the  preparation  of  gin  the  fermented  liquid  is  distilled,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  other  spirits,  but,  instead  of  the  process  being  allowed  to  stop 
here,  the  distillate  is  subjected  to  rectification  by  re-distillation.  The  ob- 
ject is  to  obtain  a  perfectly  pure  and  neutral  spirit  as  a  basis  for  the  addition 


268  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

of  the  flavoring  agents.  Besides  common  alcohol,  there  is  a  small  amount, 
of  amylic  alcohol,  or  oil  of  potato  spirit — -fuselol  of  the  Germans — devel- 
oped during  fermentation.  Possessing,  as  this  principle  does,  a  strong 
acrid  taste  and  nauseous  odor,  it  forms  a  contaminating  ingredient  which 
it  is  considered  advisable  to  get  rid  of.  It  happens  to  be  of  a  less  volatile 
nature  than  common  alcohol,  and  hence,  on  redistillation  the  process  can 
be  so  conducted  as  to  leave  it  behind  in  the  still.  The  spirituous  liquid 
thus  left  also  contains  other  impurities,  and  goes  under  the  name  of 
"faints."  To  convert  rectified  corn-spirit  into  gin,  it  is  flavored  with 
jiMiiper  and  various  aromatics.  Oil  of  turpentine,  according  to  what  is 
stated,  is  also  sometimes  used.  As  sold  by  the  rectifier,  the  strength  is 
about  20  per  cent,  under  proof  (it  is  not  allowed  by  law  to  be  sent  out 
.stronger  than  17  per  cent,  under  proof),  but  the  retailers  afterward  dilute 
and  generally  sweeten  it.  Thus  sweetened  it  becomes  "  cordial  gin"  and 
also  passes  under  the  name  of  "Old  Tom." 

On  account  of  the  juniper  belonging  to  it,  gin  possesses  diuretic 
properties  to  an  extent  not  enjoyed  by  the  other  spirits.  Age  does  not 
improve  it  in  the  same  manner  as  it  does  brandy,  rum,  and  whiskey. 

Several  other  spirits  are  in  use  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  It  will  suf- 
fice to  mention  here  that  arrack  is  the  name  given  to  the  spirit  obtained 
from  a  fermented  infusion  of  rice,  and  also  from  toddy  or  palm  wine; 
that  koumiss,  which  has  been  lately  extolled  as  useful  in  the  treatment  of 
consumption,  is  procured  in  Tartary  from  fermented  mare's  milk,  and  lat- 
terly also  has  been  made  in  this  country  from  cow's  milk  artificially  sweet- 
ened; and  that  robur,  or  tea-spirit,  the  latest  novelty  in  spirits,  consists 
of  ordinary  spirit  flavored  with  tea.  With  regard  to  this  last,  it  may  be 
;said  that  a  special  value  is  claimed  for  it  as  a  spirit  by  its  introducer,  but, 
looked  at  physiologically,  it  is  composed  of  agents  which  exert  antagonis- 
tic effects  upon  the  animal  system. 

LIQUEURS. — Liqueurs  constitute  distilled  spirituous  liquids,  sweetened 
.and  flavored  with  various  fruits  and  aromatic  substances.  They  are  not 
much  used  except  as  stimulants  at  the  end  of  dinner.  Some  of  them  are 
employed  as  appetizing  agents.  Their  variety  is  great,  but  only  the  best 
known  will  be  referred  to  here,  and  it  will  suffice  simply  to  mention  the 
principles  to  which  they  owe  their  flavor. 

Curacoa  has  an  aromatic  bitter  taste  which  is  due  to  orange-peel. 
Noyeau  is  flavored  with  the  kernels  of  the  peach  arid  apricot,  sometimes 
with  those  of  the  cherry,  and  sometimes  with  bitter  almonds.  Maraschino 
derives  its  flavor  from  cherries.  Kirschwasser  also  owes  its  properties  to 
the  cherry.  Cherries  are  bruised  and  allowed  to  ferment.  The  stones 
are  cracked  and  the  kernels  broken  and  used  as  well.  Distillation  is 
afterward  performed.  Chartreuse  was  originally  prepared  in  a  monastery 
bearing  this  name  in  France.  In  18G4  the  Pope  prohibited  the  monks 
from  any  longer  making  it  for  sale,  and,  as  the  recipe  was  not  published, 
the  Chartreuse  which  is  now  sold  is  a  different  liqueur  from  the  original. 
Parfait  amour  contains  a  number  of  aromatics.  In  a  recipe  for  it  the  fol- 
lowing are  enumerated:  lemon-peel,  cinnamon,  rosemary,  cloves,  mace, 
•cardamoms,  and  orange-flower  water.  Anisette  is  flavored  with  aniseed 
.and  coriander.  Kummel  is  the  principal  liqueur  of  Russia,  and  consists  of 
sweetened  spirit  flavored  with  cumin  and  caraway-seeds.  Absinthe  dif- 
fers from  the  above  in  being  a  bitter  liqueur.  It  consists  of  a  sweetened 
spirit  flavored  with  wormwood,  and  is  generally  drunk  diluted  with  water 
before  a  meal  to  stimulate  digestion  and  excite  a  flagging  appetite.  It  is, 


ALIMENTARY    SUBSTANCES.  269^ 

perhaps,  one  of  the  most  treacherous  and  pernicious  for  habitual  use  of 
all  the  liquids  of  the  alcoholic  class.  Bitters  are  likewise  used  in  a  similar 
way,  and  receive  their  flavor  from  various  bitter  agents — most  commonly 
from  angostura-bark,  orange-peel,  or  angelica-root  and  seeds. 


CONDIMENTS. 

Condiments  consist  of  seasoning  or  flavoring  agents.  Without  being 
strictly  alimentary  substances,  they  nevertheless  play  no  insignificant  part 
in  the  alimentation  of  man,  and  prove  of  service  in  more  ways  than  one. 
Their  first  effect  is  to  render  food  more  tempting  to  the  palate,  and  there- 
by increase  the  amount  consumed.  We  are  guided  in  the  choice  of  food 
by  taste  and  smell,  and  that  which  agreeably  affects  these  senses  excites 
the  desire  for  eating.  Condiments  are  employed  for  this  special  purpose, 
and  thus  a  flagging  appetite  receives  a  stimulant.  Through  their  aromatic 
and  pungent  qualities  they  also  assist  digestion,  the  modus  operandi 
being  by  promoting  the  flow  of  the  secretions,  and  increasing  the  muscu- 
lar activity  of  the  alimentary  canal.  In  some  cases  they  may  be  further 
useful  by  serving  to  correct  injurious  properties  that  may  belong  to  an 
article  of  food. 

Standing  in  the  position  they  do,  it  is  not  considered  necessary  to  give 
a  special  description  of  the  various  condiments.  A  somewhat  extensive 
group  of  them  exists.  One,  viz.,  salt,  is  simply  of  a  saline  nature.  It  is- 
the  most  universally  employed  of  all.  Some,  as  vinegar,  lemon-juice, 
pickles,  and  capers,  owe  their  virtue  to  acidity.  Others  owe  it  to  their 
pungency,  as,  for  example,  mustard,  pepper,  cayenne,  ginger,  curry,  and 
horseradish.  Others,  again,  form  an  aromatic  group  of  condiments,  which 
includes  such  as  cinnamon,  nutmegs,  cloves,  allspice,  vanilla,  mint,  thyme,, 
fennel,  sage,  parsley,  onions,  leeks,  chives,  shallots,  garlic,  and  some 
others.  Besides  these,  there  are  various  sauces  of  artificial  production* 
which  are  employed  to  give  zest  for  food  by  their  flavor. 


THE  PRESERVATION  OF  FOOD. 


THE  preservation  of  food  has  been  practised  from  time  immemorial. 
The  ancient  processes,  however,  resolved  themselves  into  such  as  simply 
drying,  salting,  etc.  Food  thus  preserved  only  imperfectly  represents  the 
article  in  the  fresh  state;  but  in  the  present  age  of  progress  the  art  has 
not  been  allowed  to  stand  still,  and  methods  are  now  had  recourse  to  by 
which  both  animal  and  vegetable  foods  are  preserved  in  such  a  way  as 
to  be  susceptible  of  being  kept  for  an  indefinite  period,  and  then  being 
almost  equal  in  quality  to  what  they  were  originally.  With  the  improve- 
ments that  have  taken  place,  a  new  trade  has  been  established,  which  has 
rapidly  grown  into  significance,  and  promises  to  prove  of  the  deepest  im- 
portance to  the  human  race.  Food  is  now  being  utilized  that  was  for- 
merly wasted,  because  it  exceeded  the  requirements  of  the  district,  and  it 
was  not  known  how  it  could  be  rendered  available  in  distant  parts.  In 
Australia  and  South  America,  particularly,  the  amount  of  animal  food 
procurable  far  surpasses  the  wants  of  the  inhabitants,  and  it  has  been 
the  practice  to  sacrifice  the  animals  for  their  wool,  skins,  fat,  and  bones, 
which  formed  exportable  commodities.  The  processes  that  have  been  in- 
vented, now  permit  the  meat  to  be  preserved  and  to  be  transported  in  a 
fit  condition  for  taking  the  place  of  fresh  food  elsewhere;  and,  with  the 
facility  of  transit  that  exists,  countries  where  food  is  scarce  may  be  sup- 
plied from  those  where  abundance  prevails,  whatever  the  distance  inter- 
vening between  the  two.  The  art  of  preserving  food  has  been  brought 
to  a  sufficient  state  of  perfection  for  this  to  be  realized,  but,  at  the  same 
time,  it  must  be  admitted  that  there  remains  room  for  improvement,  and, 
doubtless,  with  advancing  experience,  improvement  will  follow.  Much 
attention,  indeed,  is  being  given  to  the  matter,  and  it  may  be  looked  upon 
as  forming  one  of  the  most  important  questions  of  the  day. 

The  object  in  view  is  to  check  the  change  which  spontaneously  occurs 
when  food  is  exposed  to  ordinary  conditions.  I  need  not  enter  here  into 
the  theoretical  considerations  that  have  been  broached  regarding  the  pre- 
cise cause  of  this  change,  which  we  speak  of  as  decomposition  and  putre- 
faction. Suffice  it  to  state  that  there  are  three  conditions  essential  to  its 
occurrence.  These  are  the  presence  of,  1st,  warmth ;  2d,  moisture;  and,  3d, 
air.  The  exclusion  of  either  of  these  conditions  will  prevent  the  occur- 
rence of  decomposition,  and  thus  we  are  supplied  at  once  with  three 
means  of  preserving  food,  viz.,  1st,  by  the  influence  of  cold;  2d,  the  re- 
moval of  moisture,  or  drying;  and  3d,  the  exclusion  of  air. 

There  is  still  another  principle  of  action  that  can  be  brought  to  bear, 
and  this  is,  4th,  the  influence  of  certain  chemical  agents.  The  effect  of  these 
is  (whether  by  destroying  or  rendering  inactive  the  germs  contained  in 
the  air  supposed  to  excite  decomposition,  or  whatever  else  their  modus 
operandi)  to  render  the  article  resistant  to  the  operation  of  the  ordi- 


THE    PRESERVATION    OF    FOOD.  271 

nary  influences.     Each  of  these  principles  of  action  will  be  cursorily  re- 
ferred to. 

1.  Cold. — At  the  freezing-point  molecular  change  is  entirely  checked, 
and  as  long  as  they  remain    in  a   frozen    state,  organic   substances   are 
maintained  in  a  state  of  preservation  for  an  indefinite  time.     In  illustra- 
tion of  this,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  guides  at  Chamounix  are  ready 
to  relate  to  visitors  the  circumstance   that   human  remains,  belonging  to 
members  of  an  Alpine  party  killed  by  an  avalanche  whilst  making  the 
ascent  of  Mont  Blanc  in  1820,  were  disclosed  in  a  perfectly  fresh  state  in 
1861  and  1863  at  the  foot  of  the  Glacier  des  Bossons,  five  and  one-half  miles 
from  the  seat  of  the  accident.     Immersed  in  the  glacier,  they  were  grad- 
ually brought  down  by  its  continual  descent  to  the  point  where  they  were 
discovered,  which  is  where  the  glacier  is  progressively  melting  away  in 
correspondence  with  its  advance. 

Cold  is  very  extensively  employed  as  a  preservative  agency.  Ice  is 
now  largely  used  by  fishmongers,  and  other  dealers  in  perishable  animal 
foods,  to  enable  them  to  keep  their  stock  in  a  fresh  condition.  The  ice- 
chest  is  also  considered  almost  a  necessary  appurtenance,  certainly  during 
the  summer  months,  for  preserving  food  in  large  establishments.  In 
ocean-going  passenger-steamers,  meat  is  preserved  on  a  large  scale  by  in- 
troduction into  an  ice-room  or  chamber.  An  attempt  has  just  been  made 
to  bring  meat  over  in  a  frozen  state  from  Australia.  The  experiment 
failed  from  the  cold  not  having  been  properly  sustained  on  the  voyage, 
but  there  is  no  reason  that  the  process  should  not  be  susceptible  of  being 
successfully  carried  out,  so  far  as  the  act  of  preservation  is  concerned. 
The  question  of  expense,  however,  will  have  to  form  an  element  of  con- 
sideration, and  experience  must  decide  whether  any  serious  deterioration  of 
the  article  arises  from  the  complete  freezing  that  is  necessary.  Meat  that 
has  been  frozen  is  subsequently  less  resistant  to  change  than  before,  and 
butchers  in  this  country  take  steps  to  avoid  allowing  the  frost  in  very 
cold  weather  to  affect  the  contents  of  their  shops. 

2.  Drying. — Preservation  by  drying  is  applied  to  both  animal  and  vege- 
table foods.     The  practice  is  one  of  great  antiquity,  and  it  allows  a  num- 
ber of  articles  of  ordinary  consumption  to  be  kept  in  a  state  always  ready 
for  use.     Latterly  it  has  been  artificially  applied  to  potatoes  and  other 
vegetables,  as  well  as  some  fruits,  arid  with  such  success  that,  after  being 
properly  soaked  and  cooked,  they  closely  approach,  both  in  appearance 
and  taste,  the  fresh  articles,  and  thus  furnish  a  very  fair  substitute  for 
them  where  circumstances  do  not  permit  them  to  be  obtained.     It  does 
not  answer  so  well  for  animal  substances,  although  a  quantity  of  food 
(both  meat  and  fish)  preserved  in  this  way  is  to  be  met  with.     The  dry- 
ing here  leads  to  more  or  less  loss  of  the  natural  flavor,  and  an  unpleasant 
taste  is  apt  to  be  generated.     Under  the  name  of  charqui,  beef  which  has 
been  cut  into  strips  or  slices,  and  dried,  is  imported  from  South  America. 
Pemmican,  which  was  formerly  so  extensively  used  by  Arctic  voyagers, 
consists  of  dried  and  pulverized  meat  mixed  with  fat.     It  presents  a  large 
amount  of  nourishment  in  a  small  space. 

3.  Exclusion  of  air. — This  is  the  principle  upon  which  food  is  now  being 
extensively  preserved,  to  some  extent  for  home  use,  but  chiefly  for  trans- 
port from  one  locality  to  another.     It  is  imperfectly  carried  out  in  the 
domestic  operation  of  covering  potted-meat  with  a  layer  of  melted  butter 
or  some  other  kind  of  fat.     Some  articles  also  are  preserved  by  immersion 
in  oil.     The  bottled  and  tinned  provisions  represent  a  more  perfect  appli- 
cation of  the  process.     The  food  is  introduced  into  a  suitable  bottle  or 


272  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

tin,  and,  after  having  been  heated  so  as  to  drive  out  the  air  by  the  gener- 
ation of  steam,  the  opening  is  closed  and  hermetically  sealed  in  order  to 
prevent  any  subsequent  re-entrance  from  without.  When  properly  per- 
formed, the  efficacy  of  the  process  is  such,  that  after  the  lapse  of  many 
years  the  provisions  have  been  found  in  a  perfectly  good  and  sound  con- 
dition. It  is  applied  to  both  animal  and  vegetable  articles  of  food. 

The  fruit  and  vegetables  preserved  in  bottles  and  tins  permit  us  to 
obtain  the  representative  of  the  fresh  article  at  all  seasons  of  the  year 
and  in  all  localities,  and  so  closely  does  the  preserved  approach  in  charac- 
ter the  fresh  fruit  or  vegetable,  that  there  is  little  discoverable  difference 
between  the  two. 

Every  variety  of  meat  and  soup,  and  also  fish,  lobsters,  etc.,  are  now 
to  be  obtained  in  a  preserved  state,  and  importation  upon  a  very  exten- 
sive scale  has  lately  been  carried  on  into  this  country  from  Australia  and 
elsewhere.  An  important  branch  of  trade  has,  indeed,  sprung  up  during 
the  last  few  years  in  this  department  of  commerce,  which  is  rapidly  in- 
creasing, and  promises  ultimately  to  attain  enormous  dimensions.  The 
plan  of  preserving  that  is  generally  adopted  is  described  in  an  Australian 
journal  to  be  as  follows: 

The  meat-preserving  establishments  are  so  situated  as  to  combine,  as 
fully  as  may  be  found  possible,  proximity  to  a  well-supplied  cattle  market, 
with  facilities  for  the  shipment  of  the  finished  product.  Whenever  prac- 
ticable, grazing  paddocks  are  provided  adjacent  to  the  works,  in  which  to 
keep  the  stock  purchased  until  required  for  use.  The  animals  are  slaugh- 
tered, skinned,  and  dismembered.  From  the  slaughter-house  the  meat  is 
removed  on  tramways,  or  by  sliding  it  along  suspended  from  iron  bars, 
to  the  "  boning-room,"  where  the  process  of  meat-preserving  properly 
commences.  Expert  butchers,  paid  by  the  piece,  here  take  the  meat  in 
hand,  and,  taught  by  long  practice  and  stimulated  by  the  desire  to  earn 
large  wages,  perform  their  work  with  surprising  skill  and  rapidity.  Their 
duty  is  to  cut  the  meat  from  the  bone  and  remove  superfluous  fat;  and 
so  thoroughly  is  the  work  done,  that  a  hungry  dog,  it  is  stated,  would 
have  to  turn  over  a  large  number  of  bones  before  it  could  obtain  a  dinner 
from  the  minute  shreds  of  meat  adhering  to  them.  The  meat  is  now 
conveyed  to  the  kitchen,  and  here  it  is  in  the  first  place  cut  into  suitable 
pieces  for  tinning,  and  weighed.  In  some  establishments  it  is  then  par- 
tially cooked,  generally  by  means  of  steam;  in  others  it  is  put  into  the 
tins  in  a  raw  state,  with  the  addition  of  a  little  salt.  Usually  a  surplus 
allowance  of  a  few  ounces,  the  number  varying  according  to  the  size  of 
the  tin,  is  made  for  the  loss  tha't  occurs  in  cooking.  Sometimes  some 
rich  gravy,  extracted  from  portions  of  meat  which  are  not  suitable  for 
tinning,  is  added  to  each  tin.  The  tops  are  then  soldered  on,  a  small 
hole  being  left  in  the  middle  of  each.  This  is  one  of  the  most  critical 
operations  in  the  whole  process,  since  everything  depends  on  the  tins 
being  air-tight,  and  the  most  skilful  tinsmiths  are  employed  to  perform 
it.  The  canisters,  arranged  in  numbers  together  on  a  perforated  tray, 
are  next  lowered  into  a  bath  containing  a  saturated  solution  of  chloride 
of  calcium,  and  there  allowed  to  remain  immersed  to  within  an  inch  or 
two  of  their  tops,  at  a  gradually  increasing  temperature,  until  the  con- 
tents are  cooked,  and  all  atmospheric  air  is  expelled  through  the  small 
orifice  in  the  top.  The  hole  is  then  closed  with  solder,  and  the  canister 
subjected  to  a  short,  thorough  immersion  in  the  heated  solution,  the  tem- 
perature of  which  considerably  exceeds  that  of  boiling  water.  All  that 
now  remains  is  to  cool,  clean,  test,  and  paint  the  canisters.  After  re- 


«      THE    PRESERVATION    OF    FOOD.  273 

moval  from  the  heated  bath  they  are  placed  in  cold  water,  cleaned,  and 
then  transferred  to  the  testing-room.  This  is  an  artificially  heated  room, 
in  which  they  are  allowed  to  remain  for  a  period  of  six  days.  Should 
there  be  the  slightest  leak  in  the  solder  of  the  tin,  the  defect  will  show 
itself  within  this  time  by  the  bulging  out  of  the  ends,  due  to  the  genera- 
tion of  gas  as  the  result  of  decomposition  occurring  within.  The  canis- 
ters that  stand  the  test  are,  lastly,  painted,  labelled,  and  packed  for  ex- 
portation. As  long  as  their  contents  remain  good  they  give  signs  of  the 
absence  of  putrefactive  gases  by  the  depression  of  the  surface  caused  by 
the  condensation  ensuing  after  the  process  of  hermetically  sealing. 

Meat  preserved  in  this  way  sustains  no  loss  of  its  nutritive  capacity, 
and  it  possesses  the  pecuniary  advantage  of  being  free  from  bone.  The 
material  is  there  with  its  proper  aptitude  for  digestion.  The  only  objec- 
tion is,  that  through  the  heat  employed  to  ensure  its  preservation  it  is 
brought  into  an  over-cooked  condition.  It  is  probably  impossible,  in 
depending  only  on  heat,  to  escape  from  this  objection,  for  experiments 
on  the  putrefactive  process  show  that  not  only  is  it  necessary  to  exclude 
all  air  containing  active  germs,  but  the  germs  must  be  destroyed  that  are 
in  contact  with  the  article  itself,  and  it  requires  a  high  temperature  to 
accomplish  this  result. 

Milk  may  be  preserved  by  the  same  method,  but  when  treated  in  the 
ordinary  state  the  disadvantage  arises  of  the  butter  separating  and  not 
being  afterward  miscible  with  the  liquid.  To  overcome  this  objection 
the  rnilk  is  concentrated  to  a  thickish  consistence,  and  is  also  mixed  with 
sugar.  In  this  state  it  will  keep  for  some  time  after  the  tin  is  opened. 

4.  Preservation  of  food  by  the  use  of  antiseptics. — There  are  several 
agents  that  are  employed  for  this  purpose.  Salt  is  one  of  the  most  com- 
mon, and  nitre  is  frequently  associated  with  it.  The  effect  of  a  saline, 
however,  is  to  depreciate  the  nutritive  value  of  the  article  by  extracting 
the  soluble  constituents,  and  by  also  hardening  the  texture,  so  as  to  ren- 
der it  difficult  of  digestion.  Syrup,  alcohol,  and  vinegar  form  other 
agents  in  common  use  as  preservatives.  After  being  to  some  extent 
salted,  certain  kinds  of  meat  and  fish  are  often  subjected  to  smoking. 
The  empyreumatic  vapor  with  which  they  become  penetrated  possesses  a 
strong  antiseptic  capacity,  which  greatly  promotes  their  power  of  keep- 
ing. 

The  analysis  of  brine  shows  that  the  process  of  salting  must  materi- 
ally diminish  the  nutritive  value  of  meat,  for  it  is  found  to  contain  a 
large  portion  of  the  ingredients  of  its  juice.  Not  only  does  the  contrac- 
tion which  ensues  cause  the  infiltrating  liquid  to  be  driven  out,  but  the 
liquefied  salt  tends  further  to  draw  out  by  osmosis  its  diffusible  organic 
and  saline  constituents.  Liebig  estimates  the  loss  of  nutritive  value  as 
amounting  to  one-third  or  even  one-half.  Soaking  salted  meat  iti  water 
removes  its  saltness,  but  cannot,  of  course,  restore  the  nutritive  princi- 
ples that  have  been  lost. 

From  experience  it  has  been  learnt  that  salted  and  dried  food  cannot 
be  used  continuously  for  a  lengthened  period  without  impairing  the 
health.  The  well-known  effect  is  the  development  of  a  cachectic  state 
which  manifests  itself  under  the  form  of  what  are  called  scorbutic  affec- 
tions. 

18 


PRINCIPLES  OF  DIETETICS. 


THE  physiological  properties  of  the  various  alimentary  principles, 
looked  at  individually,  were  considered  in  a  former  part  of  this  work; 
they  here  require  to  be  spoken  of  collectively  in  reference  to  the  main- 
tenance of  life. 

It  happens  that  an  article,  viz.,  milk,  is  produced  by  the  operations  of 
nature  for  the  special  purpose  of  sustaining  life  during  an  early  period  of 
the  existence  of  the  mammalian  animal.  Such  an  article  may  be  taken 
as  affording  a  typical  illustration  of  natural  food.  Now  we  find,  on  look- 
ing to  its  composition,  that  it  contains  the  following  alimentary  prin- 
ciples: 

Nitrogenous  matter  (caseine  principally,  and  in  smaller  quantity  some 
other  forms  of  albuminoid  matter). 

Fatty  matter  (butter). 

A  carbohydrate  (lactine). 

Inorganic  matter,  comprising  salines  and  water. 

The  egg,  also,  stands  in  an  analogous  position.  As  all  the  parts  of 
the  young  animal  are  evolved  from  it,  it  must  needs  represent  the  mate- 
rial, or  contain  the  suitable  principles,  for  the  development  and  growth  of 
the  body,  and  the  same  groups  of  principles  are  to  be  recognized  that 
exist  in  milk,  although  in  the  case  of  one  of  them  it  is  only  present  to  a 
somewhat  minute  extent.  1st,  nitrogenous  matter  is  largely  present,  under 
the  form  of  albumen,  both  in  the  white  and  yolk;  2d,  oily  matter  is  con- 
tained in  the  yolk;  3d,  saccharine  matter,  a  principle  belonging  to  the 
carbohydrate  group,  is  to  be  detected;  but  only,  it  must  be  mentioned, 
to  a  sparing  extent,  in  which  respect  the  composition  of  the  egg  differs 
notably  from  that  of  milk;  4th,  inorganic  matter,  consisting  of  salines 
and  water,  completes  the  list,  and  for  the  saline  matter  required,  that  be- 
longing to  the  shell  is  drawn  upon  as  the  process  of  incubation  proceeds. 
As  Liebig  has  pointed  out,  there  is  an  insufficiency  of  mineral  matter  in 
the  soft  contents  of  the  egg  for  the  development  of  the  skeleton  and  other 
parts  of  the  chick,  but  the  shell  forms  a  store  of  earthy  matter  which 
gradually  becomes  dissolved  by  the  phosphoric  acid  generated  through  the 
oxidizing  influence  of  the  air  upon  the  phosphorus  existing  amongst  the 
contents  of  the  egg.  By  the  occurrence  of  this  process  the  shell  be- 
comes thinner  and  thinner  as  incubation,  or  development  of  the  chick, 
advances. 

We  thus  see  that  in  these  products,  which  are  specially  designed  in  the 
economy  of  nature  for  the  development  and  nutrition  of  animal  beings, 
it  is  a  combination  of  principles  that  is  present.  This  may  be  therefore 
taken  as  suggestive  that  such  a  combination  is  needed,  and  experiments 
upon  alimentation  have  abundantly  proved  it  to  be  the  case.  It  is  not 


PRINCIPLES    OF   DIETETICS.  275 

this  or  that  alimentary  principle  which  can  be  separated  artificially  from 
others  that  will  suffice  for  sustaining  life,  but  different  principles  asso- 
ciated together,  just  as  we  find  them  in  the  productions  of  nature.  As 
objects  of  nature  ourselves,  it  is  the  productions  of  nature  that  form  our 
appropriate  food.  We  are  so  framed  as  to  depend  for  existence  upon 
natural  productions,  and  unless  we  are  supplied  with  such  a  combination 
of  principles  as  is  met  with  in  natural  productions,  defective  nutrition 
results. 

It  was  formerly  thought  that  the  nitrogenous  principles  ought  to  be 
capable  of  sustaining  life,  seeing  that  they  not  only  represent  what  is 
wanted  for  administering  to  the  nutrition  of  the  body,  but  through  their 
carbon  and  hydrogen  can  also  contribute  toward  heat-production,  and  it 
excited  surprise  when  it  was  discovered  experimentally  that  animals 
perished  of  inanition,  exactly  as  if  they  had  been  deprived  of  all  food, 
when  confined  exclusively  to  these  principles.  Tiedemann  and  Gmelin 
found  that  geese  were  starved  upon  an  abundant  supply  of  white  of  egg, 
but  it  is  especially  to  the  researches  of  the  Paris  Gelatine  Commission 
that  we  are  indebted  for  a  comprehensive  survey  of  the  subject. 

The  labors  of  this  Commission  were  instigated  with  the  view  of  deter- 
mining whether  the  gelatinous  extract  from  bones  could  properly  supply 
the  place  of  meat,  particularly  as  food  for  the  poor.  It  had  been  asserted 
that  such  was  the  case,  and  the  investigation  was  undertaken  by  a  com- 
mission appointed  by  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris  and  named  the 
Gelatine  Commission.  After  nearly  ten  years,  it  is  stated,  of  uninter- 
rupted research,  the  report  was  sent  in  by  Magendie  in  the  name  of  the 
Commission.  The  question  which  the  Commission  primarily  undertook 
to  decide  was  :  Whether  it  was  possible,  economically,  to  extract  from 
bones  an  aliment  which  alone  or  mixed  with  other  substances  could  take 
the  place  of  meat /  but  the  inquiry  led  on  to  the  study  of  the  nutritive 
properties  of  the  alimentary  principles  in  general.  The  conclusions  ar- 
, rived  at  by  this  Commission  form  simple  expressions  of  well-ascertained 
facts,  and  therefore,  unlike  many  physiological  conclusions,  stand  uncon- 
troverted  by  the  experience  of  the  thirty  years  which  have  elapsed  since 
the  report  was  drawn  up.*  They  are  of  sufficient  interest  and  importance 
to  lead  me  to  introduce  them  here.  They  run  as  follows  : 

First. — It  is  not  possible  by  any  known  process  to  extract  from  bones 
an  aliment  which,  either  alone  or  mixed  with  other  substances,  can  take 
the  place  of  meat. 

Second. — Gelatine,  albumen,  and  fibrine,  taken  separately,  nourish 
animals  but  for  a  very  limited  period,  and  only  in  a  very  incomplete  man- 
lier. In  general  they  soon  excite  an  insurmountable  disgust,  so  that  the 
animals  rather  die  than  partake  of  them. 

Third. — These  same  alimentary  principles,  artificially  reunited  and  ren- 
dered agreeably  sapid  by  seasoning,  are  taken  more  readily  and  for  a  longer 
period  than  when  in  a  separate  state  ;  but  they  have  no  better  ultimate 
influence  on  nutrition,  for  the  animals  that  eat  them,  even  in  considerable 
quantities,  end  by  dying,  with  all  the  signs  of  complete  inanition. 

Fourth. — Muscular  flesh,  in  which  gelatine,  albumen,  and  fibrine  are 
united  according  to  the  laws  of  organic  nature  and  associated  with  other 
matters,  as  fat,  salts,  etc.,  suffices,  even  in  very  small  quantity,  for  com- 
plete and  prolonged  nutrition. 

*  Comptes  Eendus  des  Seances  de  1' Academic  des  Sciences,  tome  13me,  p.  283. 
Paris,  1841. 


276  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

Fifth. — Raw  bones  can  do  the  same,  but  the  quantity  consumed  in  the 
twenty-four  hours  must  be  very  much  larger  than  in  the  case  of  meat. 

Sixth. — Every  kind  of  preparation,  such  as  decoction  with  water,  the 
action  of  hydrochloric  acid,  and  particularly  the  transformation  into  gela- 
tine, diminishes,  and  seems  even,  in  certain  cases,  almost  completely  to  de- 
stroy the  nutritive  quality  of  bones. 

Seventh. — The  Commission,  however,  is  unwilling  at  present  to  express 
an  opinion  upon  the  employment  of  gelatine  associated  with  other  ali- 
ments, in  the  nourishment  of  man.  It  believes  that  direct  experiment  can 
alone  throw  light  upon  this  subject  in  a  definite  manner.  It  is  actively 
occupying  itself  with  reference  to  the  point,  and  the  results  will  be  made 
known  in  the  second  and  last  part  of  the  report. 

Eighth. — Gluten  extracted  from  wheaten  or  maize  flour  satisfies  by  it- 
self complete  and  prolonged  nutrition. 

Ninth. — Fats  taken  alone  sustain  life  for  some  time,  but  give  rise  to 
an  imperfect  and  disordered  nutrition,  fat  accumulating  in  all  the  tissues, 
sometimes  in  the  state  of  oleine  and  stearine,  sometimes  in  that  of  almost 
pure  stearine. 

Looking  at  the  above  conclusions,  the  one  which  refers  to  gluten 
(eighth)  stands  in  opposition  to  the  others.  Surprise  is  expressed  in  the 
report,  and  it  does  seem  surprising,  that  whilst  other  isolated  alimentary 
principles  failed  in  sustaining  life,  gluten  should  be  capable  of  affording 
perfect  nourishment  for  animals;  nevertheless,  it  is  stated  that  animals 
were  kept  upon  it  for  three  months  without  interruption,  and  presented 
throughout  this  period  all  the  signs  of  excellent  health.  The  explanation 
suggested  in  the  report  for  this  discordant  and  unexpected  result  is  that 
the  gluten  employed  did  not  form  a  pure  alimentary  principle,  but  re- 
tained some  starch  and  other  non-nitrogenous  matter.  Doubtless,  also, 
there  must  have  been  mineral  matter  likewise  present,  for  it  would  be  in- 
consistent from  what  we  now  know,  that  life  should  be  maintained  for  a 
lengthened  period  in  the  absence  of  this  constituent  of  food.  Under  this 
view  the  discordancy  becomes  reconciled,  the  result  observed  being  attribu- 
table to  a  mixture  of  substances  being  in  reality  consumed,  instead  of  a 
single  alimentary  principle. 

The  Paris  Commission  having  found  that  gelatine  taken  alone  failed 
to  nourish  animals,  a  Commission  of  the  Institute  of  Amsterdam  under- 
took to  determine  whether  it  increased  the  nutritive  value  of  other  ali- 
ments to  which  it  might  be  added.  Evidence  was  drawn  in  the  same 
manner  as.  had  been  done  by  the  Paris  Commission,  from  experiments 
conducted  upon  dogs,  and  the  conclusion  arrived  at  was  that  gelatine 
was  not  only  of  no  nutritive  value  when  taken  alone,  but  was  not  made 
nutritive  by  combination  with  other  substances.*  This  conclusion,  which 
places  gelatine  in  the  position  of  a  useless  agent  in  an  alimentary  point 
of  view  is  inconsistent  with  the  now  well-established  fact  that  the  inges- 
tion  of  gelatine,  like  that  of  other  nitrogenous  principles,  gives  rise  to  an 
increase  in  the  elimination  of  urea;  for,  as  pointed  out  in  a  previous  part 
of  this  work,  with  the  production  of  urea  from  nitrogenous  matter  a  hy- 
drocarbonaceons  compound  is  left,  which  is  evidenly  susceptible  of  being 
turned  to  account  as  a  force-producing  agent  in  the  system. 

Some  results  obtained  by  Mr.  Savory,  it  may 'be  remarked,  have  been 
interpreted  and  quoted  as  showing  that  nitrogenous  matter,  combined 
only  with  the  appropriate  saline  principles,  suffices  for  the  maintenance  of 

*  Gazette  MSdicale,  tome  12me,  p.  176.     Paris,  1844. 


PRINCIPLES    OF   DIETETICS.  277 

life.  Thus,  in  "Kirke's  Physiology,"  seventh  edition,  p.  259,  it  is  stated: 
"  Contrary  to  the  views  of  Liebig  and  Lehrnann,  Savory  has  shown  that, 
while  animals  speedily  die  when  confined  to  non-nitrogenous  diet,  they 
may  live  long  when  fed  exclusively  with  nitrogenous  food."  Again,  Dr. 
Parkes  ("  Hygiene,"  third  edition,  p.  160)  says:  "  For  though  the  dog  and 
the  rat  (Savory)  can  live  on  fat-free  meat  alone,  man  cannot  do  so." 
Bischoff  and  Voit  found  that  dogs  could  be  sustained  on  meat  deprived 
of  visible  fat,  and  maintained  at  their  full  weight  with  but  very  slight 
variation,  whilst  Ranke,  it  appears,  could  not  maintain  himself  in  perfect 
nutrition  on  meat  alone. 

Now,  with  reference  to  these  statements,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
after  the  removal  of  the  visible  fat,  flesh  still  contains  a  certain  amount 
which  is  brought  into  view  by  analysis.  It  cannot  be  deprived  of  fat  be- 
yond 1  per  cent.,  and  in  Savory's  experiments  on  rats,  the  flesh  (lean 
veal)  employed  was  found  to  contain  1.55  per  cent.*  But,  let  us  look 
into  the  particulars  of  the  experiments,  and  see  what  they  in  reality 
prove. 

In  the  first  place,  1.55  per  cent,  of  fat  in  meat  means  rather  over  6 
per  cent,  in  the  dry  matter  of  meat,  about  three-fourths  of  fresh  meat  be- 
ing made  up  of  water. 

In  one  experiment  a  couple  of  rats,  which  had  been  nearly  brought  to 
the  verge  of  death  by  restriction  to  starchy  matter  and  fat,  were  fed  with 
bread  and  meat  for  four  days,  and  then  with  meat  alone.  A  week  after 
commencing  the  meat  their  united  weight  was  9  oz.  1£  dr.,  and  three 
weeks  later  10  oz.  1  dr.  Being  now  placed  on  a  diet  of  meat,  with  non- 
nitrogenous  food  (starch  and  fat),  a  notable  improvement  occurred,  for  in 
three  days'  time  they  weighed  11  oz. ;  four  days  later  14  oz.  12  drs.;  and 
a  week  later  still,  14  oz.  4  drs. 

In  another  experiment  two  rats,  weighing  12  oz.  were  placed  on  an  ex- 
clusive diet  of  lean  meat  and  water.  They  remained  healthy  in  appear- 
ance, but  steadily  lost  weight,  and  in  a  month's  time  weighed  only  8f  oz. 
They  were  now  placed  on  a  miscellaneous  diet,  and  in  a  week's  time 
weighed  12^-  oz. 

In  a  third  experiment  two  rats,  weighing  together  12  oz.  7  drs.,  were 
kept  upon  the  meat  diet  exclusively.  On  the  thirteenth  day  one  of  the 
rats  died,  the  weight  of  its  body  being  2  oz.  8  drs.,  and  that  of  the  other 
6  oz.  3  drs.  The  live  one  was  still  restricted  to  the  same  food,  and  this 
died  ten  days  later,  the  weight  of  its  body  then  being  5  oz.  It  is  worthy 
of  mention,  as  a  passing  remark,  that  two  other  pairs  of  rats  which  had 
been  taken  at  the  same  time,  one  pair  being  fed  on  a  non-nitrogenous  diet 
and  the  other  on  a  mixed  diet,  remained  still  alive. 

I  have  entered  into  these  particulars  because  the  experiments  in  ques- 
tion, contrary  to  their  true  effect,  have  been  referred  to  as  invalidating 
the  accredited  doctrine — that  to  sustain  life  in  an  efficient  manner  there 
must  be  an  admixture  of  the  nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous  alimentary 
principles.  Before  quitting  the  subject  it  is  right  to  state  that  a  hawk 
was  kept  for  two  months  on  the  same  meat  food,  and  improved,  it  is  as- 
serted, in  appearance  and  condition.  No  weights,  however,  are  given,  and 
the  quantity  of  food  consumed  is  not  mentioned.  With  the  1.55  per 
cent,  of  fat  in  the  fresh  meat,  forming  rather  over  6  per  cent,  of  the  dry 
material,  a  sufficiently  notable  amount  of  fat  may  have  been  ingested  if 
the  quantity  of  food  consumed  was  large.  It  is  not  contended  that  heat 

*  Lancet,  vol.  i.,  pp.  383,  412.     1863. 


278  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

or  force-production  generally  is  dependent  solely  upon  the  non-nitrogen- 
ous aliment  supplied,  for  it  is  well  known  that  the  nitrogenous  principles 
undergo  metamorphosis  into  urea,  and  an  oxidizable  residue  which  is  sus- 
ceptible of  utilization  in  that  direction;  but  observation  tends  to  show 
that,  for  the  proper  maintenance  of  nutrition  (and  it  must  be  remembered 
that  fat  is  a  necessary  agent  in  the  accomplishment  of  the  formative  pro- 
cesses), the  presence  of  some  non-nitrogenous  matter  at  least  is  needed  in 
the  food. 

If  the  nitrogenous  principles,  from  their  capacity  for  yielding  the 
requisite  material  for  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  the  tissues,  and 
likewise  from  their  capacity  for  undergoing  metamorphosis  into  urea  and 
a  hydrocarbonaceous  product  susceptible  of  appropriation  to  force-pro- 
duction, might  appear  theoretically  sufficient,  so  far  as  organic  matter 
is  concerned,  for  the  support  of  life,  such  even  cannot  be  said  with  re- 
spect to  the  non-nitrogenous  principles.  These  could  not  possibly  be 
expected  to  suffice  for  maintaining  life,  as  an  element  is  missing  which  is 
wanted  for  the  formation  of  the  tissues.  Experimental  proof,  however, 
has  been  adduced  upon  the  point.  Fat  formed  one  of  the  articles  sub- 
jected to  investigation  by  the  Gelatine  Commission,  and  its  inability  to  sup- 
port life  is  shown  amongst  the  conclusions  that  were  arrived  at.  Boussin- 
gault also  fed  a  duck  on  butter  only,  and  found  that  it  died  at  the  end  of 
three  weeks  of  starvation.  Butter,  it  is  said,  exuded  from  all  parts  of  the 
body,  and  the  feathers  seemed  as  if  they  had  been  soaked  in  melted  butter. 

Sugar,  gum,  and  starch  were  submitted  to  experiment  by  Magendie  on 
dogs,  and  Tiedemann  and  Gmelin  on  geese;  the  animals  became  emaciated 
and  more  and  more  feeble,  till  they  perished  of  inanition.  Like  experi- 
ments have  since  also  been  performed  by  others,  and  corresponding  re- 
sults obtained. 

When  fat  is  combined  with  other  non-nitrogenous  matter,  emaciation 
is  still  one  of  the  phenomena  observed.  In  Mr.  Savory's  experiments  on 
rats  *  fed  on  equal  parts  by  weight  of  arrow-root,  sago,  tapioca,  lard,  and 
suet — a  mixture  found  to  contain  only  .22  per  cent,  of  nitrogen — the  ani- 
mals underwent  emaciation  and  died  of  inanition,  fat  having  disappeared 
from  the  body,  as  occurs  under  complete  privation  of  food.  Notwithstanding 
this  absence  of  fat  from  the  body,  the  fur  of  the  animals  was  observed  to 
have  presented  a  decidedly  greasy  appearance,  just  as  though  fat  exuded 
from  the  skin,  in  correspondence  with  what  Boussingault  noticed  in  his 
experiment  where  a  duck  was  fed  exclusively  on  butter. 

It  may  be  inferred  that  nitrogenous  matter  is  required  not  only  for 
the  formation  of  the  tissues,  but  likewise  for  contributing,  by  the  pro- 
motion of  the  requisite  change,  to  the  utilization  of  the  non-nitrogenous 
principles,  and,  unless  it  exist  in  suitable  amount  in  the  food,  these  prin- 
ciples fail  to  pass  on  to  their  proper  destination.  It  is  known  that  the 
carbohydrates  contribute  to  the  formation  and  accumulation  of  fat;  but, 
for  this  to  take  place,  the  concurrence  of  a  due  amount  of  nitrogenous 
matter  is  required.  Boussingault's  experiments  on  pigs  showed  that 
whilst  potatoes  alone  did  not  suffice  for  fattening  the  animals,  they  grew 
fat  with  the  addition  of  nitrogenous  matter;  and  the  presence  of  fat  also 
in  the  food  seems  in  some  manner  or  other  likewise  to  promote  the  trans- 
formation of  the  carbohydrates.  Boussingault  also  found  that  the  cow 
was  insufficiently  nourished  on  potatoes  and  beet-root  alone,  although 
given  in  very  large  quantity. 

*  Lancet,  voL  i,  pp.  382  and 413.    1863. 


PRINCIPLES    OF   DIETETICS.  279 

The  question  as  to  whether  non-nitrogenous  matter  should  enter  into 
the  composition  of  food  has  been  sufficiently  discussed  already,  but  an- 
other question  presents  itself:  Are  both  fats  and  carbo-hydrates  neces- 
sary ?  If  we  look  to  the  diets  of  different  nations  we  almost  invariably 
find  that  both  these  principles  are  represented.  Still  it  is  evident  that 
fat  alone  will  suffice  for  yielding  the  non-nitrogenous  matter  required  for 
the  support  of  life,  for  we  find  in  certain  parts  of  the  globe  that  there  are 
large  numbers  of  persons  who  subsist,  and  maintain  themselves  in  good 
health,  exclusively  on  animal  food,  in  which  fat  forms  the  only  represen- 
tative of  non-nitrogenous  matter.  As  to  whether,  however,  the  carbo- 
hydrates can  similarly  supply  what  is  wanted,  forms  a  question  that  is 
not  so  summarily  to  be  disposed  of.  It  is  true  there  are  some  articles 
of  vegetable  food  which  are  capable  of  sustaining  life,  and  which,  whilst 
freely  containing  a  carbohydrate,  contain  a  comparatively  insignificant 
quantity  of  fat;  but  the  presence  of  fat,  as  has  been  already  mentioned, 
appears  to  be  of  service  in  promoting  the  metamorphosis  of  the  carbo- 
hydrates in  the  system.  It  also  exerts  a  favorable  influence  over  the 
assimilation  of  nitrogenous  matter  and  the  processes  of  tissue  formation 
and  nutrition;  and  it  may  be  said  that  there  is  strong  reason  to  belie\re 
that  the  association  of  a  certain  amount  of  fatty  matter  with  the  carbo- 
hydrates is  probably  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  the  organism  in 
perfect  health.  The  belief  is  further  entertained  that  its  deficiency  is 
sometimes  the  source  of  the  development  of  the  tuberculous  diathesis. 

Inorganic  matter,  under  the  form  of  saline  materials  and  water,  is 
equally  as  essential  for  satisfying  the  requirements  of  life  as  the  organic 
components  of  food.  Although  such  saline  materials  and  water  do  not 
appear  to  be  individually  concerned  in  the  interplay  of  changes  which 
form  the  source  of  the  phenomena  of  life,  they  nevertheless  enter  as  es- 
sential elements  into  the  constitution  of  the  textures  and  fluids  of  the 
body,  and  thus  must  needs  be  supplied,  to  an  adequate  extent  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  nutrition  and  secretion,  with  the  food  from  with- 
out. 

Such  form  the  principles  that  are  required  as  components  of  food  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  body  in  a  healthy  condition.  But  as  yet  I  have 
only  referred  to  the  nature  of  the  principles,  and  not  to  their  amount. 
As  regards  the  inorganic  portion  of  food,  it  may  simply  be  said  that 
enough  of  the  several  principles  encountered  in  the  body«must  be  sup- 
plied to  meet  the  wants  of  nutrition  and  secretion.  The  organic  portion, 
however,  cannot  be  so  summarily  disposed  of,  and  the  question  first 
arises:  What  relative  proportion  of  nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous 
principles  is  best  adapted  for  administering  to  the  requirements  of 
life? 

It  may  be  fairly  concluded  that  the  requirements  as  regards  food  vary 
with  exposure  to  different  conditions.  According  to  the  expenditure 
that  is  taking  place,  so,  in  a  good  scheme  of  dieting,  should  materials  be 
supplied  which  are  best  calculated  to  yield  what  is  wanted.  Under  ex- 
posure to  hard  labor  and  inactivity,  and  to  a  high  and  low  external  tem- 
perature, the  consumption  of  material  in  the  system  differs,  and  the  sup- 
ply of  food  should  be  regulated  accordingly.  Notwithstanding  the  tenor 
of  recent  experiments  as  to  mechanical  or  muscular  work  being  obtain- 
able from  the  oxidation  of  non-nitrogenous  matter,  general  experience  is 
to  the  effect  that  for  the  maintenance  of  a  good  condition  nitrogenous 


280  A    TKEATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

matter  is  required  in  larger  quantity  under  greater  exertion  than  during 
a  state  of  rest.  The  inhabitants  of  the  colder  regions  also  require  to  be 
more  perfectly  supplied  with  combustible  matter  than  persons  inhabiting 
warmer  climates. 

The  laws  of  nature  are  such  as  to  conduce  to  an  adaptation  of  the  sup- 
ply of  food  to  its  demand.  We  are  all  conversant  with  the  fact  that  ex- 
ercise and  exposure  to  cold — conditions  which  increase  the  demand  for 
food — sharpen  the  appetite,  and  thus  lead  to  a  larger  quantit}'  °f  mate- 
rial being  consumed;  whilst,  conversely,  a  state  of  inactivity  and  a  warm 
climate  tell  in  an  opposite  manner,  and  reduce  the  inclination  for  food. 
A  badly  fed  laborer  is  capable  of  performing  but  a  slight  day's  work, 
and  a  starving  man  falls  an  easy  victim  to  the  effects  of  exposure  to 
cold. 

Not  only  is  there  thus  a  correspondence  between  the  amount  of  food 
required  and  the  inclination  for  taking  it,  but,  probably  arising  from  the 
teachings  of  experience,  we  find  the  nature  of  the  food  selected  in  differ- 
ent countries  to  vary,  and  to  constitute  that  which  is  most  in  conformity 
with  what  is  needed. 

For  example,  the  dwellers  in  the  arctic  regions,  besides  consuming  an 
enormous — even  prodigious — quantity  of  food,  partake  of  that  kind  which 
abounds  in  the  most  efficient  form  of  heat-generating  material,  viz.,  oleagi- 
nous matter.  It  is  from  the  bodies  of  seals  and  whales,  and  such  like 
sources,  that  the  food  of  the  extreme  northerners  is  obtained.  It  is  true 
the  coldness  of  the  climate  will  not  permit  the  production  and  supply  of 
the  carbohydrates  by  vegetable  growth,  as  occurs  in  low  latitudes;  but, 
if  it  did,  they  could  hardly  be  consumed  in  sufficient  quantity  to  yield  the 
requisite  amount  of  heat. 

Sir  Anthony  Carlisle  relates  an  anecdote  from  his  experience  amongst 
the  arctic  inhabitants:  "The  most  northern  races  of  mankind,"  he  says, 
"  were  found  to  be  unacquainted  with  the  taste  of  sweets,  and  their  in- 
fants made  wry  faces  and  sputtered  out  sugar  with  disgust;  but  the 
little  urchins  grinned  with  ecstasy  at  the  sight  of  a  bit  of  whale's  blub- 
ber." 

In  the  tropics,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  especially  upon  vegetable  pro- 
ducts— products  largely  charged  with  principles  belonging  to  the  carbo- 
hydrate group  instead  of  fat — that  the  native  inhabitants  subsist.  The 
succulent  fruits  and  vegetables,  says  Liebig,  on  which  the  natives  of  the 
south  prefer  to  feed,  do  not  in  the  fresh  state  contain  more  than  12  per 
cent,  of  carbpn.  The  blubber  and  train  oil,  on  the  other  hand,  which 
enter  largely  into  the  diet  of  the  extreme  northerner,  contain,  he  remarks, 
from  66  to  80  per  cent,  of  carbon. 

For  a  temperate  climate  reason  would  suggest  something  between  the 
two  extremes  as  yielding  the  most  suitable  form  of  food,  and  custom,  we 
find,  has  led  to  the  selection  of  a  mixed  diet,  which  furnishes  the  combina- 
tion of  the  two  kinds  of  heat-producing  principles. 

It  is,  then,  upon  the  principle  of  adaptiveness  to  the  particular  re- 
quirement existing  that  the  diet  should  be  made  to  conform.  The  per- 
formance of  work  was  until  recently  believed,  in  accordance  with  Liebig's 
teachings,  to  have  its  source  in  the  metamorphosis  of  nitrogenous  matter. 
It  was  considered  that  muscular  and  nervous  action  resulted  from  an  oxi- 
dation of  muscular  and  nervous  tissue,  and  that,  according  to  the  extent 
of  action  occurring,  so  was  a  supply  of  the  nitrogenous  alimentary  prin- 
ciples demanded  to  replace  the  oxidized  material.  This  gave  to  nitrogen- 
ous matter  a  special  position  in  relation  to  the  manifestation  of  nervo- 


PRINCIPLES   OF    DIETETICS.  281 

muscular  activity,  and  Liebig  measured  the  working  value  of  food  bv  the 
amount  of  what  he  styled  the  plastic  elements  of  nutrition  it  contained. 
1  he  following  table  was  framed  by  him  to  show,  upon  this  principle,  the 
relative  working  value  of  various  articles  of  food  in  common  use.  To  bring 
the  comparison  to  uniformity,  the  non-nitrogenous  matter  is  all  reckoned 
as  starch.  The  relative  value  of  fat  and  starch  for  heat-producing  purposes 
may  be  reckoned  from  the  amount  of  oxygen  respectivelv  required  for  the 
complete  oxidation  of  the  product,  and  it  is  found  to  stand  in  the  ratio  of 
1  to  2 A.  Thus,  by  a  simple  process  of  calculation,  fat,  when  this  form  of 
lion-nitrogenous  matter  exists,  in  a  given  article  of  food,  is  easily  reduced 
into  its  heat-producing  equivalent  of  starch. 

Liebig's  Tabular  Representation   of  the   Relative  Nutritive    Value  of 
Various  Articles  of  Food. 

Non-nitrogenous 
Plastic  nitrogenous      calorifacient 

matter.  matter  reckoned 

as  starch. 

Veal, 10  1 

Hare's  flesh, 10  2 

Beef, 10  17 

Beans, 10  22 

Peas, 10  23 

Fat  mutton, 10  27 

Fat  pork, 10  30 

Cow's  milk, 10  30 

Woman's  milk, 10  40 

Wheaten  flour, 10  46 

Oatmeal, 10  50 

Rye, 10  57 

Barley, 10  57 

Potatoes, 10  86  to  115 

Rice, 10  123 

It  has  been  previously  shown  in  this  work  that  there  is  now  strong 
reason  to  believe  that,  in  opposition  to  Liebig's  view,  the  non-nitrogenous 
elements  of  food  contribute,  as  well  as  the  nitrogenous,  to  the  production 
of  muscular  force,  and,  with  this  before  us,  nitrogenous  matter  ceases  to 
hold  the  special  value  as  a  source  of  working  power  that  was,  till  quite 
recently,  assigned  to  it.  . 

It  was  through  the  extension  of  the  doctrine  of  the  conservation  of 
energy  (which  implies  that  force  is  readily  transmutable  from  one  form 
into  another,  but,  like  matter,  not  susceptible  of  being  created  from  noth- 
ing, nor  of  being  destroyed)  to  living  bodies,  combined  with  the  results 
obtained  by  Fick  and  Wislicenus  in  their  ascent  of  the  Faulhorn  (vide  p. 
45),  that  physiologists  were  led  to  entertain  the  view  that  is  now  held. 
Fick  and  Wislicenus  proved  that  the  oxidation  of  their  muscular  tissue, 
as  measured  by  the  amount  of  nitrogen  voided  with  the  urine,  sufficed 
only  for  the  production  of  a  small  proportion  of  the  force  expended  in  the 
accomplishment  of  the  measured  work  performed.  The  only  conclusion 
they  could  arrive  at,  therefore,  was  that  muscular  power  originated  from 
the  oxidation  of  non-nitrogenous  matter,  of  which  their  food  exclusively 
consisted  for  a  short  time  before  and  during  the  period  of  the  ascent. 


282  A   TREATISE    OX    FOOD   AND    DIETETICS. 

Experiments  have  since  been  performed  by  other  observers,  with  corro- 
borative results,  and  it  may  now  be  looked  upon  as  a  settled  point  that 
non-nitrogenous  alimentary  matter  contributes,  in  a  manner  not  before 
suspected,  to  muscular  force-production. 

As  a  sequel  to  this  deduction,  Professor  Frankland  *  undertook  the 
experimental  determination  of  the  force-producing  value  of  various  articles 
in  common  use  as  food.  His  results  represent  the  actual  force  evolved 
by  complete  oxidation,  under  the  form  of  heat,  measured  by  means  of 
the  calorimeter.  Now,  heat  and  mechanical  work  are  not  only  mutually 
convertible,  but  bear  a  fixed  quantitative  relation  to  each  other.  A  cer- 
tain amount  of  heat,  in  other  words,  is  transformable  into  a  definite 
amount  of  motive  power  capable  of  performing  a  fixed  and  ascertainable 
amount  of  mechanical  work.  Thus,  by  calculation,  the  value  of  a  given 
article  of  food  is  easily  represented  in  working  power.  It  is  in  this  way 
that  the  measure  of  working  power  has  been  deduced.  Professor  Frank- 
land's  table  will  be  found  annexed.  In  it  the  Continental  weights  and 
measures  are  employed,  f  The  unit  of  heat  is  the  amount  of  heat  which 
will  raise  the  temperature  of  1  gramme  (15.432  grains)  of  water  1°  Cent. 
(1.8°  Fahr.).  A  kilogrammetre  of  force  is  the  representative  of  the  power 
required  to  lift  1  kilogramme  ('2.2046  pounds  avoirdupois)  1  metre  (3.2808 
feet)  high.  The  value  of  the  various  articles  mentioned  in  the  list  in 
units  of  heat  is  the  result  of  direct  observation,  whilst  that  in  kilogram- 
metres  of  force  is  obtained  by  calculation  upon  the  basis  of  Mr.  Joule's 
estimate,  which  represents  the  heat  that  will  raise  the  temperature  of  1 
kilogramme  of  water  1°  Cent,  as  equivalent  to  the  mechanical  power  re- 
quired to  lift  1  kilogramme  423£  metres  high,  or,  what  is  the  same  thing, 
kilorammes  1  metre  hih. 


*Philos.  Mag.,  vol.  xxxii..  1886. 

•{•Expressed  in  English  weights  and  mea«ures  it  is  the  foot-pound,  or  the  power  re- 
quired to  lift  one  pound  one  foot  high,  which  forms  the  unit  of  work,  and  772  foot- 
pounds represent,  according  to  Mr.  Joule's  estimate,  the  dynamic  equivalent  of  1° 
Fahr.  —  that  is.  the  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  pound  of  water  1° 
Fahr.  constitutes  the  equivalent  of  the  power  required  to  lift  one  pound  772  feet  high. 
Kilogrammetres  are  convertible  into  foot-pounds  by  multiplying  by  7.  232;  one  kilo- 
gramme (2.2046  pounds  avoirdupois)  raised  one  metre  (8.2808  feet)  high  equalling  one 
pound  raised  7.232  feet  high. 


PRINCIPLES    OF   DIETETICS. 


283 


Force-producing  Value  of  One   Gramme    (15.432   Grains)  of  Various 
Articles  of  Food  (Fraukland). 


NAME  OF  FOOD. 


Cod-liver  oil 

Beef  fat, 

Butter, 

Cocoa-nibs, 

Cheese  (Cheshire) 24.0 

Isinglass, 

Bread-crust, 

Oatmeal, 

Flour, 

Pea-meal 

Arrow-root, 

Ground  rice, 

Yolk  of  egg 47.0 

Lump  sugar, 

Grape-sugar  (commercial), 

Hard-boiled  egg, 62.3 

Bread-crumb 44.0 

Lean  ham  (boiled), 54.4 

Mackerel, 70.5 

Beef  (lean), 70.5 

Veal  (lean), 70.9 

Guinness's  stout, 88.4 

Potatoes, 73.0 

Whiting, 80.0 

Bass's  ale  (alcohol  reckoned),  .      .        88.4 

White  of  egg 86.3 

Milk, 87.0 

Apples 82.0 

Carrots, 86.0 

Cabbage, 88.5 


Per  cent,  of 
water  present. 


FOBCE-PBODUCIKO  VAWJE. 


In  units  of 

hc.it. 


9,107 

9,069 

7,264 

6,873 

4,647 

4,520 

4,459 

4,004 

3,936 

3,936 

3,912 

3,813 

3,423 

3,348 

3,277 

2,383 

2,231 

1,980 

1,789 

1,567 

1,314 

1,076 

1,013 

904 

775 

671 

662 

660 

527 

434 


In  kilogrammetrea  of  force. 


When  burnt 
in  oxygen. 


3,857 

3,841 

3,077 

2,911 

1,969 

1,914 

1,868 

1,696 

1,669 

1,667 

1,657 

1,615 

1,449 

1,418 

1,388 

1,009 

945 

839 

758 

664 

556 

455 

429 

383 

328 

284 

280 

280 

223 

184 


When 
oziiticed  in 
the  U>dy. 


3,857 
3,841 
3,077 
2,902 
1,846 
1,550 

1,665 

1,627 

1,598 

1,657 

1,591 

1,400 

1,418 

1,388 

966 

910 

711 

683 

604 

496 

455 

422 

335 

328 

244 

266 

273 

220 

178 


In  the  foregoing"  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  working  value  is  not 
the  same  where  nitrogenous  matter  has  to  be  dealt  with,  when  oxidized 
in  the  body,  as  when  burnt  in  oxygen.  This  arises  from  the  occurrence  of 
complete  oxidation  in  the  one  case,  and  not  in  the  other.  Whilst  with 
non-nitrogenous  matters  complete  oxidation  of  the  elements  occurs  with- 
in the  body,  as  when  burnt  without,  it  is  not  so  with  nitrogenous  matters. 
These  in  the  system  are  only  partially  consumed,  the  nitrogen  escaping 
under  the  form  of  urea,  and  carrying  off  a  portion  of  the  carbon  and  hy- 
drogen in  an  imperfectly  oxidized  condition.  This  final  product  of  animal 
consumption,  therefore,  possesses  a  certain  amount  of  unexpended  force 
(at  least  one-seventh  of  that  originally  belonging  to  the  material),  where- 
as the  final  products  of  burning  in  oxygen — consisting  of  free  nitrogen, 
carbonic  acid,  and  water — represent  fully  exhausted  principles.  It  is  of 


284 


A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 


course  assumed,  in  speaking  of  the  force-producing  value  of  articles  con- 
sumed in  the  body,  that  this  only  refers  to  the  material  that  is  actually 
digested  and  utilized,  which  certainly  as  a  rule  is  far  from  comprising  the 
whole  that  is  consumed  as  food. 

Taking  the  force-value  as  given  above,  and  reckoning,  in  accordance 
with  Helmholz'  calculation,  that  the  animal  system  is  capable  of  turning 
one-fifth  of  the  actual  energy  developed  by  the  oxidation  of  the  food  to 
account  as  external  work,  Professor  Frankland  has  determined  the  weight 
and  cost  of  various  alimentary  articles  that  would  be  required  to  raise  the 
body-weight  of  a  person  of  10  stone,  or  140  Ibs.,  to  a  height  of  10,000 
feet. 


Weight  and  Cost  of  Various  Articles  of  Food  that  would  Require  to  be 
Consumed  in  the  System  to  liaise  the  Body  of  a  Person  Weighing  10 
Stone,  or  140  Lbs.,  to  a  Height  of  10,000  Feet  (Frankland). 


NAMK  or  FOOD. 

"SSff- 

At  price  per  pound. 

Cost 

Cod-liver  oil,      

0.553 

s.      d. 
3      6 

*.     d, 

1  Hi 

Beef  fat,  

0.555 

0  10 

0    5fr 

Butter,     

0.693 

1     6 

1     0$ 

Cocoa-nibs,  

0.735 

1     6 

1     l£ 

Cheshire  cheese,     

1.156 

0  10 

0  ll£ 

Oatmeal,       

1.281 

0     2f 

0    3£ 

Arrow-root,  

1.287 

1     0 

1     3* 

Flour,      

1.311 

0    2f 

0    3f 

Pea-meal,      

1.335 

0    3J 

0    4£ 

Ground  rice,      

1341 

0    4 

0    5* 

Isinglass,            .           

1.377 

16    0 

22     Oi 

Lump  suffar. 

1.505 

0    6 

0     9 

Commercial  grape-sugar,  .... 
Hard-boiled  eggs,   

1.537 
2.209 

0    3£ 

0     6i 

0    5i 
1     24- 

Bread,      

2.345 

0    2 

0    4f 

Lean  ham  (boiled),      

3.001 

1     6 

4    6 

Mackerel,     .           

3.124 

0    8 

2     1 

3.532 

1     0 

3     6| 

Lean  veal,     

4.300 

1     0 

4    3* 

Potatoes,      .                 

5.068 

0     1 

0    5i 

Whiting,  

6.369 

1    4 

9    4 

7.815 

o   14 

0  11| 

Milk  

8.021 

5rf.  per  quart 

1    3* 

White  of  egg  

8.745 

0    6 

4    4i 

Carrots,   

9.685 

0     H 

1     2£ 

Cabbage,       

12.020 

0     1 

1     Oi 

Guinness's  stout  (bottled), 
Bass's  pale  ale  (bottled)  

6f  bottles. 
9  bottles. 

Wd.  per  bottle 
Wd. 

5     7i 
7    6 

Looked  at  in  the  manner  above  represented,  muscular  work,  like  heat, 
in  opposition  to  Liebig's  theory,  is  derivable  from  the  oxidation  of  non- 
nitrogenous  as  well  as  nitrogenous  matter,  and  Professor  Frankland's 
tables  show  that  .55  Ibs.  of  fatty  matter  will  furnish  the  same  amount  of 
power  as  is  obtainable  from  1.3  lb.  of  flour,  1.5  Ib.  of  sugar,  3.5  Ibs.  of 
lean  beef,  and  o  Ibs.  of  potatoes.  Traube  even  inverted  the  proposition 


PRINCIPLES    OF    DIETETICS.  285 

of  Liebig,  and  asserted,  in  the  most  decided  manner,  that  the  substances 
by  the  oxidation  of  which  force  is  generated  in  the  muscles  are  not  the 
albuminous  constituents  of  the  tissue,  but  non-nitrogenous  principles, 
viz.,  either  fats  or  carbohydrates. 

According  to  the  foregoing  table,  wherein  is  mentioned  the  cost  of 
the  various  articles  of  food  required  to  be  consumed  to  accomplish  a  given 
amount  of  work,  it  appears,  viewing  these  articles  purely  in  their  capa- 
city as  force-producing  agents  by  oxidation,  that  tiie  same  amount  of 
work  is  obtainable  from  oatmeal  costing  3£d.  ;  flour,  3£d.  ;  bread,  4£d.  ; 
and  beef  fat,  5£d.  ;  as  from  beef  costing  3s.  6£d.,  and  isinglass,  £1  2s. 


Taking  all  the  facts  at  present  revealed  into  consideration,  we  appear 
to  be  warranted  in  adopting  the  following  terms  of  expression.  It  is  in 
the  first  place  admitted  on  all  hands  that  food  is  the  source  from  which 
muscular  power  is  derived,  and  hence  the  supply  of  food  should  be  in 
proportion  to  the  amount  of  work  that  is  performed.  It  was  formerly 
thought  that  food  must  be  converted  into  muscular  tissue  before  it  could 
be  available  for  the  performance  of  work  which  involved  the  origin  of 
work  from  nitrogenous  alimentary  matter.  The  effect  of  recent  investi- 
gation, however,  is  to  show  that  it  is  not  to  an  oxidation  of  muscular  tis- 
sue that  we  are  to  look  for  the  force  produced.  The  muscles  appear  to 
stand  in  the  position  of  instruments  for  effecting  the  conversion  of  the 
chemical  energy  evolved  by  the  oxidation  of  combustible  matter  into 
working  power.  Fats  and  carbohydrates  can  furnish  the  combustible 
matter  required,  and,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  probably  do  largely, 
if  not  chiefly,  supply  it.  Nitrogenous  matter  can  do  so  likewise,  but  it 
has  to  undergo  a  preparatory  metamorphosis  for  effecting  the  separation 
of  nitrogen  in  a  suitable  form  for  elimination. 

As  pointed  out  in  a  previous  part  of  this  work  (vide  p.  41  et  seq.),  it 
is  under  the  form  of  urea  that  the  nitrogen  of  digested  and  absorbed 
nitrogenous  matter  mainly  escapes.  This  body  consists,  besides  nitro- 
gen, of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  and  the  amount  of  oxygen  is  such 
as  to  leave  a  portion  of  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  in  a  combustible  or 
oxidizable  condition.  In  the  escape  of  urea,  therefore,  there  is  a  loss  or 
waste  of  a  portion  of  the  force-producing  power  of  the  original  nitrogen- 
ous principle,  and,  taking  dry  nitrogenous  matter,  as  nearly  as  possible 
one-third  passes  off  as  urea.  The  remaining  two-thirds  form  the  avail- 
able portion  for  force-production.  But  this  residuary  portion  is  made  up 
in  part  of  oxygen,  and  it  is  only  in  reality  50  per  cent,  of  the  original 
nitrogenous  matter  that  consists  of  carbon  and  hydrogen  in  an  oxidizable 
condition.  Thus  it  is  that,  for  force-production,  nitrogenous  matter  is  of 
less  value  than  the  fats  and  carbohydrates. 

Observation  shows  that  the  results  of  experience  fully  accord  with  tho 
teachings  of  science.  In  the  case  of  navvies  and  other  hard-working 
men  the  appetite  is  known  by  the  employer  to  form  a  measure  of  capacity 
for  work.  A  falling  off  of  the  appetite  means,  that  is  to  say,  a  dimin- 
ished capacity  for  the  performance  of  work.  A  farmer,  where  wages 
were  good,  when  asked,  "  how  it  was  that  he  paid  his  laborers  so  well  ?  " 
replied,  "  that  he  could  not  afford  to  pay  them  less,  for  he  found  that 
less  wages  produced  less  work."  Indeed,  one  might  just  as  reasonably 
expect  that  a  fire  would  burn  briskly  with  a  scanty  supply  of  fuel,  or  a 
steam-engine  work  with  a  deficient  supply  of  coal,  as  that  a  man  could 
labor  upon  a  meagre  diet.  Men  have  also  learned,  where  arduous  work 
Las  to  be  performed,  and  similarly  in  cold  climates  where  a  large  amount 


286  A   TKEATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

of  heat  has  to  be  produced — for  the  demand  is  the  same  in  the  two  cases 
— that  the  requirements  are  best  met  by  a  liberal  consumption  of  fatty 
matter,  which  is  the  most  efficient  kind  of  force-producing  material,  with 
the  food.  The  fat  bacon  relished  and  eaten  with  his  bread  by  a  hard- 
working laborer  yields,  at  a  minimum  cost,  the  force  he  forms  the  medium 
for  producing. 

As  thus  considered,  the  non-nitrogenous  alimentary  principles  appear 
to  possess  a  higher  dietetic  value  than  the  nitrogenous,  and  when  re- 
garded solely  in  relation  to  capacity  for  force-production,  there  is  no 
'  doubt  they  in  reality  do  so.  But  there  is  a  further  point  to  be  looked  at. 
The  physical  development  and  maintenance  of  the  body  must  be  likewise 
taken  into  account,  and  for  this  it  is  nitrogenous  alimentary  matter  only 
that  can  supply  what  is  needed.  Wherever  vital  operations  are  going 
on,  there  exists  nitrogenous  matter.  It  is,  indeed,  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  nitrogenous  matter  that  the  operations  of  life  occur.  The 
tissues  which  form  the  instrument  of  living  action  require  to  be  con- 
structed in  the  first  instance;  and  next,  to  be  constantly  renovated,  to 
compensate  for  the  loss  by  deterioration  which  is  continually  going  on. 
Thus,  a  demand  for  nitrogenous  alimentary  matter  is  created  quite  apart 
from  direct  contribution  to  force-production;  and,  further,  not  only  is 
nitrogenous  matter  required  for  the  construction  and  repair  of  the  tissues, 
but  likewise  to  form  a  constituent  of  the  secretions,  for  all  secretions 
which  possess  active  properties  owe  them  to  the  presence  of  a  nitrogen- 
ous principle.  Here,  then,  is  an  additional  demand  for  nitrogenous  mat- 
ter, and  it  is  to  be  remarked  that  as  increased  work  leads  to  an  increased 
development  of  the  tissues  employed,  and  thereby  an  increased  appropria- 
tion of  nitrogenous  matter,  so  it  calls  for  an  increased  production  of 
secretions  in  consequence  of  the  larger  amount  of  food  that  has  to  be 
prepared  for  consumption.  In  this  way,  theoretically,  without  contribu- 
ting in  a  direct  manner  to  force-production,  the  performance  of  work 
may  be  looked  upon  as  necessitating  a  proportionate  supply  of  nitrogen- 
ous alimentary  matter. 

Practically,  it  is  found  that  hard  work  is  best  performed  under  a 
liberal  supply  of  nitrogen-containing  food.  The  reason  probably  is  that 
it  leads  to  a  better  nourished  condition  of  the  muscles  and  of  the  body 
generally.  Under  the  use  of  animal  food,  which  is  characterized  by  its 
richness  in  nitrogenous  matter,  the  muscles,  it  is  affirmed,  are  observed 
to  be  firmer  and  richer  in  solid  constituents  than  under  subsistence  upon 
food  of  a  vegetable  nature.  What  meat  is  to  man,  corn,  which  of  all 
vegetable  fodder  contains  the  albuminates  in  the  largest  proportion,  is 
to  the  horse.  Highly  bred  horses  require  richly  nitrogenous  food.  The 
Arab,  says  Donders,  never  lets  his  horse  eat  grass  and  hay  to  satiety. 
Its  chief  food  is  barley,  and  in  the  wilderness  it  gets  milk,  and  if  great 
effort  is  required,  even  camel's  flesh.  The  horses  which  in  Sahara  are 
used  for  hunting  ostriches  are  kept  nearly  exclusively  on  camel's  milk 
and  dried  beans.  In  the  case  of  our  horses,  too,  he  continues,  it  is  well 
known  that  to  do  heavy  work  they  require  more  than  grass  and  hay. 
Corn  is  necessary  to  give  strength  and  activity.  Coachmen  know  that 
"the  oats  must  be  in  them."  In  order  to  perform  hard  work,  horses 
must  have,  not  watery,  but  firm  muscles,  and  the'food  which  serves  best, 
— viz.,  the  more  richly  nitrogenous — to  produce  such  muscles,  is  after- 
v/ard  necessary  to  maintain  their  condition.  As  albuminous  food  pro- 
daces  firm  muscles,  so  exercise  makes  them  red.  To  sum  up,  science 
intimates  that  a  liberal  supply  of  nitrogenous  matter  is  necessary  to  pro- 


PEINCIPLES    OF   DIETETICS.  287 

duce  and  maintain  muscles  in  a  good  condition  for  work,  and  the  result 
of  experience  is  to  confirm  it. 

I  have  been  speaking  of  food  considered  in  relation  to  the  perform- 
ance of  work,  but  it  would  be  unphilosophical  to  look  at  it  only  in  this 
light.  The  question  should  be  viewed  under  a  broader  aspect, "and  the 
point  really  for  the  physiologist  to  discuss  is  under  what  combination  of 
alimentary  principles  the  highest  state  of  development,  both  mental  and 
physical,  is  attainable.  If  regarded  as  living  for  the  mere  performance 
of  work,  and  looked  at  economically,  man,  it  may  be  said,  would  bear  an 
unfavorable  comparison  with  a  machine  set  in  motion  by  steam.  Mechan- 
ical work  is  under  no  form  so  costly  as  under  that  produced  by  muscular 
agency,  and  particularly  by  that  of  man.  It  has  been  calculated,  it  is 
true,  (vide  p.  5),  that  whilst,  through  the  medium  of  the  animal  system, 
one-fifth  of  the  power  stored  up  in  the  food  consumed  is  realizable  as 
external  mechanical  work,  the  amount  realizable  from  fuel  is  only  one- 
tenth  in  the  case  of  even  the  best  constructed  steam-engine,  the  remain- 
der being  dissipated  or  lost  as  heat.  Thus  far  the  animal  machine  is 
more  economical  of  its  force  than  the  machine  of  artificial  construction; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  fuel  (food)  consumed  in  the  former  is  very 
much  more  costly  than  that  consumed  in  the  latter.  From  this  considera- 
tion human  labor  can  never  compete  in  economy  with  steam,  and  hence, 
as  suggested  by  Donders,  the  worst  use  to  make  of  a  man  is  to  employ 
him  exclusively  in  mechanical  work — a  proposition  which  harmonizes 
with  the  increasing  introduction  of  machinery  in  our  advancing  age  of 
civilization.  Letheby,*  on  the  subject  of  the  comparative  costliness  of 
food  and  fuel,  says,  "  taking  a  steam-engine  of  one  horse-power  (that  is, 
a  power  of  raising  33,000  Ibs.  a  foot  high  per  minute)  it  will  require  two 
horses  in  reality  to  do  the  same  work  for  ten  hours  a  day,  or  twenty-four 
men;  and  the  cost  would  be  lOd.  for  the  steam-engine,  8s.  4d.  for  the 
two  horses,  and  just  £2  sterling  for  the  twenty-four  men." 

From  what  has  preceded  we  may  conclude  that,  with  a  supply  of  ni- 
trogenous matter  sufficient  for  the  thorough  development  and  subsequent 
maintenance  of  the  body  in  good  condition,  the  best  materials  for  the 
production  of  working  power,  as  well  as  heat,  are  the  non-nitrogenous 
principles,  and  that  of  these  the  fats  are  more  effective  than  the  others. 

Tables  have  been  given  of  the  relative  amounts  of  the  different  ali- 
mentary principles  requisite  for  the  proper  support  of  life,  such  tables 
having  been  framed  either  by  ascertaining  through  observation  the  mini- 
mum upon  which  the  body  can  be  maintained  in  a  healthy  state,  or  by 
stopping  the  supplies  from  without  and  estimating  the  consumption  of 
material  occurring  in  the  system  from  the  outgoings  found  by  examina- 
tion to  take  place.  The  latter  method  must  be  discarded  as  fallacious. 
Existence  under  an  absence  of  food  fails  to  represent  the  natural  state, 
and  the  outgoings  fall  short  of  their  ordinary  amount:  a  portion  being 
naturally  derivable  from  food-metamorphosis,  as  well  as  from  the  con- 
sumption of  material  by  oxidation  for  life-manifestation. 

The  table  given  by  Moleschott  is  generally  accepted  as  furnishing  a 
fair  representation  of  a  standard  or  model  diet — that  is,  a  diet  containing 
the  requisite  combination  of  alimentary  principles  for  just  maintaining 
health  in  a  person  of  average  height  and  weight,  under  exposure  to  a 
temperate  climate  and  a  moderate  amount  of  muscular  work.  It  is  as 
follows: 

*  Cantor  Lectures  "  On  Food,"  1870,  p.  109. 


288 


A    TREATISE    ON"    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 


Alimentary  Substances  in  a  Dry  State  Required  Daily  for  the  Sup- 
port of  an  Ordinary  Working  M an  of  Average  Height  and  Weight 
(Molescliott). 


Dry  food. 

In  oz.  uvoir. 

In  grains. 

In  grammes. 

Albuminous  matter,     .      .     .     .     . 

4.587 

2,006 

130 

Fatty  matter,     

2.964 

1,296 

84 

Carbohydrates,  ,      . 

14.250 

6,234 

404 

Salts  

1.058 

462 

30 

Total,       

22.859 

9,998 

648 

Thus,  about  23  oz.  form  the  quantity  of  dry,  solid  matter  contained  in 
this  standard  diet,  and  a  fifth  of  it  is  composed  of  nitrogenous  matter. 
If  we  reckon  that  our  ordinary  food  contains,  say  50  per  cent,  of  water, 
these  23  oz.  will  correspond  to  4G  oz.  of  solid  food  in  the  condition  in 
which  it  is  consumed.  To  complete  the  alimentary  ingesta,  a  further 
quantity  of  from  50  oz.  to  80  oz.  of  water  may  be  put  down  as  taken, 
under  some  form  or  other,  daily. 

The  dynamic  or  force-producing  value  of  this  daily  standard  diet 
amounts  to  3,960  foot-tons.* 

It  must  be  distinctly  understood  that  the  above  quantities  are  to  be 
looked  upon  as  yielding  what  is  necessary  for  the  support  of  life  under 
medium  conditions.  The  amount  of  material  consumed  in  the  body,  and 
therefore  the  food  required  to  compensate  for  the  loss  occurring,  varies 
with  the  external  temperature  and  the  work  performed.  In  speaking  of 
a  standard  diet,  the  expression  must  not,  therefore,  be  taken  for  more 
than  it  is  really  worth.  It  would  be  as  absurd  to  look  upon  a  certain  diet 
as  adjusted  to  the  requirements  of  every  particular  case  as  to  assign  to  a 
certain  amount  of  coal  the  capacity,  when  consumed  in  a  grate,  of  rnain- 

*  For  calculating  the  dynamic  value  the  experimental  determinations  of  Frank- 
land  are  used.  These,  as  has  been  previously  explained,  were  obtained  by  ascertaining 
with  the  calorimeter  how  much  heat  is  evolved  during  the  oxidation  of  a  given  quan- 
tity of  a  substance  subjected  to  examination.  The  measured  hf-at  is  then  transformed 
into  its  equivalent  of  working  power ;  and  represented  in  krogrammetres.  or  force 
required  to  raise  a  kilogramme  one  metre  high  (vide,  p.  282).  The  following  are  the 
figures  given  for  the  undermentioned  alimentary  articles  which  have  been  taken  as 
representing  the  three  groups  of  organic  alimentary  principles. 

Force  produced  by  the  Oxidation  of  One  Gramme  (15.432  Grains)  as  consumed  within  the 

Body. 

In  kilogrammetres. 

Albumen  (purified), 1,805 

Fat  (beef  fat), 3,811 

Starch  (arrow-root), 1,657 

Kilogrammetres  are  convertible  into  foot-tons  (tons  lifted  one  foot  high)  by  mul- 
tiplying by  00.32285.  Below  are  given  the  figures  representing  the  foot- ton  value  of  an 
ounce. 

Force  produced  by  the  Oxidation  of  One  Ounce  (437.5  Grains)  a*  consumed  within  the 

Body. 

In  foot-toha. 

Albumen  (purified), 165.20 

Fat  (beef  fat), 351.56 

Starch  (arrow-root), .        .151.66 


PRINCIPLES    OF   DIETETICS.  289 

taining  a  room  at  a  given  degree  of  heat  under  varying  states  of  external 
temperature;  or,  when  consumed  in  a  furnace,  of  enabling  a  locomotive 
to  propel  a  train  irrespective  of  its  weight  over  a  given  number  of  miles. 

Men  are  led  by  instinct  to  adjust  the  quantity  of  food  consumed  to 
the  particular  requirements  existing,  and  it  is  well  known  that  the  appe- 
tite is  sharpened  by  exposure  to  cold  and  under  the  performance  of  labor, 
and  lessened  by  warmth  and  habits  of  inactivity. 

Travellers  have  dilated  on  the  large  amount  of  food  consumed  by  the 
inhabitants  of  cold  as  compared  with  that  consumed  by  those  of  temper- 
ate and  hot  climates.  Accounts  are  given  which  almost  appear  incredible 
regarding  the  enormous  quantities  of  food  devoured  by  dwellers  in  the 
arctic  regions.  Thus,  Sir  John  Ross  *  states  that  an  Esquimaux  "  per- 
haps eats  twenty  pounds  of  flesh  and  oil  daily."  Sir  W.  Parry, f  as  a 
matter  of  curiosity,  one  day  tried  how  much  food  an  Esquimaux  lad, 
scarcely  full  grown,  would  consume  if  allowed  his  full  tether.  The  food 
was  weighed,  and,  besides  fluids,  he  got  through  in  twenty  hours,  8|  Ibs. 
of  flesh  and  If  Ib.  of  bread  and  bread-dust,  and  "  did  not  consider  the 
quantity  extraordinary."  Sir  George  Simpson, J  from  his  travelling  expe- 
rience in  Siberia,  says:  "In  one  highly  important  particular  the  Yakuti 
may  safely  challenge  all  the  rest  of  the  world.  They  are  the  best  eaters 
on  the  face  of  the  earth."  Having  heard  more  on  this  subject  than  he 
could  bring  himself  to  believe,  he  resolved  to  test  the  matter  by  the  evi- 
dence of  his  own  senses.  He  procured  a  couple  of  men  who  had,  he 
states,  a  tolerable  reputation  in  that  way,  and  prepared  a  dinner  for  them 
consisting  of  36  Ibs.  avoirdupois  of  beef  and  18  Ibs.  of  butter  for  each  of 
them.  By  the  end  of  an  hour  they  had  got  through  half  of  their  allowance 
in  Sir  George  Simpson's  presence.  Their  stomachs  at  this  time  projected 
"  into  a  brace  of  kettledrums."  They  were  then  left  ir\  charge  of  deputies, 
and  Sir  George  was  assured,  on  returning  two  hours  later,  that  all  had  been 
consumed.  He  remarks  that,  after  such  surfeits,  the  gluttons  remain  for 
three  or  four  days  in  a  state  of  stupor,  neither  eating  nor  drinking,  and 
meanwhile  are  rolled  about,  with  a  view  to  the  promotion  of  digestion. 

It  is  right  to  state  that  the  arctic  regions  do  not  stand  alone  in  af- 
fording examples  of  great  excess  in  eating.  Illustrations,  for  instance, 
have  also  been  given  of  the  performance  of  equally  prodigious  feats  of 
gluttony  by  the  inhabitants  of  other  regions  of  the  globe.  The  Hotten- 
tots and  Bosjesmans  of  Southern  Africa,  where  food  is  not  really  re- 
quired to  the  same  extent  as  in  northern  localities,  are  conspicuous,  ac- 
cording to  the  records  of  travellers,  for  their  gormandizing  propensities. 
"The  Hottentots,"  says  Barrow,§  "are  the  greatest  gluttons  upon  the 
face  of  the  earth.  Ten  of  our  Hottentots  ate  a  middling-sized  ox,  all  but 
the  two  hind  legs,  in  three  days."  Regarding  the  Bosjesmans,  he  says, 
"  The  three  who  accompanied  us  to  our  wagons  had  a  sheep  given  to 
them  about  five  in  the  evening,  which  was  entirely  consumed  by  them 
before  the  noon  of  the  following  day.  They  continued,  however,  to  eat 
all  night,  without  sleep  and  without  intermission,  till  they  had  finished 
the  whole  animal.  After  this  their  lank  bellies  were  distended  to  such  a 
degree  that  they  looked  less  like  human  creatures  than  before." 

*  Narrative  of  a  Second  Voyage  in  Search  of  a  North-West  Passage,  p.  448.  Lon- 
don, 1835. 

f  Second  Voyage  for  the  Discovery  of  the  North- West  Passage,  p.  413.  London,  1824. 

I  Narrative  of  a  Journey  Round  the  World  during  the  Years  1841  and  1843,  voL  ii., 
p.  309.  London,  1847. 

§  Account  of  Travels  into  the  Interior  of  Southern  Africa.     1801. 
19 


290  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

Apart  from  the  evidence  afforded  by  the  above  extraordinary  revelations, 
the  bodily  experience  of  those  engaged  in  arctic  travelling  is  sufficient  to 
display  the  necessity  of  a  large  consumption  of  food  to  enable  resistance 
to  be  offered  to  the  effects  of  exposure  to  cold.  "  He  who  is  well  fed," 
remarks  Sir  John  Ross,*  "  resists  cold  better  than  the  man  who  is  stinted, 
while  the  starvation  from  cold  follows  but  too  soon  a  starvation  in  food. 
In  every  expedition  or  voyage  to  a  polar  region,"  he  further  ob- 
serves: "at  least  if  a  winter  residence  is  contemplated,  the  quantity  of 
food  should  be  increased,  be  that  as  inconvenient  as  it  may.  It  would 
be  very  desirable,  indeed,  if  the  men  could  acquire  the  taste  for  Green- 
land food,  since  all  experience  has  shown  that  the  large  use  of  oil  and  fat 
meats  is  the  true  secret  of  life  in  these  frozen  countries."  Sir  John 
Franklin  f  also  states:  "During  the  whole  of  our  march  we  experienced 
that  no  quantity  of  clothing  could  keep  us  warm  while  we  fasted;  but  on 
those  occasions  on  which  we  were  enabled  to  go  to  bed  with  full  stomachs 
we  passed  the  night  in  a  warm  and  comfortable  manner." 

Turning  now  to  the  adjustment  of  food  to  the  performance  of  work, 
it  is  mentioned  by  Liebig  J  that  the  English  navvies  who  were  sent  out 
during  the  Crimean  war  to  make  the  Balaclava  railroad  consumed  daily 
from  150  (5.291  oz.)  to  159  (5.608  oz.)  grammes  of  albuminate,  and  that 
the  men  in  the  Munich  breweries,  where  the  work  is  heavy,  consume  on 
an  average  165  grammes  (5.820  oz.)  per  diem,  whilst  the  amount  entering 
into  the  rations  of  the  Bavarian  and  English  soldier,  in  time  of  peace,  is 
about  126  grammes  (4.444  oz.). 

Dr.  Playfair  §  has  collected  and  grouped  the  dietaries  of  persons  en- 
gaged in  various  ways.  His  arrangement  shows  that  there  is  in  prac- 
tice a  correspondence  between  the  amount  of  work  performed  and  of  food 
consumed.  The  dictates  of  experience  are  seen  to  be  in  harmony  with 
the  suggestions  of  science.  In  order  to  give  a  representation  of  the  rel- 
ative value  of  different  dietaries  the  amounts  of  the  nutritive  principles 
require  to  be  ascertained  and  set  forth.  This  is  the  only  way  by  which 
dissimilar  diets  can  be  brought  to  uniformity  so  as  to  allow  of  anything 
like  an  exact  comparison  being  made. 

Now,  to  ascertain  the  amounts  of  the  alimentary  principles  contained 
in  a  given  dietary,  or  to  fix  its  dietetic  value,  the  composition  of  the  con- 
stituent articles  requires  to  be  known.  Tables  have  been  given  by  differ- 
ent authorities  representing  the  composition  of  the  various  articles  of  food. 
No  two  tables,  however,  will  be  found  exactly  to  agree.  The  composition, 
in  fact,  of  an  alimentary  substance  is  in  no  case  fixed  and  invariable.  It 
is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  the  results  furnished  by  different  analysts 
should  vary.  Taking,  however,  the  figures  of  an  established  chemical 
authority  as  a  basis  of  calculation,  sufficient  reliance  may  be  placed  upon 
the  estimate  yielded.  It  is  true  the  amounts  of  nutritive  principles  worked 
out  must  not  be  looked  upon  as  representative  of  anything  like  absolute 
precision;  still  they  may  be  regarded  as  sufficiently  near  for  all  practical 
purposes.  The  following  table  is  drawn  from  Dr.  Liebig's  work,||  with  a 
few  additions  selected  from  a  table  compiled  by  Dr.  Parkes.^f 

*  Op.  cit. 

f  Narrative  of  a  Journey  to  the  Shores  of  the  Polar  Sea  in  the  Years  1819  to 
1822,  p.  424.  London.  1823. 

J  Lancet,  vol.  i.,  p.  5.     1869. 

§  On  the  Food  of  Man  in  Relation  to  his  Useful  Work.  Lecture  delivered  at  the 
Royal  Society,  Edinburgh,  and  Royal  Institution,  London,  April,  1865. 

|  On  Food,  Cantor  Lectures,  1st  ed.,  p.  6.  1870. 

Tf  Practical  Hygiene,  3d  ed.,  p.  165. 


PRINCIPLES    OF   DIETETICS. 


291 


Table  Showing  the  Percentage  Composition  of  Various  Articles  of 

Food. 

(From  a  table  furnished  by  Letheby,  with  additions  marked  thus  (a)  from  one  fur- 
nished by  Parkes. ) 


Water. 

Albumen, 
etc. 

Starch, 
etc. 

Sugar. 

Fat. 

Salts. 

Bread,  

37 
8 
15 
15 
15 
15 
14 
13 
15 
18 
75 
83 
82 
91 
91 
5 
23 
86 
66 
88 
88 
36.8 
36 
44 
72 
'51 
72 
53 
63 
39 
24 
15 
74 
68 

54 

74 
78 
75 
77 
74 
78 
52 
15 
91 

8.1 

15.6 
10.8 
6.3 
12.6 
8.0 
11.1 
6.3 
23.0 

2.1 
1.3 
1.1 
12 

2.0 

4.1 

2.7 
4.0 
4.1 
33.5 
28.4 
44.8 
19.3 
14.8 
18.3 
12.4 
16.5 
9.8 
7.1 
8.8 
18.9 
13.2 

27.6 

21.0 
18.1 
9.9 
16.1 
14.0 
20.4 
16.0 

0.1 

47.4 

'  —  73 
66.3 
69.4 
58.4 
69.5 
64.7 
79.1 
55.4 
82.0 
18.8 
8.4 
9.6 
5.1 
'  —  5 

3.6 

4.2 
4.9 
5.4 
3.7 
0.4 
0.4 
2.0 

3.2 
6.1 

5.8 
2.1 

8  —  • 
95.0 
77.0 
5.2 
2.8 
5.4 
6.4 

8.7 

1.6 
1.3 

2.0 
2.4 
5.6 
2.0 
8.1 
0.7 
2.1 

0.2 
0.2 
0.5 

0.5 

3.9 
26.7 
1.8 
0.7 
24.3 
31.1 
6.3 
3.6 
29.8 
4.9 
31.1 
15.8 
48.9 
66.8 
73.3 
4.1 
16.4 

15.45 

3.8 
2.9 
13.8 
5.5 
10.5 

30.7 
83.0 

2.3 
1.7 

1.7 
2.0 
3.0 
1.8 
1.7 
0.5 
2.5 

0.7 
1.0 
1.0 
0.6 
0.7 

0.8 
1.8 
0.8 
0.8 
5.4 
4.5 
4.9 
5.1 
4.4 
4.8 
3.5 
4.7 
2.3 
2.1 
2.9 
3.0* 
2.4 

2.95 

1.2 
1.0 
1.3 
1.4 
1.5 
1.6 
1.3 
2.0 
0.2 

Arrow-root,     

Potatoes,   

Carrots,     

Parsnips,   

*  Cabbage,      

Treacle,     

Veal,                .                 

f  Cooked  meat,  roast,  no  dripping  j 
being  lost.     Boiled   assumed  to  v 

White  fish                       

Eels                       

*  The  nitrogenous  matter  in  Dr.  Parkes'  table  is  put  down  as  0.2,  but  2.0  is  evi- 
dently meant 

f  Jianke's  analysis. 


292  A  TREATISE    ON   FOOD   AND   DIETETICS. 

Playfair's  dietaries,  to  -which  reference  has  been  made,  will  now  be 
introduced.  The  food  is  brought  into  its  equivalent  in  nutritive  principles. 
I  have  calculated  and  appended  to  each  the  dynamic,  or  force-producing 
value  according  to  the  determinations  of  Frankland.  The  dynamic  value 
must  not  be  taken  for  more  than  it  is  really  worth.  It  is  scarcely  neces- 
sary to  state  that  the  proper  distinction  must  be  kept  in  view  between 
dynamic  and  nutritive  value. 

Subsistence  diet. — This  is  drawn  from  certain  prison  dietaries;  the  diet 
of  needlewomen  in  London;  the  common  dietary  for  convalescents  in  the 
Edinburgh  Infirmary;  and  the  average  diet  during  the  cotton  famine  in 
Lancashire  in  1862.  The  mean  of  these  several  dietaries  gives  a  daily 
allowance  of — 

Ounces. 
Nitrogenous  matter,         ......         2.33 

Fat,          .         .         .         .        .         .         .         .         .         0.84 

Carbohydrates, 11.69 

Dynamic  value  *  of  daily  allowance  2,453  foot-tons. 

Diet  of  adult  in  full  health,  with  moderate  exercise. — The  dietaries  cf 
the  English,  French,  Prussian,  and  Austrian  soldiers  during  peace  are 
taken  as  the  basis  of  this  class.  The  mean  of  these  dietaries  stands  as  fol- 
lows: 

Ounces, 
Nitrogenous  matter,         .         .         .         .         .         .4.215 

Fat, 1.397 

Carbohydrates,          .  18.690 

Mineral  matter,         .......     0.714 

Dynamic  value,  4,021  foot-tons. 

Diet  of  active  laborers. — To  represent  this  class  Dr.  Playfair  has  placed 
together  the  dietaries  of  soldiers  engaged  in  the  arduous  duties  of  war, 
viz.,  those  of  the  English  during  the  Crimean  and  Kaffir  wars;  the  French 
during  the  Crimean  war;  the  Prussians  during  the  Schleswig  war;  the 
Austrians  during  the  Italian  war;  the  Russians  during  the  Crimean  war; 
\he  Dutch  during  the  Belgian  war;  and  those  of  the  Federal  and  Con- 
federate armies  in  the  American  war  of  1860-65.  The  mean  of  the  above 
gives  the  following  quantities: 

Ounces. 

Nitrogenous  matter, 5.41 

Fat, 2.41 

Carbohydrates, 17.92 

Mineral  matter,          .......       0.68 

Dynamic  value,  4,458  foot-tons. 

In  addition  to  the  group  just  furnished,  Dr.  Playfair  points  to  the  die- 
taries of  the  Royal  Engineers  during  peace,  as  affording  a  representation 
of  the  amount  of  food  required  by  laboring  men  performing  a  fair,  but  not 

*  Vide  note,  p.  288. 


PRINCIPLES    OF   DIETETICS.  293 

an  excessive,  amount  of  work  during  the  twenty-four  hours.  In  this 
branch  of  the  military  service,  he  says,  the  men  while  in  the  depot  at 
Chatham  are  actively  occupied  either  in  constructing  field-works,  or  in 
pursuing  their  avocations  as  artisans,  from  which  class  of  people  they  are 
selected.  The  actual  amount  of  food  consumed  by  495  men  belonging  to 
different  companies  was  carefully  ascertained  for  twelve  consecutive  days 
and  reduced  to  its  dietetic  value.  The  mean  of  all  the  returns  came  out 
as  follows: 

Ounces. 

Nitrogenous  matter, 5.08 

Fat,  • 2.91 

Carbohydrates, 22.22 

Mineral  matter, 0.93 

Dynamic  value,  5,232  foot-tons. 

Diet  of  hard-working  laborers. — Dr.  Playfair  remarks  that  we  do  not 
possess  many  well-recorded  examples  of  ordinary  laborers'  diets  contain- 
ing precise  information  as  regards  amounts.  In  those  included  in  his 
table,  however,  the  actual  weight  of  food  consumed  was  determined.  They 
comprise  the  dietary  of  the  English  navvy  engaged  in  the  Crimea,  and  in  the 
construction  of  the  Rouen  railway;  of  hard-worked  weavers;  of  fully  fed 
tailors;  and  of  blacksmiths.  With  these  are  grouped  the  dietaries  of  the 
English  and  French  sailor,  and  the  mean  given  stands  as  follows: 

Ounces. 

Nitrogenous  matter, 5.64 

Fat, 2.34 

Carbohydrates, 20.41 

Dynamic  value,  4,849  foot-tons. 

In  the  first  and  last  of  these  dietaries  nothing,  it  will  be  observed,  is 
said  of  mineral  matter.  Reckoning,  however,  that  an  average  amount  is 
here  supplied,  the  lowest  of  the  foregoing  series  of  dietaries  will  comprise 
between  15  and  16  oz.  of  dry  food,  and  the  highest  a  little  over  31  oz. 
The  amount  of  nitrogenous  matter  present  stands  in  a  varying  proportion 
of  from  about  the  one-fifth  to  the  one-sixth  and  a  half  of  the  whole. 

The  English  soldier  on  home  service,  says  Dr.  Parkes,  receives  from 
Government  one  pound  of  bread  and  three-quarters  of  a  pound  of  meat, 
and  buys  additional  bread,  vegetables,  milk,  and  groceries.  The  nutritive 
value  of  his  usual  food  is  represented  by  Dr.  Parkes  to  be  as  follows: 

Ounces. 
Nitrogenous  matter, .......       3.86 

Fat,   .         .     •„-,-„  •:, 1.30 

Carbohydrates, 17.35 

Mineral  matter,          .......       0.808 

The  supply  of  carbon  in  this  diet,  as  calculated  by  Dr.  Parkes,  is  4,718 
grains,  and  of  nitrogen  only  266  grains  per  diem. 

The  dynamic  value,  calculated  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  case  of  the 
preceding  dietaries,  amounts  to  3,726  foot-tons. 


294  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

By  Dr.  Playfair  *  the  nutritive  value  of  the  English  soldier's  diet  is 
given  as  somewhat  higher,  thus: 

Ounces. 

Nitrogenous  matter,  i  .  .  .  .  .  4.250 
Fat,  .  .'.'..'  '.  •."••  ....  1.665 
Carbohydrates,  .  .  .  ;  .  .  .  18.541 
Mineral  matter,  .  .  ''-V  .  '  •''  .  .  0.789 
Dynamic  value,  4,099  foot-tons. 

According  to  Dr.  Playfair  f  also,  the  nutritive  value  of  the  English 
sailor's  fresh  meat  diet  stands  as  follows: 

Ounces. 

Nitrogenous  matter,      :    A         .  ,         .         .       5.00 

Fat,  .         .       *rc     .     :  \         .      "'''''.  '•  '  :V .'     .         .       2.57 

Carbohydrates, 14.39 

Dynamic  value,  3,911  foot-tons. 

Workhouse  dietaries,  although  applied  to  large  numbers  of  people, 
and  followed  with  scrupulous  attention  to  weight  and  measure,  fail  to  af- 
ford information  of  the  kind  required  for  advancing  our  position  with 
reference  to  the  point  under  consideration.  They  are  framed  particularly 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  aged,  the  infirm,  the  sick,  and  the  young. 
There  are  but  few  able-bodied  people  as  inmates  of  these  establishments, 
and  the  diet  for  this  particular  class  is,  perhaps,  often  fixed  below  what 
would  be  needed  for  a  permanency,  so  that  no  encouragement  may  be  of- 
fered to  a  prolonged  stay  being  made.  Moreover,  although  model  dietaries 
are  issued  by  the  Local  Government  Board,  the  local  authorities  have  the 
power  to  frame  dietaries  of  their  own,  and  provided  they  are  considered 
to  furnish  sufficient  food,  sanction  to  their  adoption  is  given.  Thus  it 
happens  that  in  point  of  detail  great  diversity  prevails  within  the  different 
establishments  throughout  the  country. 

For  the  various  county  and  borough  jails  the  same  liberty  exists  as 
in  the  cases  of  workhouses.  Dietaries  have  been  recommended  by  the 
Home  Office  for  different  classes  of  prisoners  according  to  the  duration 
of  sentence,  and  to  whether  it  is  with  or  without  hard  labor,  but  it  is  left 
to  the  discretion  of  the  county  authorities  to  adopt  them  or  to  frame 
others  of  their  own.  The  result  is,  that  some  have  conformed  whilst  a 
larger  number  have  not,  and  thus,  again,  there  is  much  diversity  to  deal 
with.  For  long  sentences  the  dietaries  must  necessarily  be  adequate  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  life,  but  for  short  sentences  the  punishment  of 
confinement  is  increased  by  a  scanty  allowance  of  food.  For  instance,  in 
the  recommendations  from  the  Home  Office,  the  daily  allowance  for  pris- 
oners sentenced  for  less  than  seven  days  without  hard  labor  consists  of  1 
pound  of  bread  and  2  pints  of  oatmeal  gruel,  made  with  2  ounces  oatmeal 
to  the  pint;  and  for  over  seven  days  and  under  twenty-one,  of  !•£  pounds 
of  bread  and  2  pints  of  gruel.  The  nutritive  value  of  the  first-named 
diet  stands  thus — 1.800  ounces  of  nitrogenous  matter,  .480  ounces  of  fat, 
and  10.712  ounces  of  carbohydrates;  and  of  the  second — 2.448  ounces  of 
nitrogenous  matter,  .608  ounces  of  fat,  and  14.792  ounces  of  carbohy- 
drates. For  longer  terms  potatoes  and  meat  are  also  allowed. 

*  On  the  Food  of  Man  in  Relation  to  his  Useful  Work,  p.  11.     Edin.,  1865. 
fOp.  cit.,  p.  18. 


PRINCIPLES    OF    DIETETICS.  295 

In  the  Government  convict  *  establishments  the  prisoners  are  all  under 
long  sentence,  and  uniformity  is  carried  out  in  classes  arranged  according 
to  occupation.  This  constitutes  a  rational  principle  of  dieting.  The 
health  of  the  prisoners  must  be  maintained,  and  the  diet  is  such  as  has 
been  found  by  experience  to  suffice  for  this  end.  On  the  other  hand, 
upon  the  score  of  economy,  and  likewise  that  no  unnecessary  bodily  com- 
fort may  be  supplied,  the  food  is  reduced  to  as  short  an  allowance  as  is 
found  to  be  compatible  with  the  preservation  of  health.  These  dietaries, 
therefore,  should  afford  us  illustrations  of  just  the  requisite  quantity  of 
food  for  supporting  life  under  the  performance  of  different  amounts  of 
labor.  For  these  reasons  I  will  introduce  here  the  dietaries  at  the  present 
time  in  use;  and,  for  the  purpose  of  comparison,  give  their  calculated 
nutritive  value  founded  on  the  composition  of  food  according  to  the  table 
furnished  at  p.  291. 

The  cocoa  supplied  consists  of  prepared  cocoa,  which  is  contracted 
for  as  such.  It  doubtless,  like  other  forms  of  prepared  cocoa,  contains  a 
certain  admixture  of  starchy,  or  starchy  and  saccharine  matter.  I  have 
taken  the  average  of  Hassall's  results  of  the  examination  of  various  sam- 
ples of  prepared  cocoa,  and  reckoned  that  it  contains  about  35  per  cent, 
of  carbohydrates  in  combination  with  the  pure  article,  the  composition 
of  which  is  assumed  to  be  in  accordance  with  the  analysis  given  by 
Payen. 

The  nutritive  value  of  the  meat  is  calculated  from  the  analysis  of 
cooked  meat  given  by  Parkes.  The  composition  of  cheese  is  also  taken 
from  the  analysis  furnished  by  Dr.  Parkes,  which  represents  a  medium 
quality. 

The  shins  are  made  into  soup,  and  I  have  assumed  that  the  whole  of 
the  animal  matter  is  extracted  from  the  bones.  It  was  ascertained  for 
me  that  the  shins  actually  supplied  consist  "upon  an  average  of  59.57  per 
cent,  of  meat  and  40.43  per  cent,  of  bone.  The  meat  is  reckoned  in  ac- 
*cordance  with  the  composition  of  lean  beef  (vide  table,  p.  291).  As  re- 
gards the  bone,  I  found  by  observation  that  a  fore  and  hind  shin  taken 
together  and  deprived  of  meat  lost  15.29  per  cent,  of  water  upon  being 
dried  by  exposure  to  heat  until  they  ceased  to  lose  weight.  The  dry 
bone  is  reckoned  as  consisting  of  one-third  animal  matter  and  two-thirds 
earthy,  and  the  animal  matter  is  calculated  as  of  the  same  value  as  lean 
meat. 

In  the  absence  of  a  record  of  the  analysis  of  onions  they  have  been 
assumed  to  be  of  the  same  nutritive  value  as  turnips— an  assumption 
which,  even  if  not  precisely  correct,  cannot  materially  influence  the  cal- 
culated result. 

*  With  convicts  sentenced  to  hard  labor  the  hours  of  labor,  I  notice,  are  made  to 
vary  in  the  summer  and  winter,  being  10  hours  40  minutes  per  diem  in  the  former,  and 
8  hours  5o  minutes  in  the  latter.  Whether  this  arrangement  has  been  designed  in  re- 
lation to  food  or  for  some  other  reason  of  prison  management  I  do  not  know,  but  it 
stands  in  harmony  with  what  is  rational  in  a  physiological  point  of  view.  Both  the 
work  performed  and  the  heat  produced  must  be  represented  by  an  equivalent  of  food, 
and  under  the  arrangement  before  us  the  food  which  corresponds  to  the  extra  amount 
of  labor  demanded  of  the  convicts  in  the  summer,  is  free  for  appropriation  to  the  produc- 
tion of  the  extra  amount  of  heat  necessitated  in  the  winter.  If  the  food  were  exactly 
adjusted  to  the  requirements  in  the  summer  it  would  be  insufficient  for  the  accom- 
plishment of  the  same  amount  of  labor  during  the  winter.  To  provide  for  the  produc- 
tion of  the  extra  amount  of  heat  required  in  the  winter  there  muse  be  either  an  in- 
crease in  the  amount  of  food  or  a  diminution  in  the  amount  of  labor.  The  latter  course 
in  prison  management  is  observed  to  be  pursued. 


296 


A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 


Hard-labor  Diet. 
(Daily  period  of  labor — summer,  10  hrs.  40  min.;  winter,  8  hrs.  55  min.) 


Weekly  allowance. 

Nitrogenous 
matter. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Fat. 

Mineral 
matter. 

Total  solid 
matter. 

Cocoa,       .... 
Oatmeal,  .... 
Milk  

Oz. 

3.500 
14.000 
14.000 
7.000 
3.500 
2.000 
168.000 
4.000 
8.625 

15.000 

16.000 

1.500 
2.000 
3.500 
2.000 
96.000 

Oz. 
0.560 

1.764 
0.574 

0.126 
13.608 
1.340 
0.931 

4.140 
3.376 

0.026 
0.042 
0.024 
2.016 

Oz. 
1.540 

8.932 
0.728 
5.390 

1.486 
85.680 

6.081 

0.290 
0.252 
0.144 
21.120 

Oz. 
1.295 

0.784 
0.546 

0.048 
2.688 
0.972 
0.172 

2.318 

0.640 

1.244 
0.004 

0.192 

Oz. 
0.105 

0.420 
0.112 

3.500 
0.040 
3.864 
0.216 
0.147 

0.442 

4.144 

0.030 
0.020 
0.021 
0.012 
0.672 

Oz. 
3.500 

11.900 
1.960 
5.390 
3.500 
1.700 
105.840 
2.528 
7.331 

6.900 

8.160 

1.274 
0.340 
0.315 
0.180 
24.000 

Molasses, 
Salt,    

Barley,     .... 

Bread,       .     .     . 
Cheese,     .... 
Flour,       .... 
Meat  (cooked,  with- 
out bone  or  gra-  • 
vy),  .     .     .     . 
Shins  (made   into 
soup),    ... 
Suet,  

Carrots,     .... 
Onions,     .... 
Turnips  ,  . 
Potatoes,        .     . 

Total  weekly  allowance,  . 

28.527 

131.643 

10.903 

13.745 

184.818 

Light-labor  Diet. 
(Labor  consists  of  oakum-picking,  etc.) 


Weekly  allowance. 

Nitrogenous 
matter. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Fat. 

Minpral 
matter. 

Total  solid 
matter. 

Cocoa,       .... 
Oatmeal,  .     . 
Milk  

Oz. 

3.500 
14.000 
14.000 
7.000 
3.500 
2.000 
145.000 
4.000 
4.625 

12.000 

12.000 

0.750 
2.000 
3.500 
2.000 
96.000 

Oz. 
0.560 

1.764 
0.574 

0.126 
11.745 
1.340 
0.499 

3.312 
2.532 

0.026 
0.042 
0.024 
2.016 

Oz. 

1.540 
8.932 
0.728 
5.390 

1.486 
73.950 

3.261 

0.290 
0.252 
0.144 
21.120 

Oz. 

1.295 
0.784 
0.546 

0.048 
2.320 
0.972 
0.092 

1.854 

0.480 

0.622 
.0.004 

0.192 

Oz. 

0.105 
0.420 
0.112 

3.500 
0.040 
3.335 
0.216 
0.079 

0.354 

3.108 

0.015 
0.020 
0.021 
0.012 
0.672 

Oz. 
3.500 
11.900 

1.960 
5.390 
3.500 
1.700 
91.350 
2.528 
3.931 

5.520 

6.120 

0.637 
0.340 
0.315 
0.180 
24.000 

Molasses,  .... 
Salt,    

Barley,      .... 
Bread,       .... 
Cheese,     .... 
Flour,  

Meat  (cooked,  with-  } 
out  bone  or  gra-  V 
vy)  ) 
Shins   (made  into  j 
soup),               .    j 
Suet  

Carrots,    .     . 
Onions,     .... 
Turnips,   .... 
Potatoes,  .... 

Total  weekly  allowance,  . 

24.560 

117.093 

9.209 

12.009 

162.871 

PRINCIPLES    OF   DIETETICS. 


297 


Industrial  Employment  Diet. 
(Employment  as  tailors,  shoemakers,  weavers,  etc.) 


Weekly  allowance. 

Nitrogenous 
matter. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Fat. 

Mineral 
matter. 

Total  solid 
matter. 

Cocoa,       .... 
Oatmeal,  .... 
Milk,    

Oz. 

3.500 
14.000 
28.000 
7.000 
3.500 
1.000 
148.000 
4.000 
8.625 

16.000 

8.000 

1.500 
1.000 
3.000 
1.000 
96.000 

Oz. 
0.560 

1.764 
1.148 

0.063 
11.988 
1.340 
0.931 

4.416 
1.688 

0.013 
0.036 
0.012 
2.016 

Oz. 

1.540 
8.932 
1.456 
5.390 

0.743 
75.480 

6.081 

0.145 
0.216 
0.072 
21.120 

Oz. 

1.295 
0.784 
1.092 

0.024 
2.368 
0.972 
0.172 

2.472 

0.320 

1.244 

0.002 

0.192 

Oz. 
0.105 
0.420 

0.224 

3.500 
0.020 
3.404 
0.216 
0.147 

0.472 

2.072 

0.030 
0.010 
0.018 
0.006 
0.672 

Oz. 
3.500 

11.900 
3.920 
5.390 
3.500 
0.850 
93.240 
2.528 
7.331 

7.360 

4.080 

1.274 
0.170 
0.270 
0.090 
24.000 

Molasses,  . 
Salt  

Barley,      .... 
Bread,       .... 
Cheese,     .... 
Flour,  

Meat  (cooked,  with- 
out bone  or  gra-  - 
vy)  
Shins   (made  into 
soup),      ... 
Suet,    

Carrots,     .... 
Onions,     .... 
Turnips,    .... 
Potatoes,  .... 

Total  weekly  allowance,  . 

25.975 

121.175 

10.937 

11.316 

169.403 

Penal  Diet. 

(For  offenders  against  the  prison  laws.  May  be  continued  for  three  months.  Also 
used  every  fourth  day  in  the  place  of  punishment  diet  where  punishment  diet  is 
ordered  for  more  than  three  days. ) 


Dally  allowance. 

Nitrogenous 
matter. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Fat 

Mineral 
matter. 

Total  solid 
matter. 

Bread,       .... 
Oatmeal,  .... 
Milk,    

Oz. 

20.000 
8.000 
20.000 
16.000 

Oz. 
1.620 

1.008 
0.820 
0.336 

Oz. 
10.200 

5.104 
1.040 
3.520 

Oz. 

0.320 
0.448 
0.780 
0.032 

Oz. 

0.460 
0.240 
0.160 
0.112 

Oz. 
12.600 

6.800 
2.800 
4.000 

Potatoes,  .... 

Total  daily  allowance, 

3.784 

19.864 

1.580 

0.972 

26.200 

Punishment  Diet. 
(Bread  and  water  diet  for  the  punishment  of  prisoners.) 


Daily  allowance. 

Nitrogenous 
matter. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Fat. 

Mineral 
matter. 

Total  solid 
matter. 

Bread,       .... 

Oz. 

16.000 

Oz. 
1.296 

Oz. 
8.160 

Oz. 

0.256 

Oz. 
0.368 

Oz. 

10.080 

A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 


Representing  the  nutritive  value  of  these  diets  in  the  same  manner  as 
that  previously  adopted,  they  come  out  as  follows: 


HARD  LABOE  DIET,  per  diem. 

Nitrogenous  matter,     .         ...         .         . 

Fat,     .        v      V        •         •         •'        \      '\        • 
Carbohydrates,    .         „  •       .         .         .         .' 

Mineral  matter,  ....... 

Dynamic  value,  4,072  foot-tons. 

LIGHT  LABOE  DIET,  per  diem, 

Nitrogenous  matter,     .         .         ... 

Fat,     .         .         .        ,       ,.         ... 

Carbohydrates,    ....... 

Mineral  matter,    ..... 

Dynamic  value,  3,577  foot-tons. 

INDUSTEIAL  EMPLOYMENT  DIET,  per  diem. 

Nitrogenous  matter,     .         .         .         ... 

Fat,     .  

Carbohydrates,    ....... 

Mineral  matter,    ....... 

Dynamic  value,  3,787  foot-tons. 

PENAL  DIET,  per  diem. 

Nitrogenous  matter,     ...... 

Fat,     .         .         .         .         .         . 

Carbohydrates,     ....... 

Mineral  matter,    ....... 

Dynamic  value,  4,193  foot-tons. 

PUNISHMENT  DIET,  per  diem. 

Nitrogenous  matter,       ...... 

Fat, 

Carbohydrates,       ....... 

Mineral  matter,      ....... 

Dynamic  value,  1,541  foot-tons. 


Ounces. 
4.075 
1.557 
18.806 
1.963 


Ounces. 
3.508 
1.315 
16.727 
1.715 


Ounces. 
3.710 
1.562 
17.310 
1.616 


Ounces. 
3.784 
1.580 
19.864 
0.972 


Ounces. 

1.296 

0.256 

8.160 

0.368 


On  comparing  the  hard  labor  diet  with  the  collection  of  dietaries  framed 
by  Dr.  Playfair  (vide  p.  292)  it  will  be  seen  that  it  very  closely  conforms 
with  the  representative  diet  for  full  health  and  moderate  exercise,  and  is  con- 
siderably under  that,  particularly  in  nitrogenous  matter,  of  active  laborers. 
The  industrial  employment  diet  is  of  a  rather  higher  nutritive  value  in 
each  respect  than  the  light  labor  diet.  The  penal  diet,  whilst  containing 
less  nitrogenous  matter  than  the  hard  labor  diet,  surpasses  it  in  carbo- 
hydrates and  has  about  the  same  amount  of  fat.  In  force-producing  value 
it  holds  the  higher  position  of  the  two.  The  punishment  diet  would  be 
inadequate  for  the  support  of  life  as  a  continuance. 


PRINCIPLES    OF   DIETETICS.  299 

Some  extraordinary  instances  of  subsistence  upon  a  small  amount  of 
food — indeed  the  amount  is  so  small  as  almost  to  excite  suspicion  with 
regard  to  its  accuracy — are  to  be  found  recorded.  A  well-known  case, 
remarks  Dr.  Carpenter,  is  that  of  Thomas  Wood,  the  miller  of  Billericay, 
reported  to  the  College  of  Physicians  in  1767  by  Sir  George  Baker,  in 
which  a  remarkable  degree  of  vigor  is  said  to  have  been  sustained  for  up- 
ward of  eighteen  years  upon  no  other  nutriment  than  16  oz.  of  flour  made  in- 
to a  pudding,  with  water,  no  other  liquid  of  any  kind  being  taken.  In  nutri- 
tive value  16  or.,  of  flour  will  represent  1.72  oz.  of  nitrogenous  matter, 
0.32  oz.  of  fat,  and  11.28  oz.  of  carbohydrates. 

A  more  striking  instance  still  is  that  afforded  by  the  case  of  Cornaro, 
a  Venetian  of  noble  descent,  who  lived  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  cen- 
turies, and  attained  an  age  of  upward  of  100.  Impressed  with  the  con- 
viction that  the  older  a  man  gets  and  the  less  amount  of  power  he  possesses 
the  less  should  be  the  amount  of  food  consumed,  in  opposition  to  the 
common  notion  that  more  should  be  taken  to  compensate  for  his  failing 
power,  he,  at  about  40  years  of  age,  resolved  to  enter  upon  a  new  course, 
and  betake  himself  to  a  spare  diet  and  scrupulously  regular  mode  of  life, 
after  having,  as  he  says,  previously  led  a  life  of  indulgence  in  eating  and 
drinking,  and  having  been  endowed  with  a  feeble  constitution  and  "fallen 
into  different  kinds  of  disorders,  such  as  pains  in  my  stomach,  and  often 
stitches,  and  spices  of  the  gout,  attended  by  what  was  still  worse,  an 
almost  continual  slow  fever,  a  stomach  generally  out  of  order,  and  a  per- 
petual thirst."  He  also  did  all  that  lay  in  his  power  "  to  avoid  those 
evils  which  we  do  not  find  it  so  easy  to  remove.  These  are  melancholy, 
hatred,  and  other  violent  passions,  which  appear  to  have  the  greatest  in- 
fluence over  our  bodies.  The  consequence  was,  that  in  a  few  days  I  be- 
gan," he  adds,  "to  perceive  that  such  a  course  agreed  with  me  very  well; 
and  by  pursuing  it,  in  less  than  a  year  I  found  myself  (some  persons,  per- 
haps, will  not  believe  it)  entirely  freed  from  all  my  complaints.  ...  I 
chose  wine  suited  to  my  stomach,  drinking  of  it  but  the  quantity  I  knew 
I  could  digest.  I  did  the  same  by  my  meat,  as  well  in  regard  to  quantity 
as  to  quality,  accustoming  myself  to  contrive  matters  so  as  never  to  cloy 
my  stomach  with  eating  or  drinking;  but  constantly  rise  from  the  table 
with  a  disposition  to  eat  and  drink  still  more.  In  this  I  conformed  to 
the  proverb  which  says  that  a  man,  to  consult  his  health,  must  check  his 
appetite.  .  .  .  What  with  bread,  meat,  the  yolk  of  an  egg,  and  soup,  I 
ate  as  much  as  weighed  in  all  12  oz.  neither  more  nor  less.  .  .  .  I  drank 
but  14  oz.  of  wine."*  Upon  this  scanty  allowance  Cornaro  tells  us  he 
perse veringly  subsisted;  and  he  lived  in  possession  of  all  his  faculties  to 
write  a  series  of  discourses  at  the  respective  ages  of  83,  86,  91,  and  95, 
directed  toward  urging  others  to  follow  a  similar  course.  These  discourses, 
which  are  imbued  with  vigor  and  vivacity,  and  contain  many  shrewd 
remarks  on  the  subject  of  living,  seem  to  have  excited  considerable  atten- 
tion at  the  time  they  appeared,  and  for  many  years  afterward.  A  trans- 
lation from  the  Italian  original  was  published  in  London  in  1768,  from 
which  the  above  extracts  have  been  taken. 

Reference  has  been  made  in  the  foregoing  pages  to  the  actual  diets 
consumed  under  various  conditions,  and  the  value  of  these  diets  in  ali- 
mentary principles.  It  will  be  instructive  now  to  consider  the  elementary 
comp  Clients  of  food  in  relation  to  the  outgoing  elements  from  the  body. 
Regarded  under  this  point  of  view,  scientific  data  are  afforded  for  showing 

*  The  italics  have  been  introduced  by  the  author. 


300  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

the  combination  of  alimentary  principles  that  is  best  adapted  for  adminis- 
tering in  the  most  economical  manner  to  the  wants  of  the  system.  We 
can  ascertain,  for  instance,  the  amount  of  carbon  and  nitrogen  escaping 
from  the  body  as  products  of  destruction,  and  then  with  a  knowledge  of 
the  composition  of  food  can  define  the  precise  kind  and  amount  required 
for  compensation  without  any  surplus  on  either  side. 

To  assist  in  determining  the  amounts  of  different  alimentary  articles 
required  to  be  consumed  to  yield  a  given  daily  supply  of  nitrogen  and  car- 
bon, a  table  has  been  furnished  by  Payen,*  of  which  the  following  is  a 
copy,  with  the  omission  of  such  as  have  been  deemed  unimportant: 

Table,  from  Payen,  showing  the  Quantity  of  Nitrogen  and  Carbon  in  100 
farts  of  Various  Alimentary  Articles.  Under  the  head  of  carbon  is 
included,  not  only  this  element,  but  likewise  its  equivalent  of  the  hydro- 
gen\  existing  in  the  compound  in  excess  of  what  is  necessary  to  form 
water  with  the  oxygen  present. 

(Multiplying  the  figures  representing  the  nitrogen  by  6.5  gives  the  equivalent  amount 

of  nitrogenous  matter. ) 

Nitrogen.  Carbon. 

Beef,  without  bone, 3.00  11.00 

Roast  beef,         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  3.528  17.76 

Bullock's  heart,  .         .         .         ...         ..        .  2.831  16.16 

Calves'  liver,       .         .         .       ,  .         „         .         i  ,      .  3.093  15.68 

Foie  gras,  .         .         .         ...        .  '      .         .         .  2.115  65.58 

Calves'  lights,     .         .         .         .         .•        .         .         .  3.458  14.50 

Sheep's  kidneys,         .         .         .         .         ;         .         .2.655  12.15 

Skate,         .         .         .        ......         .  3.85  12.25 

Conger  eels,        .         .         .         .         .         .         .-        .  3.95  12.60 

Cod-fish,  salted, ^         .  5.02  16.00 

Sardines  in  oil,   .          .         .         .         .         .       - .         .  6.00  29.00 

Herrings,  salted,          .         .          .         .-•,-.          .  3.11  23.00 

Herrings,  fresh, ........  1.83  21.00 

Whiting, -  ....  2.41  9.00 

Mackerel, 3.74  19.26 

Sole, 1.91  12.25 

Salmon, 2.09  16.00 

Pike, 3.25  11.50 

Carp, 3.49  12.10 

Gudgeons, 2.77  13.50 

Eels, 2.00  30.05 

Eggs, 1.90  13.50 

Cow's  milk, 0.66  8  00 

Goat's  milk, 0.69  8.60 

Russian  caviare, 4.49  27.41 

Mussels  (fleshy  substance), 1.804  9.00 

Oysters  (fleshy  substance),         .         .         .         .         .2.13  7.18 

Lobster  (raw  fleshy  substance),  ....  2.93  10.96 

Lobster  (soft  internal  substance),      ....  1.87  7.30 

Cheese,  Brie, .  2.93  35.00 

Cheese,  Gruyere, 5.00  38.00 

*  Substances  Alimentaires,  p.  488.    Paris,  1865. 

f  A  given  quantity  of  hydrogen  is  equivalent  to  three  times  the  amount  of  carbon 
in  capacity  of  appropriating  oxygen  under  conversion  respectively  into  water  and  car- 
bonic acid. 


PRINCIPLES    OF   DIETETICS. 


301 


Nitrogen. 

Carbon. 

Cheese,  Cheshire,       

4.120 

41.04 

Cheese,  Parmesan,     

0.997 

40.00 

2.920 

71.10 

4.210 

44.44 

Cheese,  Dutch,            

4.80 

43.54 

Cheese,  Neufchatel,  fresh,           .... 

1,27 

50.71 

Beans,        ...... 

4.50 

42.00 

Beans,  green  dried,    ...... 

4.40 

40.00 

392 

43.00 

415 

48.50 

Lentils,       

3.87 

43.00 

Peas,  dried,  ordinary,          

3.00 

44.00 

Peas,  split,  green,  dried,    ...... 

3.91 

40.00 

Hard  wheat  from  the  south,        ..... 

300 

41.00 

1,81 

39.00 

Flour,  Parisian  white,          ...... 

1.04 

38.50 

Rve  flour,  

1.75 

41.00 

Barley,        ......... 

1.90 

40.00 

1.70 

44.00 

Buckwheat,         ........ 

2.20 

42.50 

Rice,  o         

1.80 

41.00 

Oatmeal,     

1  95 

44.00 

Bread,  Parisian  white,         ...... 

1.08 

29.50 

Bread,  household,  stale,      ...... 

1.07 

28.00 

Bread,  household,  new,       ...... 

1.20 

30.00 

Potatoes,    ......... 

0.33 

11.00 

Carrots,       ......... 

0.31 

5.50 

Mushrooms,  forced,    ....... 

O.GG 

4.520 

Truffles,  black,   

1.350 

9.45 

Truffles,  white,  ........ 

1.532 

9.10 

Chestnuts,  ordinary,  . 

0.04 

35.00 

Chestnuts,  dried,        ....... 

1.04 

48.00 

Gooseberries,     ........ 

0.14 

7.79 

Figs,  fresh, 

0.41 

15.50 

Figs,  dried,         ........ 

0.92 

34.00 

Plums,  dried,      ........ 

0.73 

28.00 

Nuts,  fresh,         ........ 

1.40 

10.05 

Almonds,  sweet,  fresh,        ...... 

2.077 

40.00 

Coffee,  from  infusion  of  100  grammes  (3£  oz.),  . 

1.10 

9.00 

Tea,  from  infusion  of  20  grammes  (308£  grains), 

0.20 

2.10 

Chocolate,  from  100  grammes  (3£  oz.  ), 

1.52 

58.00 

Lard,  .         .         .         

1.18 

71.14 

Butter,  ordinary  fresh,        ...... 

0.04 

83.00 

Olive  oil,     

Traces. 

98.00 

Beer,  strong,       .         .        .  .  "      . 

0.08 

4.50 

Alcohol,  absolute,      .     ,  •  . 

52.00 

Spirits  of  wine,                 .    *         .          .         .         . 

27.00 

Wine,         .         .         .      .    .         ,         •         • 

0.015 

4.00 

Dr.  Parkes  *  sets  forth  the  quantity  of  nitrogen  and  carbon 

contained 

in  the  typical  alimentary  principles,  and  remarks  that 

the  amount  of  the 

*  Hygiene,  third  ed.,  p.  166. 


302  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

two  elements  present  in  a  given  diet  may  be  thence  calculated,  presum- 
ing- its  value  in  alimentary  principles  to  have  been  ascertained.  Thus,  he 
says: 

1  oz.  of  water-free  albuminate  contains  69  grains  nitrogen,  233  grains  carbon. 

1  oz.  fat  contains  345.6  grains  carbon. 

1  oz.  carbohydrate  (except  Jactine)  contains  194.2  grains  carbon. 

1  oz.  lactine  contains  175  grains  carbon. 

In  employing  this  method  it  is  necessary,  in  the  first  place,  to  ex- 
tract, with  the  aid  o,£  the  table  at  p.  291,  the  dry  alimentary  principles. 
Then,  with  the  use  of  the  figures  above  given,  the  nitrogen  and  carbon 
may  be  ascertained. 

From  the  investigations  that  have  been  conducted,  it  appears  that  the 
daily  quantity  of  nitrogen  required  to  compensate  for  the  elimination  oc- 
curring under  ordinary  conditions  of  life  may  be  said  to  range  from  about 
250  to  350  grains  (16  to  22^  grammes) ;  and  of  carbon,  from  4,000  to  6,000 
grains  (259  to  388^-  grammes).  Amongst  badly  fed  operatives  the 
amounts  upon  which  subsistence  has  been  maintained  have  been  observed 
to  be  as  low  as  about  170  grains  (11  grammes)  of  nitrogen,  and  3,600 
grains  (233  grammes)  of  carbon. 

Taking  Moleschott's  model  diet  (vide  p.  288),  and  applying  Dr. 
Parkes'  method  of  calculation,  the  amounts  of  nitrogen  and  carbon  come 
out  as  follows: 

Grs.  Nitrogen.         Grs.  Carbon. 

4.587  oz.  dry  albuminate,    .         .         .316  1068 

2.964  oz.     "    fat,          .'...—  1024 

14.257  oz.     «    carbohydrate,  .      —  2768 

Total        .  •      .  •     .        .     316  4860 

These  amounts,  it  will  be  perceived,  correspond  with  about  the  mean 
of  the  usual  range  of  ingested  nitrogen  and  carbon  mentioned  above. 

Let  it  be  assumed,  then,  that  300  grains  of  nitrogen  and  4,500  grains  of 
carbon  are  daily  required.  I  will  proceed  to  show,  after  the  manner 
adopted  by  Payen,  *  in  what  way  these  elements  are  most  economically, 
or  with  the  least  waste  of  material,  supplied. 

The  ratio  of  the  quantities  named  is  as  1  to  16,  which  implies  that  six- 
teen times  as  much  carbon  is  required  as  nitrogen.  In  albumen  the  ratio, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  about  as  1  to  3.5.  Hence,  if  albumen  alone  were 
supplied,  in  furnishing  the  300  grains  of  nitrogen,  there  would  only  be 
1,050  instead  of  the  4,800  grains  of  associated  carbon;  and  conversely,  if 
the  4,800  grains  of  carbon  were  supplied,  there  would  be  1,371  grains  of 
accompanying  nitrogen,  or  rather  more  than  4|-  times  the  amount  re- 
quired. In  bread,  following  Pay  en's  analysis,  the  ratio  of  nitrogen  to 
carbon  is  as  1  to  30.  The  amount  of  bread,  therefore,  that  would  yield 
300  grains  of  nitrogen  would  contain  30  times  the  quantity  or  9,000  grains 
of  carbon;  that  is,  nearly  double  the  amount  required;  and  should  an 
amount  of  bread  be  consumed  that  would  just  suffice  to  yield  the  4,800 
grains  of  carbon,  160  grains,  or  only  rather  more,  than  half  the  quantity 
of  nitrogen  required,  would  be  supplied. 

From  these  considerations,  it  follows  that  neither  bread  nor  albumen 
are  adapted  for  economically  furnishing  what  is  wanted,  and  what  is  true 

*  Substances  Alimentaires,  p.  483.    Paris,  1865. 


PEINCIPLES    OF   DIETETICS.  303 

concerning  these  articles  is  equally  so  of  others  containing  a  preponder- 
ance of  either  carbon  or  nitrogen.  It  is  upon  a  due  admixture  of  the  two 
that  the  principle  of  adjustment  is  founded;  and  as  nitrogenous  princi- 
ples preponderate  in  animal  food  and  the  carbonaceous  or  non-nitrogenous 
in  vegetable,  we  see  that  the  teachings  of  science  harmonize  with  the  in- 
stinctive propensity  which  inclines  man  so  universally  to  the  employment 
of  a  mixed  diet  whenever  the  circumstances  under  which  he  is  placed  ad- 
mit of  its  being  obtained. 

The  following  tabular  arrangement  will  more  forcibly  illustrate  the 
point  in  question. 

Let  meat  be  taken  instead  of  albumen.  In  round  numbers  it  contains 
11  per  cent,  of  carbon  and  3  per  cent,  of  nitrogen.  43,637  grains,  or 
rather  over  6  pounds,  will  thus  yield  4,800  grains  of  carbon;  1,309  grains 
of  nitrogen. 

Bread  contains,  say  30  per  cent,  of  carbon  and  1  per  cent,  of  nitrogen 
(Payen).  Hence,  30,000  grains,  or  rather  over  4  pounds,  will  yield 
9,000  grains  of  carbon;  300  grains  of  nitrogen. 

In  the  first  case  there  is  the  requisite  quantity  of  carbon  and  a  sur- 
plus of  1,009  grains  of  nitrogen,  which  corresponds  with  33,G33  grains,  or 
about  4£  pounds,  of  meat;  and  in  the  second,  the  requisite  quantity  of 
nitrogen  and  a  surplus  of  4,200  grains  of  carbon,  which  corresponds  with 
14,000  grains,  or  2  pounds  of  bread. 

Suppose,  now,  that  a  suitable  admixture  of  bread  and  meat  be  given, 
the  result  will  stand  as  follows: 

14,000  grs.  (2lbs.)  of  bread  contain     4,200  grs.  carbon,  140  grs.  nitrogen. 
5,500  grs.  (about  f  Ib.)  of  meat  contain  605  grs.       "         165  grs.        " 

Total,         4,805  305 

Hence  from  2  pounds  of  bread  and  about  £  pound  of  meat  we  can 
obtain  a  sufficient  amount  of  both  carbon  and  nitrogen;  whilst  rather 
over  6  pounds  of  meat  and  rather  more  than  4  pounds  of  bread,  if  taken 
singly,  would  be  respectively  required  to  satisfy  the  demand  in  the  case 
of  the  two  elements. 

The  train  of  reasoning  here  pursued  is  equally  applicable  to  a  combina- 
tion of  nitrogenous  food  with  the  non-nitrogenous  principle — fat.  By  a 
proper  adjustment  of  these  articles  the  precise  quantities  of  carbon  and 
nitrogen  required  can  be  in  a  similar  manner  supplied  without  waste  in 
either  case. 


PEACTICAL  DIETETICS. 


PROPER  FOOD  OF  MAN. 

UPON  the  supply  of  a  proper  quantity  and  quality  of  food,  the  main- 
tenance of  health  and  life  is  dependent.  The  records  of  this  and  other 
nations  have  from  time  to  time  afforded  bitter  evidence  of  how  inti- 
mately disease  and  mortality  are  associated  with  the  supply  of  food. 
Plague,  pestilence,  and  famine  stand  associated  together  in  the  public 
mind,  and,  through  an  imperfect  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  dietetics, 
the  most  calamitous  results  have  sometimes  occurred  from  improper  diet- 
ing amongst  large  bodies  of  men.  The  consideration  of  food  thus  be- 
comes a  matter  of  the  deepest  public  importance.  To  its  physiological 
contemplation  the  previous  pages  have  been  devoted,  and  now  its  prac- 
tical bearings,  both  in  relation  to  health  and  sickness,  will  form  the  sub- 
ject of  attention. 

As  has  been  already  stated,  it  is  to  organic  nature  that  we  have  to 
look  for  our  supply  of  food,  and  we  have  found  it  to  be  derivable  from 
both  animal  and  vegetable  products.  Looking  at  the  various  animal  or- 
ganisms around  us,  it  is  noticeable  that  some  are  designed  for  subsist- 
ence upon  an  exclusively  animal,  others  upon  an  exclusively  vegetable, 
and  others,  again,  upon  a  mixed  diet. 

Let  us  see  what  kind  of  food  is  best  adapted  for  the  support  of  man. 

It  may  be  premised  by  saying  that  no  animal  possesses  so  great  a 
power  of  accommodating  itself  to  varied  external  conditions  as  man,  and 
this  is  true  of  diet  as  well  as  of  other  things.  Without  this  power  the 
distribution  of  mankind  over  the  surface  of  the  globe  must  have  been 
much  more  limited  than  it  is.  The  difference  of  climate  in  different  lati- 
tudes not  only  gives  rise  to  different  personal  requirements  as  regards 
food,  but  likewise  modifies  the  character  of  the  alimentary  products  that 
are  to  be  found;  and  it  happens,  as  with  other  portions  of  the  plan  of 
nature,  that  the  two  are  in  harmony  with  each  other.  In  illustration 
of  this  subject,  I  will  here  introduce  a  collection  of  extracts  from  various 
sources,  representing  the  nature  of  the  food  consumed  by  the  inhabitants 
of  different  parts  of  the  globe. 

Extracts  from  the  Works  of  Various  Authors  Descriptive  of  the  Kind  of 
Food  Consumed  by  the  Inhabitants  of  Different  Parts  of  the  Globe. 

ARCTIC  REGIONS. — "  The  Esquimaux  are  mainly  an  animal-feeding  peo- 
ple, and  their  food  consists  of  the  reindeer,  musk-ox,  walrus,  seals,  birds, 
and  salmon.  They  will,  however,  eat  any  kind  of  animal  food,  and  are 
fond  of  fat  and  marrow." — "  Lubbock's  Pre-historic  Times,"  p.  485.  1869. 

"  Our  journeys  have  taught  us  the  wisdom  of  the  Esquimaux  appe- 
tite, and  there  are  few  among  us  who  do  not  relish  a  slice  of  raw  blubber 


PliACTICAL    DIETETICS.  305 

or  a  chunk  of  frozen  walrus-beef.  The  liver  of  a  walrus  (awuktanuk), 
eaten  with  little  slices  of  his  fat,  of  a  verity,  it  is  a  delicious  morsel.  Fire 
would  ruin  the  curt,  pithy  expression  of  vitality  which  belongs  to  its  un- 
cooked juices.  Charles  Lamb's  roast  pig  was  nothing  to  awuktanuk.  I 
wonder  that  raw  beef  is  not  eaten  at  home.  Deprived  of  extraneous  fibre, 
it  is  neither  indigestible  nor  difficult  to  masticate.  With  acids  and  con- 
diments, it  makes  a  salad  which  an  educated  palate  cannot  help  relishing 
and,  as  a  powerful  and  condensed  heat-making  and  anti-scorbutic  food,  it 
has  no  rival. 

"  I  make  this  last  broad  assertion  after  carefully  testing  its  truth. 
The  natives  of  South  Greenland  prepare  themselves  for  a  long  journey  in 
the  cold  by  a  course  of  frozen  seal.  At  Upernavik  they  do  the  same  with 
the  narwhal,  which  is  thought /nore  heat-making  than  the  seal;  while  the 
bear,  to  use  their  own  expression,  is  '  stronger  travel  than  all.' 

"  In  Smith's  Sound,  where  the  use  of  raw  meat  seems  almost  inevitable 
from  the  modes  of  living  of  the  people,  walrus  holds  the  first  rank.  Cer- 
tainly this  pachyderm,  whose  finely  condensed  tissue  and  delicate-perme- 
ating fat — oh  !  call  it  not  blubber — assimilate  it  to  the  ox,  is  beyond  all 
others,  and  is  the  very  best  fuel  a  man  can  swallow.  It  became  our  con- 
stant companion  whenever  we  could  get  it,  and  a  frozen  liver  upon  our 
sledge  was  valued  far  above  the  same  weight  of  pemmican." — "  Kane's 
Arctic  Explorations,"  vol.  ii.,  pp.  15,  16.  1856. 

THE  GKEENLANDERS. — "  The  choicest  dish  of  the  Greenlanders  is  the 
flesh  of  the  reindeer.  But  as  those  animals  have  now  become  extremely 
scarce — and  several  of  them  are  soon  consumed  by  a  hunting-party — they 
are  indebted  to  the  sea  for  their  permanent  sustenance:  seals,  fish,  and 
sea-fowl.  Hares  and  partridges  are  in  no  great  estimation  as  delicacies. 
The  head  and  fins  of  the  seal  are  preserved  under  the  grass  in  summer, 
and  in  winter  a  whole  seal  is  frequently  buried  in  the  snow.  The  flesh, 
half-frozen,  half-putrid,  in  which  state  the  Greenlanders  term  it  mikiak, 
is  eaten  with  the  keenest  appetite.  The  ribs  are  dried  in  the  air  and  laid 
up  in  store.  The  remaining  parts  of  the  seal,  as  well  as  birds  and  small 
fishes,  are  eaten,  well  boiled  or  stewed  with  a  small  quantity  of  sea-water. 
On  the  capture  of  a  seal  the  wound  is  immediately  stopped  up,  to  pre- 
serve the  blood,  which  is  rolled  into  balls  like  forcemeat." — "  Simmond's 
Curiosities  of  Food,"  p.  32.  1859. 

THE  ICELANDERS. — "  The  diet  of  the  Icelanders  consists  almost  solely 
of  animal  food,  of  which  fish,  either  fresh  or  dried,  forms  by  far  the  largest 
proportion.  During  the  summer  they  have  milk  and  butter  in  considera- 
ble abundance;  but  of  bread  and  every  other  vegetable  food  there  is  the 
utmost  scarcity,  and  among  the  lower  classes  an  almost  entire  privation. 
....  As  an  effect  of  these  circumstances  in  the  mode  of  life  of  the  Ice- 
landers, cutaneous  diseases,  arising  from  a  cachectic  state  of  the  body, 
are  exceedingly  frequent  among  them,  and  appear  under  some  of  their 
worst  forms.  Scurvy  and  leprosy  are  common  in  the  island,  occurring  es- 
pecially on  the  western  coast,  where  the  inhabitants  depend  chiefly  upon 
fishing,  and  where  the  pastures  are  inferior  in  extent  and  produce.  .  .  . 
Scurvy  is  observed  to  occur  with  greatest  frequency  at  those  periods  when 
there  has  been  a  deficiency  of  food  among  the  inhabitants,  or  when  the 
snow  and  frost  of  the  winter  succeed  immediately  to  a  wet  autumnal  sea- 
son. For  its  cure  a  vegetable  diet  is  employed,  in  as  far  as  the  circum- 
stances of  the  Icelanders  will  allow  of  such  means.  Fruits  of  every  kind 
are  altogether  wanting  to  them;  but  some  advantage  is  derived  from  the 
employment  of  the  Cochlearia  (officinalis  et  Danicd),  of  the  trefoil  (Tri- 
20 


306  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

folium  repens),  of  the  berries  and  tops  of  the  juniper  (Juniperus  commu- 
nis),  and  of  the  Sedum  acre,  plants  which  are  all  indigenous  in  the  island. 
Inflammatory  affections  of  the  abdominal  viscera  are  likewise  very  com- 
mon among  the  Icelanders,  chiefly,  perhaps,  in  consequence  of  the  peculiar 
diet  to  which  they  are  accustomed. 

"  The  diet  of  the  Icelanders  likewise  gives  much  disposition  to  worms, 
and  the  ascarides  are  observed  to  be  particularly  frequent." — "Mackenzie's 
Travels  in  Iceland,"  pp.  407-412.  1811. 

SIBERIA. — Lower  Kolyma. — "  One  of  the  women  prepares  the  frugal 
dinner  or  supper,  which  usually  consists  of  either  fish  or  reindeer-meat 
boiled  or  fried  in  train-oil.  As  an  occasional  delicacy,  they  have  baked 
cakes  of  fish-roe  or  of  dried  and  finely-pounded  muksuns,  which  are  the 

substitutes  for  meal Bread  is  everywhere  rare.  From  the  meal, 

which  is  so  dear  that  only  the  rich  can  buy  it,  a  drink  is  prepared  called 
saturan." — "  Wrangell's  Expedition  to  the  Polar  Sea,"  p.  75.  1844. 

The  Jdkuts. — "  Their  food  consists  of  sour  cow's  milk  and  mare's 
milk,  and  of  beef  and  horseflesh.  They  boil  their  meat,  but  never  roast  or 
bake  it,  and  bread  is  unknown  among  them.  Fat  is  their  greatest  deli- 
cacy. They  eat  it  in  every  possible  shape — raw,  melted,  fresh,  or  spoilt. 
In  general,  they  regard  quantity  more  than  quality  in  their  food.  They 
grate  the  inner  bark  of  the  larch,  and  sometimes  of  the  fir,  and  mix  it  with 
fish,  a  little  meal,  and  milk,  or  by  preference  with  fat,  and  make  it  into  a 
sort  of  broth,  which  they  consume  in  large  quantities.  They  prepare 
from  cow's  milk  what  is  called  the  Jakut  butter.  It  is  more  like  a  kind 
of  cheese  or  of  curd,  and  has  a  sourish  taste;  it  is  not  very  rich,  and  is  a 
very  good  article  of  food  eaten  alone." — "  Wrangell's  Expedition  to  the 
Polar  Sea,"  p.  23.  1844. 

NORTH  AMERICAN  INDIANS. — "  The  buffalo-meat,  however,  is  the  great 
staple  and  staff  of  life  in  this  country  [Mandan  Village,  Upper  Missouri], 
and  seldom,  if  ever,  fails  to  afford  them  an  abundant  and  wholesome  means 
of  subsistence.  There  are,  from  a  fair  computation,  something  like 
250,000  Indians  in  these  western  regions,  who  live  almost  exclusively  on 
the  flesh  of  these  animals  through  every  part  of  the  year." — "  Catlin's 
Letters  on  the  North  American  Indians,"  vol.  i.,  p.  122. 

INDIAN  TRIBES  OF  THE  INTERIOR  OF  OREGON. — "  They  all  prefer 
their  meat  putrid,  and  frequently  keep  it  until  it  smells  so  strong  as  to 
be  disgusting.  Parts  of  the  salmon  they  bury  under  ground  for  two 
or  three  months,  to  putrefy,  and  the  more  it  is  decayed  the  greater  deli- 
cacy they  consider  it." — "  Wilks'  U.  S.  Exploring  Expedition,  vol.  iv., 
p.  452. 

MEXICO. — "  The  Indians  of  New  Spain — those,  at  least,  subject  to  the 
European  domination — generally  attain  to  a  pretty  advanced  age.  As 
peaceable  cultivators  and  inhabitants  of  villages,  they  are  not  exposed  to 
the  accidents  attending  the  wandering  life  of  the  hunters  and  warriors  of 
the  Mississippi  and  of  the  savannas  of  the  Rio  Gila.  Accustomed  to  uni- 
form nourishment  of  an  almost  entirely  vegetable  nature,  that  of  their 
maize  and  cereal  gramina,  the  Indians  would  undoubtedly  attain  very 
great  longevity  if  their  constitutions  were  not  weakened  by  drunkenness. 
Their  intoxicating  liquors  are  rum,  a  fermentation  of  maize  and  the  root  of 
the  Jatropha,  and  especially  the  wine  of  the  country,  made  of  the  juice  of 
the  Agave  Americana,  called  pulque.  This  last  liquor  is  nutritive  on  ac- 
count of  the  undecomposed  sugar  which  it  contains.  Many  Indians  ad- 
dicted to  pulque  take  for  a  long  time  very  little  solid  nourishment.  When 
used  -with  moderation,  it  is  very  salutary,  and,  by  fortifying  the  stomach, 


PRACTICAL    DIETETICS.  307 

assists  the  function  of  the  gastric  system." — "Taylor's  Selections  from 
Humboldt's  Works  relating  to  Mexico,"  pp.  67,  68."    1824. 

"  The  usual  food  of  the  laboring  classes,  throughout  such  states  as  I 
visited,  is  the  thin  cake  of  crushed  maize,  which  I  have  described  under 
the  name  tortilla;  and  it  is  remarkable  that,  notwithstanding  the  great 
abundance  of  cattle  in  many  places,  the  traveller  can  rarely  obtain  meat 
in  the  little  huts  which  he  finds  on  his  road.  Chilis  are  eaten  abundantly 
with  the  tortillas,  being  stewed  in  a  kind  of  sauce,  into  which  the  cakes 
are  dipped.  A  few  fowls  are  at  times  to  be  seen  wandering  near  the  cot- 
tages, or  some  pigs  rambling  through  the  village,  and  the  flesh  of  these 
creatures  furnishes  a  feast  on  holidays." — "  Lyon's  Residence  in  Mexico," 
vol.  ii.,  pp.  244,  245.  1828. 

PAMPAS  INDIANS. — "  The  Indians  of  whom  I  heard  the  most  were  those 
who  inhabit  the  vast  unknown  plains  of  the  Pampas,  and  who  are  all 
horsemen,  or  rather  pass  their  lives  on  horseback.  The  life  they  lead  is 
singularly  interesting.  In  spite  of  the  climate,  which  is  burning  hot  in 
summer  and  freezing  in  winter,  these  brave  men,  who  have  never  yet  been 
subdued,  are  entirely  naked,  and  have  not  even  a  covering  for  their  head. 

"  They  live  together  in  tribes,  each  of  which  is  governed  by  a  cacique; 
but  they  have  no  fixed  place  of  residence.  Where  the  pasture  is  good, 
there  are  they  to  be  found  until  it  is  consumed  by  their  horses,  and  they 
then  instantly  move  to  a  more  verdant  spot.  They  have  neither  bread, 
fruit,  nor  vegetables;  but  they  subsist  entirely  on  the  flesh  of  their  mares." 
— "  F.  B.  Head's  Journeys  Across  the  Pampas,"  p.  120.  1828. 

"  The  ground  is  the  bed  on  which,  from  their  infancy,  they  have  always 
slept.  The  flesh  of  mares  is  the  food  on  which  they  have  been  accustomed 
to  subsist. "—Ibid.,  p.  122. 

Sir  Francis  Head,  when  crossing  the  Pampas,  got  tired  at  first  with 
the  constant  galloping,  and  was  forced  to  ride  in  a  carriage  after  five  or 
six  hours  on  horseback.  "  But  after,"  he  says,  "  I  had  been  riding  for 
three  or  four  months,  and  had  lived  on  beef  and  water,  I  found  myself  in 
a  condition  which  I  can  only  describe  by  saying  that  I  felt  no  exertion 
could  kill  me.  Although  I  "constantly  arrived  so  completely  exhausted 
that  I  could  not  speak,  yet  a  few  hours'  sleep  upon  my  saddle  on  the 
ground  always  so  completely  restored  me,  that  for  a  week  I  could  daily 
be  upon  my  horse  before  sunrise,  could  ride  till  two  or  three  hours  after 
sunset,  and  have  really  tired  ten  and  twelve  horses  a  day.  _  This  will  ex- 
pi  an  the  immense  distances  which  people  in  South  America  are  said  to 
ride,  which  I  am  confident  could  only  be  done  on  beef  and  water." — Ibid., 
p.  51. 

GUACHOS. — "  We  find  a  people  living  between  the  twentieth  and 
fortieth  parallels  of  latitude,  in  the  Argentine  Republic,  known  as  Guachos 
[the  half-white  inhabitants  of  the  Pampas].  They  are  a  mixed  race  of 
Indian  and  Spanish  blood,  who  are  employed  at  the  ranches  or  great  cattle 
stations,  and  spend  the  greater  part  of  their  time  on  horseback,  in  hunt- 
ing the  half- wild  cattle  which  roam  over  the  wide  grassy  plains  extending 
from  the  Atlantic  coast  to  the  foot  of  the  Andes.  .  .  .  .  These  people 
live  entirely  on  roast  beef,  with  a  little  salt,  scarcely  ever  tasting  farina- 
ceous or  other  vegetable  food,  and  their  sole  beverage  is  mate,  or  Para- 
guay tea,  taken  without  sugar."— "  Odontological  Society's  Transactions," 
vol.  ii.  new  series,  p.  44. 

THE  NATIVES  OF  AUSTRALIA. — "Their  food  consists  of  fish  when  near 
the  coasts;  but  when  in  the  woods,  of  opossums,  bandicoots,  and  almost 
any  animal  they  can  catch,  and  also  a  kind  of  grub,  which  they  find  in 


308  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

decayed  wood.  Sometimes  they  spear  a  kangaroo.  They  roast  all  the 
fish  and  animals  on  the  ashes,  skin  and  all,  just  as  they  catch  them. 
When  it  is  pretty  well  done  they  divide  it  amongst  themselves  by  tearing 
it  with  their  teeth  and  fingers,  and,  excepting  the  bones,  they  devour  every 
part,  including  the  entrails." — "Robert  Dawson's  Present  State  of  Aus- 
tralia," pp.  67,  68.  1830. 

"  Amongst  the  almost  unlimited  catalogue  of  edible  articles  used  by 
the  natives  of  Australia,  the  following  may  be  classed  as  the  chief:  All 
salt  and  fresh-water  fish  and  shell-fish,  of  which  in  the  large  rivers  there 
are  vast  numbers  and  many  species;  fresh-water  turtle;  frogs  of  different 
kinds;  rats  and  mice;  lizards  and  most  kinds  of  snakes  and  reptiles; 
grubs  of  all  kinds;  moths  of  several  varieties;  fungi  and  many  sorts  of 
roots;  the  leaves  and  tops  of  a  variety  of  plants;  the  leaf  and  fruit  of  the 
Mesembryanthemum;  various  kinds  of  fruits  and  berries;  the  bark  from 
the  roots  of  many  trees  and  shrubs;  the  seeds  of  leguminous  plants;  gum 
from  several  species  of  acacia;  different  sorts  of  manna;  honey  from  the 
native  bee,  and  also  from  the  flowers  of  the  Banksia  by  soaking  them  in 
water;  the  tender  leaves  of  the  grass-tree;  the  larvae  of  insects;  white 
ants;  eggs  of  birds;  turtles  or  lizards;  many  kinds  of  kangaroo;  opos- 
sums; squirrels,  sloths,  and  wallabies;  ducks,  geese,  teal,  cockatoos,  par- 
rots, wild  dogs,  and  wombats;  the  native  companion,  the  wild  turkey,  the 
swan,  the  pelican,  the  leipoa,  and  an  endless  variety  of  water-fowl  and  other 
descriptions  of  birds." — "  Eyre's  Central  Australia,"  vol.  ii.,  pp.  250,  251. 

NEW  ZEALAND. — "In  former  times  the  food  of  the  natives  consisted 
of  sweet  potatoes,  taro  (Caladium  esculentum),  fern-root  (Pteris  escu- 
lenta),  the  aromatic  berries  of  the  kahikatea  (Dacrydium  excelsum),  the 
pulp  of  a  fern-tree  (Cyathea  medullaris)  called  korau  or  mamako,  the 
sweet  root  of  the  Dracwna  indivisa,  the  heart  of  a  palm-tree  (Areca 
sapida),  a  bitter  though  excellent  vegetable,  the  Sonchus  oleraceits,  and 
many  different  berries.  Of  animals  they  consumed  fishes,  dogs,  the  in- 
digenous rat,  crawfish,  birds,  and  guanas.  Rough  mats  of  their  own 
making,  or  dog-skins,  constituted  their  clothing.  They  were  hardened 
against  the  influence  of  the  climate  by  the  necessity  of  exerting  them- 
selves in  procuring  these  provisions,  and  by  their  frequent  predatory  and 
travelling  excursions,  which  produced  a  healthy  excitement,  and  with  it 
an  easy  digestion  of  even  this  crude  diet." — "Dieff  en  bach's  Travels  in 
New  Zealand,"  vol.  ii.,  pp.  17,  18.  1843. 

Fish  is  the  principal  food  of  the  inhabitants,  and,  therefore,  the  in- 
land tribes  are  frequently  in  danger  of  perishing  of  famine.  "  Their 
country  produces  neither  sheep  nor  goats,  nor  hogs,  nor  cattle;  tame 
fowls  they  have  none." 

The  vegetables  eaten  are  fern-root,  yams,  clams,  and  potatoes. 

They  also  eat  dogs. — "  Cook's  First  Voyage  "  (Hawkesworth,  vol.  iii., 
p.  447;. 

Roots  of  the  fern  are  to  the  people  what  bread  is  to  the  inhabitants 
of  Europe. 

"The 'birds  which  sometimes  serve  them  for  a  feast  are  chiefly  pen- 
guins and  albatrosses. — Ibid.,  p.  459. 

THE  NATIVES  OF  THE  FRIENDLY  ISLANDS.— "Yams,  plantains,  and 
cocoa-nuts  compose  the  greatest  part  of  their  vegetable  diet.  Of  their 
animal  food,  the  chief  articles  are  hogs,  fowls,  fish,  and  all  sorts  of  shell- 
fish; but  the  lower  people  eat  rats. 

"Hogs,  fowls,  and  turtle  seem  to  be  reserved  for  their  chiefs." — 
"Cook's  Third  Voyage,"  vol.  i.,  p.  397.  • 


.  PRACTICAL    DIETETICS.  309 

THE  INHABITANTS  or  OTAHEITE. — "  Their  food  consists  of  pork,  poul- 
try, dog's  flesh,  and  fish;  bread-fruit,  bananas,  plantains,  yams,  apples, 
and  a  sour  fruit  which,  though  not  pleasant  by  itself,  gives  an  agreeable 
relish  to  roasted  bread-fruit,  with  which  it  is  frequently  beaten  up  " — 
"  Wallis'  Voyage,"  1767  ("  Hawkesworth's  Voyages,"  vol.  i.,  p.  483). 

"  I  cannot  much  commend  the  flavor  of  their  fowls,  but  we  all  agreed 
that  a  South  Sea  dog  was  little  inferior  to  an  English  lamb;  their  ex- 
cellence is  probably  owing  to  their  being  kept  up  and  fed  wholly  upon 
vegetables." — "Cook's  First  Voyage"  ("Hawkesworth's  Voyages,"  vol. 
ii.,  pp.  196-199). 

"  Their  common  diet  is  made  up  of  at  least  nine-tenths  of  vegetable 
food." 

"  Of  animal  food  a  very  small  portion  falls  at  any  time  to  the  share  of 
the  lower  class  of  people,  and  then  it  is  either  fish,  sea-eggs,  or  other 
marine  productions." — "  Cook's  Third  Voyage,"  vol.  ii.,  pp.  148  and  154. 

FKEJEK  ISLANDS. — "  What  all  voyagers  have  said  of  the  cocoa-nut 
tree  we  found  to  be  true,  only,  instead  of  its  uses  being  exaggerated,  as 
some  have  supposed,  they  are,  in  my  opinion,  underrated.  A  native 
may  well  ask  if  a  land  contains  cocoa-nuts,  for  if  it  does  he  is  assured  it 
will  afford  him  abundance  to  supply  his  wants." — "  Wilkes,  U.  S.  Ex- 
ploring Expedition,"  vol.  in.,  p.  334. 

TANNA  (one  of  the  New  Hebrides). — "The  produce  of  the  island  is 
bread-fruit,  plantains,  cocoa-nuts,  a  fruit  like  a  nectarine,  yams,  tarra  (a 
sort  of  potato),  sugar-cane,  wild  figs,  and  some  other  fruits  and  nuts. 

"  Hogs  did  not  seem  to  be  scarce,  but  we  saw  not  many  fowls.  These 
are  the  only  domestic  animals  they  have. 

"  I  believe  these  people  live  chiefly  on  the  produce  of  the  land,  and 
that  the  sea  contributes  but  little  to  their  subsistence.  Whether  this 
arises  from  the  coast  not  abounding  with  fish,  or  from  their  being  bad 
fishermen,  I  know  not;  both  causes,  perhaps,  concur." — "Cook's  Second 
Voyage,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  77. 

NEW  CALEDONIA. — The  inhabitants  "  subsist  chiefly  on  roots  and  fish 
and  the  bark  of  a  tree,  which,  I  am  told,  grows  also  in  the  West  Indies. 
This  they  roast  and  are  almost  continually  chewing.  It  has  a  sweetish, 
insipid  taste,  and  was  liked  by  some  of  our  people.  Water  is  their  only 
liquor — at  least  I  never  saw  any  other  made  use  of." — Ibid.,  vol.  ii.,  p. 
123. 

ISLAND  OP  SAVU  (between  Australia  and  Java). — "  The  food  of  these 
people  consists  of  every  tame  animal  in  the  country,  of  which  the  hog 
holds  the  first  place  in  their  estimation,  and  the  horse  the  second;  next 
to  the  horse  is  the  buffalo,  next  to  the  buffalo  their  poultry,  and  they 
prefer  dogs  and  cats  to  sheep  and  goats.  They  are  not  fond  of  fish." 

The  fan-palm  is  at  certain  times  a  succedaneum  for  all  other  food, 
both  to  man  and  beast.  A  kind  of  wine  called  toddy  is  procured  from 
this  tree. — "  Cook's  First  Voyage"  (Hawkesworth,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  688,  689.) 

SANDWICH  ISLANDS. — "The  food  of  the  lower  class  of  people  consists 
principally  of  fish  and  vegetables,  such  as  yams,  sweet  potatoes,  tarrow, 
plantains,  sugar-canes,  and  bread-fruit.  To  these  the  people  of  a  higher 
rank  add  the  flesh  of  hogs  and  dogs,  dressed  in  the  same  manner  as  at 
the  Society  Islands.  They  also  eat  fowls  of  the  same  domestic  kind  with 
ours;  but  they  are  neither  plentiful  nor  much  esteemed  by  them." — 
"  Cook's  Third  Voyage,"  vol.  iii.  (by  Capt.  King),  p.  141. 

"  The  principal  food  of  the  lower  class  of  the  population,  and,  in  fact, 
the  favorite  food  of  all  classes,  ispoi."  This  "is  a  sort  of  paste  made 


310  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

from  the  root  of  the  kalo  (Arum  esculentum),  a  water  plant,  cultivated 
to  a  great  extent  throughout  all  the  islands."  "  The  kalo  is  much  used 
by  the  foreign  residents  as  a  substitute  for  potatoes,  or  rather  for  bread, 
being-  for  this  purpose  either  boiled  or  fried." 

"These  (their  fish)  the  natives  prefer  in  a  raw  state,  on  the  ground 
that  they  lose  their  flavor  in  cooking,  considering  it  as  the  richest  possible 
treat,  when  on  their  aquatic  excursions,  to  haul  a  fish  from  the  water  and 
literally  eat  it  to  death." — "  Sir  George  Simpson's  Journey  Round  the 
World,"  vol.  ii.,  pp.  31-41.  1847. 

CHINA. — "  The  Chinese,  again,  have  no  prejudice  whatever  as  regards 
food;  they  eat  anything  and  everything  from  which  they  can  derive 
nutrition.  Dogs,  rats,  mice,  monkeys,  snakes,  sea-slugs,  rotten  eggs, 
putrefied  fish,  unhatched  ducks  and  chickens."  "Both  in  eating  and 
drinking  the  Chinese  are  temperate,  and  are  satisfied  with  two  daily 
meals;  the  morning  rice  about  10  A.M.,  and  the  evening  rice  at  5  P.M. 
The  only  repugnance  I  have  observed  in  China  is  to  the  use  of  milk." 
"I  never  saw  or  heard  of  butter,  cream,  milk,  or  whey,  being  introduced 
at  any  Chinese  table." — Bowring:  /Statistical  /Society  Journal,  vol.  xx., 
p.  47. 

"Their  famous  gin-sing,  a  name  signifying  the  life  of  a  man  (the 
Panax  quinquefolium  of  Linnaeus),  on  account  of  its  supposed  invigor- 
ating and  aphrodisiac  qualities,  was  for  a  length  of  time  weighed  against 
gold.  The  sinewy  parts  of  stags  and  other  animals,  with  the  fins  of 
sharks,  as  productive  of  the  same  effects,  are  purchased  by  the  wealthy 
at  enormous  prices;  and  the  nests  that  are  constructed  by  small  swallows 
on  the  coasts  of  Cochin  China,  Cambodia,  and  other  parts  of  the  East, 
are  dearer  even  than  some  kinds  of  gin-sing.  Most  of  the  plants  that 
grow  on  the  sea-shore  are  supposed  to  possess  an  invigorating  quality, 
and  are,  therefore,  in  constant  use  as  pickles  or  preserves,  or  simply  dried 
and  cut  into  soups  in  the  place  of  other  vegetables.  The  leaves  of  one 
of  these,  apparently  a  species  of  that  genus  called  by  botanists  fucus, 
after  being  gathered,  are  steeped  in  fresh  water  and  hung  up  to  dry.  A 
small  quantity  of  this  weed  boiled  in  water  gives  to  it  the  consistence  of 
a  jelly,  and  when  mixed  with  a  little  sugar,  the  juice  of  an  orange,  or 
other  fruit,  and  set  by  to  cool,  I  know  of  no  jelly  more  agreeable  or  re- 
freshing." 

"  The  great  officers  of  state  make  use  of  these  and  various  other  gela- 
tinous viands  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring,  as  they  suppose,  a  proper  de- 
gree of  corpulency." — "  Barrow's  Travels  in  China,"  pp.  551,  552.  1806. 

"  The  food  of  these  people  [Chinese  laborers]  is  of  the  simplest  kind, 
namely,  rice,  vegetables,  and  a  small  portion  of  animal  food,  such  as  fish 
or  pork.  But  the  poorest  classes  in  China  seem  to  understand  the  art  of 
preparing  their  food  much  better  than  the  same  classes  at  home.  With 
the  simple  substances  I  have  named,  the  Chinese  laborer  contrives  to  make 
a  number  of  very  savory  dishes,  upon  which  he  breakfasts  or  dines  most 
sumptuously." — "Fortune's  Residence  among  the  Chinese,"  p.  42. 

JAPAN. — -Japan  surpasses  most  other  countries  hitherto  known  to  us 
in  the  multiplicity  of  the  articles  of  food  to  be  met  with  in  its  islands  and 
the  surrounding  ocean. 

"  Rice,  which  is  here  exceedingly  white  and  well-tasted,  supplies  with 
the  Japanese,  the  place  of  bread;  they  eat  it  boiled  with  every  kind  of 
provisions. 

"  Miso  soup,  boiled  with  fish  and  onions,  is  eaten  by  the  common  peo- 
ple, frequently  three  times  a  days,  at  each  of  their  customary  meals. 


PRACTICAL   DIETETICS.  311 

Misos  are  not  unlike  lentils,  and  are  small  beans  gathered  from  the  Doli- 
chos  soja. 

"  Fish  is  likewise  a  very  common  dish  with  the  Japanese,  both  boiled 
and  fried  in  oil.  Fowls,  of  which  they  have  a  great  variety,  both  wild  and 
tarne,  are  eaten  in  great  abundance;  and  the  flesh  of  whales,  though  coarse, 
is  in  several  places,  at  least  among  the  poorer  sort,  a  very  common  food." 

"In  preparing  their  victuals  they  make  use  of  expressed  oils  of  several 
different  sorts."  "In  their  victuals  they  make,  a  very  plentiful  use  of 
mushrooms,  and  the  fruit  of  the  Solanutn  melongena  (egg-apple),  as  well 
as  the  roots  of  the  /Solatium  esculentum  (batatas),  carrots  and  several 
kinds  of  bulbous  roots  and  of  beans." 

"  Of  oysters  and  other  shell-fish  several  different  sorts  are  eaten,  but 
always  boiled  or  stewed,  as  likewise  shrimps  and  crabs." — "  Thunberg's 
Travels,"  vol.  iv.,  pp.  35-39.  1705 

INDIA. — From  the  earliest  period  the  most  general  food  in  India  has 
been  rice,  which  is  still  the  most  common  food  of  nearly  all  the  hottest 
countries  of  Asia.  It  is  not,  however,  so  much  used  in  the  south  of  Hin- 
dostan  as  formerly,  and  has  been  replaced  by  another  grain,  called  ragi. 
— "  Buckle's  History  of  Civilization,"  vol.  i.,  pp.  64,  65. 

"The  principal  food  of  the  people 'of  Hindostan  is  wheat,  and  in  the 
Deccan,  jo  war  and  bajra;  rice,  as  a  general  article  of  subsistence,  is  con- 
fined to  Bengal  and  part  of  Behar,  with  the  low  country  along  the  sea  all 
round  the  coast  of  the  peninsula.  In  most  parts  of  India  it  is  only  used 
as  a  luxury.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  table-land  of  the  Deccan  the 
body  of  the  people  live  on  a  small  and  poor  grain,  called  ragi  (  Cynosurus 
corocanus).  Though  these  grains  each  afford  the  principal  supply  to 
particular  divisions,  they  are  not  confined  to  their  own  tracts."  Pulse, 
roots,  and  fruits  are  largely  eaten. — "  Elphinstone's  History  of  India," 
vol.  i.,  pp.  12,  13. 

CEYLON. — "  The  ordinary  diet  of  the  people  is  very  meagre,  consisting 
of  rice  seasoned  with  salt,  the  chief  condiment  of  the  East,  and  a  few 
vegetables,  flavored  with  lemon-juice  and  pepper,  from  which  they  will 
make  at  any  time  a  hearty  meal.  Beef  is  forbidden,  being  an  abomina- 
tion. Flesh  is  scarce,  and  fish  not  always  plentiful,  but  when  it  is  they 
prefer  selling  it  to  Europeans  to  keeping  it  for  themselves.  It  is  consid- 
ered anything  but  a  reproach  to  be  sparing  in  diet,  but  rather  a  credit  to 
live  on  hard  fare  and  suffer  hunger. 

"  The  hondrew  class  are  rather  more  luxurious,  eating  from  five  or  six 
sorts  of  food,  one  or  two  of  which  consists  of  meat  or  fish,  and  the  re- 
mainder of  vegetable  dishes.  Their  chief  food,  however,  is  rice,  the  other 
dishes  being  used  principally  for  a  relish." — "  Pridham's  Ceylon,"  vol.  i., 
p.  263.  1849. 

Almost  endless  cocoa-nut  forests  in  Ceylon  provide  the  native  with 
the  most  important  necessary  for  supporting  existence. — "Voyage  of  the 
Novara,"  vol.  i.,  p.  366. 

EGYPT. — Beef  and  goose  constituted  the  principal  part  of  the  animal 
food  throughout  Egypt. 

"  The  advantages  of  a  leguminous  diet  are  still  acknowledged  by  the 
inhabitants  of  modern  Egypt.  This,  in  a  hot  climate,  is  far  more  condu- 
cive to  health  than  the  constant  introduction  of  meat,  which  is  principally 
used  to  flavor  the  vegetables  cooked  with  it." 

Vegetables  form  the  principal  food  of  the  lower  orders,  and  lentils  are 
a  chief  article  of  diet.— "  Wilkinson's  Ancient  Egyptians,"  vol..  iL,  pp. 
368-388. 


312  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

"  The  usual  season  for  sowing  the  doura,  which  constitutes  almost  the 
whole  subsistence  of  the  peasantry,  is  soon  after  the  commencement  of 
the  inundation." — "  Hamilton's  ^ICgyptiaca,"  p.  419.  1809. 

SAHARA. — "  Dates  are  not  only  the  principal  growth  of  the  Fezzan 
oases,  but  the  main  subsistence  of  their  inhabitants.  All  live  on  dates — 
men,  women,  and  children,  horses,  asses,  and  camels,  and  sheep,  fowls, 
and  dogs." — "Richardson's  Travels  in  the  Great  Desert,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  323. 
1848. 

NUBIA. — "  We  have  another  example  of  a  race  subsisting  entirely  on 
animal  food,  in  the  Arabs  who  inhabit  the  Nubian  desert — a  district  which 
consists  principally  of  hills  varying  from  1,000  to  1,800  feet  high,  and  is 
destitute  of  all  vegetable  products  suitable  for  human  food.  Their  camels 
subsist  on  the  thorny  shrubs  growing  among  the  rocks;  and  the  milk  and 
flesh  of  these  animals  (with  salt)  constitute  their  sole  ordinary  food.  On 
their  occasional  journeys  into  Egypt,  to  sell  camels,  they  usually  bring 
home  a  small  quantity  of  wheat,  which  is  never  ground,  but  boiled  into  a 
kind  of  frumenty,  and  eaten  as  a  luxury,  but  it  must  not  be  reckoned  as 
an  ordinary  element  in  their  diet." — "  Odontological  Society  Transac- 
tions," vol.  ii.,  new  series,  p.  45. 

ABYSSINIA. — "  An  instinctive  feeling,  dependent  upon  the  pleasures 
of  a  state  of  warmth,  has  taught  the  Abyssinians  that  flesh  of  animals 
eaten  raw  is  a  source  of  great  physical  enjoyment  by  the  cordial  and 
warming  effects  upon  the  system  produced  by  its  digestion,  and  to  which 
I  am  convinced  bons  vivants  more  civilized  than  the  Abyssinians  would 
resort  if  placed  in  their  situation.  Travellers  who  have  witnessed  their 
"  brunde  "  feasts  can  attest  to  the  intoxicating  effects  of  this  kind  of  food, 
and  they  must  have  been  astonished  at  the  immense  quantities  that  can 
be  eaten  in  the  raw  state  compared  to  that  when  the  meat  is  cooked,  and 
at  the  insensibility  which  it  sometimes  produces."  This  raw  meat,  how- 
ever, is  considered  a  luxury,  and  is  only  indulged  in  at  festivals. — 
"  Johnston's  Travels  in  Southern  Abyssinia,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  226.  1844. 

"The  Abyssinians  suffer  considerably  in  their  health  from  the  diffi- 
culty of  obtaining  salt." — Ibid.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  175. 

DAHOMEY. — "  The  diet  is  simple,  consisting  chiefly  of  messes  of  meat 
and  vegetable,  mixed  with  palm  oil  and  pepper,  with  which  is  eaten  a 
corn-cake,  called  kankee,  or  dab-a-dab.  There  is  very  little  variety.  A 
mixture  of  beans,  peppers,  and  palm  oil,  is  made  into  a  cake  and  sold  to 
travellers;  yams  and  cassada  form  the  staples  of  food.  Foreign  liquors 
are  scarce  and  expensive;  and  as  palm  wine  is  forbidden  by  the  king,  the 
chief  drinks  are  a  very  palatable  malt  called  pitto,  and  a  sort  of  burgoo 
called  ah-kah-sar." — "  Forbes'  Dahomey  and  the  Dahomans,"  vol.  i.,  pp. 
29,  30.  1851. 

"THE  WARORI  are  small  and  shrivelled  black  savages.  Their  diminu- 
tive size  is,  doubtless,  the  effect  of  scanty  food,  continued  through  many 
generations."  "  The  principal  articles  of  diet  are  milk,  meat,  and  espe- 
cially fattened  dogs'  flesh,  of  which  the  chiefs  are  inordinately  fond, 
maize,  holcus,  and  millet.  Rice  is  not  grown  in  these  arid  districts." 
"Burton's  Lake  Regions  of  Central  Africa,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  273. 

WAMRIMA  OR  COAST  CLANS. — "  Their  food  is  mostly  ugali,  the  thick 
porridge  of  boiled  millet  or  maize  flour,  which  represents  the  '  staff  of 
life '  in  East  Africa.  They  usually  feed  twice  a  day,  in  the  morning  and 
at  nightfall.  They  employ  the  cocoa-nut  extensively;  like  the  Arabs  of 
Zanzibar,  they  boil  their  rice  in  the  thick  juice  of  the  rasped  albumen 
kneaded  with  water,  and  they  make  cakes  of  the  pulp  mixed  with  the 


PRACTICAL    DIETETICS.  313 

flour  of  various  grains.  This  immoderate  use  of  the  fruit,  which,  accord- 
ing to  the  people,  is  highly  refrigerant,  causes,  it  is  said,  rheumatic  and 
other  diseases.  A  respectable  man  seen  eating  a  bit  of  raw  or  undressed 
cocoa-nut  would  be  derided  by  his  fellows." —  Ibid.,  vol.  i.,  p.  35.  18GO. 

EAST  AFRICANS. — "  With  the  savage  and  the  barbarian,  food  is  the 
all-in-all  of  life;  food  is  his  thought  by  day — food  is  his  dream  by  night." 

"The  principal  articles  of  diet  are  fish  and  flesh,  grain  and  vegeta- 
bles; the  luxuries  are,  milk  and  butter,  honey,  and  a  few  fruits,  as  bananas 
and  Guinea-palm  dates;  and  the  inebriants  are  pombe  or  millet-beer, 
toddy,  and  mawa  or  plantain  wine." 

"The  A.rabs  assert  that  in  these  latitudes  vegetables  cause  heartburn 
and  acidity,  and  that  animal  food  is  the  most  digestible.  The  Africans 
seem  to  have  made  the  same  discovery.  A  man  who  can  afford  it  almost 
confines  himself  to  flesh,  and  considers  fat  the  essential  element  of  good 
living."— Ibid.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  280-287. 

CABANGO  (a  village  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Chihombo). — "  The 
chief  vegetable  food  is  the  manioc  and  lotsa  meal.  These  contain  a  very 
large  proportion  of  starch,  and  when  eaten  alone  for  any  length  of  time 
produce  most  distressing  heartburn.  As  we  ourselves  experienced  in 
coming  north,  they  also  cause  a  weakness  of  vision,  which  occurs  in  the 
case  of  animals  fed  on  pure  gluten  or  amylaceous  matter  only.  I  now 
discovered  that  when  these  starchy  substances  are  eaten  along  with  a 
proportion  of  ground-nuts,  which  contain  a  quantity  of  oil,  no  injurious 
effects  follow." — "Livingstone's  Missionary  Travels  and  Researches  in 
South  Africa,"  p.  455.  1857. 

KAFFIRS. — "  The  principal  diet  of  the  Kaffir  is  milk,  which  he  eats 
rather  than  drinks,  in  a  sour  and  curdled  state.  One  good  meal  a  day, 
taken  in  the  evening,  consisting  of  the  curdled  milk  and  a  little  millet, 
is  almost  all  that  he  requires,  and  with  this  he  is  strong,  vigorous,  and 
robust,  proving  that  large  quantities  of  animal  food  are  by  no  means 
necessary  for  the  sustenance  of  the  human  frame." 

A  Kaffir  will  never  touch  pork.  Fish  is  likewise  abstained  from  by 
him.  He  will  eat  the  flesh  of  an  ox,  cooked  or  raw. — "  Simmonds'  Curi- 
osities of  Food,"  p.  39. 

BOSJESMANS. — "The  African  Bushmen,  who  have  few  or  no  cattle, 
live  upon  what  they  can  get.  Hunger  compels  them  to  eat  everything — • 
roots,  bulbs,  wild  garlic,  the  core  of  aloes,  the  gum  of  acacias,  berries,  the 
larvae  of  ants,  lizards,  locusts,  and  grasshoppers — all  are  devoured  by 
these  poor  wanderers  of  the  desert.  Nothing  comes  amiss  to  them." — 
Ibid.,  p.  38. 

HOTTENTOTS. — "  The  victuals  of  the  Hottentots  are  the  flesh  and  en- 
trails of  cattle,  and  of  certain  wild  beasts,  with  fruits  and  roots  of  several 
kinds." 

They  "  rarely  kill  cattle  for  their  own  eating  but  when  they  are  at  a 
loss  for  other  sustenance.  The  cattle  they  devour  between  the  Ander- 
smakens  are  for  the  most  part  such  as  die  naturally,  and  they  reckon  'em, 
as  I  have  said,  very  delicious  eating." 

"  The  entrails  of  cattle,  and  of  such  wild  beasts  as  they  kill  for  food, 
they  look  upon  as  most  exquisite  eating.  They  boil  'em  in  beast-blood,  if 
they  have  any,  to  which  they  sometimes  add  milk.  This  they  look  upon 
as  a  glorious  dish.  If  they  have  not  blood  to  boil  'em  in,  they  broil  'eim 
And  this  they  do  on  the  bare  fire,  for  they  have  no  such  thing  as  a  gridiron." 

"  They  eat  everything  in  such  a  hurry,  and  with  so  much  indecency, 
that  they  look  extremely  wild  and  ravenous  at  meals,  particularly  when 


314  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

they  eat  flesh,  which  being  always  serv'd  up  to  'em  half  raw  or  more,  they 
make  a  very  furious  use  of  their  hands  (where  they  have  no  knives)  and 
of  their  teeth  to  tear  and  devour  it." 

"  Many  are  the  sorts  of  fruits  and  roots  the  Hottentots  eat,  and  the 
fields  up  and  down  for  the  most  part  abound  with  'em.  These,  as  I  have 
said,  are  gather'd  wholly  by  the  women.  In  the  choice  of  roots  and  fruits 
for  food  they  follow  the  hedgehog  and  the  bavian,  a  sort  of  ape,  and  will 
not  taste  of  any  sort  which  those  creatures  do  not  feed  upon  "  (for  fear  of 
poison). 

"The  Hottentots  have  no  set  times  for  their  meals.  They  have  no 
notion  of  dividing  them,  as  we  do,  into  breakfast,  dinner,  and  supper, 
but  take  'em  at  random,  as  humor  or  appetite  calls,  without  any  regard 
to  the  hour  of  the  day  or  the  night." 

They  "  have  traditionary  laws,  forbidding  the  eating  of  certain  meats, 
which  they  accordingly  abstain  from  very  carefully.  Swine's  flesh  and 
fishes  that  have  no  scales  are  forbidden  to  both  sexes.  The  eating  of 
hares  and  rabbits  is  forbidden  to  the  men,  but  not  to  the  women.  The 
pure  blood  of  beasts  and  flesh  of  the  mole  are  forbidden  to  the  women, 
but  not  to  the  men." 

"  The  Hottentots,  when  they  are  in  great  strait  for  food,  will  devour 
the  rings  of  leather  which  the  women  wear  upon  their  legs.  They  will 
likewise,  in  the  same  strait,  eat  old  cast-off  shoes"  [which  they  lay  up 
against  a  time  of  want]. 

"Their  manner  of  dressing  'em  is  this  :  They  singe  off  the  hair,  then 
having  soak'd  'em  a  little  in  water,  broil  'em  upon  the  bare  fire  till  they 
begin  to  wrinkle  and  run  up,  and  then  they  devour  'em." 

The  Hottentots  never  eat  salt  among  themselves,  but  "  they  are  not 
a  little  delighted  with  the  salt  and  otherwise  high-seasoned  victuals  of 
the  Europeans."  [Such  food,  however,  disagrees  with  them,  and  those 
who  eat  with  the  Europeans  are  subject  to  many  maladies,  and  don't  at- 
tain a  great  age.] 

"The  ordinary  drink  of  the  Hottentots  is  milk  and  water." 

"Men  and  women  are  doatinglv  fond  of  tobacco." — "Kolben's  State 
of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,"  pp.  200-208.  1731. 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  a  great  diversity  exists  as  regards  the  food  con- 
sumed by  the  human  race  in  different  parts  of  the  globe.  Instances  are 
to  be  found  where  life  is  sustained  upon  a  wholly  vegetable,  a  wholly 
animal,  and  a  mixed  diet.  The  mixed  diet,  however,  may  be  regarded  as 
that  which,  in  the  plan  of  nature,  is  designed  for  man's  subsistence.  It 
is  upon  this  that  he  appears  to  attain  the  highest  state  of  physical  devel- 
opment and  intellectual  vigor.  It  is  this  which,  certainly  in  temperate 
climates,  he  is  led  to  consume  by  general  inclination,  when  circumstances 
allow  the  inclination  to  guide  him;  and,  lastly,  it  is  this  which  stands  in 
conformity  with  the  construction  of  his  teeth  and  the  anatomy  of  his 
digestive  apparatus  in  general. 

Notwithstanding,  these  considerations  there  are  those — but  few  in 
number,  it  is  true — who  contend  that  vegetable  food  alone  is  best  adapted 
to  meet  our  requirements.  Under  the  style  of  vegetarians,*  they  act 

*  Paj'ep  (Substances  Alimentaires,  4me  ed. ,  p.  561.  Paris,  1865),  after  expressing 
himself  in  condemnation  of  restriction  to  vegetable  products,  says:  "  Cependant  en 
Angleterre,  ce  pays  des  excentricites,  ou  Ton  voit  une  belle  et  progressive  civilisation 
marcher  dans  presque  toutes  les  directions  avec  quelqne  accompagnement  debarbarie, 
une  secte  nombreuse  tend  a  exclure  la  chair  des  animaux  du  regime  alimentaire  de  la 
population  ;  elle  prcche  d'exemple  et  fait  quelques  proselytes." 


PRACTICAL    DIETETICS.  315 

upon  the  principle  they  profess.  It  is  true  that  vegetable  food,  with  its 
large  proportion  of  non-nitrogenous  matter,  yields,  in  a  simple  and  direct 
manner,  according  to  the  views  now  entertained  and  fully  discussed  in 
an  earlier  part  of  this  work,  the  requisites  for  force-  as  well  as  heat-pro- 
duction; and,  in  order  to  show  that  vegetable  food  is  better  adapted 
than  animal  for  contributing  to  the  performance  of  muscular  work,  refer- 
ence has  been  made  to  our  beasts  of  burden,  which,  as  is  well  known,  be- 
long almost  exclusively  to  the  herbivorous  tribe.  That  carnivorous  ani- 
mals, however,  are  not  unsuited  for  such  purpose  is  proved  in  the  case  of 
dogs,  which,  in  some  northern  and  other  countries,  are  very  extensively 
employed  for  the  performance  of  work.  To  regard  man's  maintenance 
too  closely  in  association  with  the  mere  performance  of  mechanical  work 
— to  look  upon  him,  in  other  words,  as  though  he  were  solely  designed 
for  the  conversion  of  food  into  mechanical  power,  is  not,  it  may  be  also 
said,  taking  a  high  view  of  his  position. 

Vegetarians,  however,  as  has  been  remarked,  are  by  no  means  numer- 
ous. Indeed,  the  prevailing  tendency,  certainly  in  the  England  of  the 
present  day,  is  to  give  an  undue  weight  to  the  value  of  animal  food,  and 
this  has  been  encouraged  by  the  teachings  of  Liebig  regarding  the  origin 
of  muscular  power — teachings  which,  during  the  last  few  years,  have 
been  shown  to  be  untenable. 

Many  people  seem  to  look  upon  meat  almost  as  though  it  formed  the 
only  food  that  really  nourished  and  supplied  what  is  wanted  for  work. 
The  physician  is  constantly  coming  across  an  expression  of  this  view. 
Undoubtedly  a  greater  feeling  of  satiety  is  produced  by  meat  than  by 
other  food.  It  forms  a  greater  stay  to  the  stomach,  but  this  arises  from 
the  stomach  constituting  the  seat  of  its  digestion,  and  a  longer  time  being 
occupied  before  it  passes  on  and  leaves  the  organ  in  an  empty  condition. 

Against  those  who  think  that  a  large  consumption  of  meat  is  a  sine 
qua  non  for  the  maintenance  of  health  and  strength,  the  experience  of 
vegetarians  may  be  adduced.  In  the  effects  of  the  Scotch  prison  diet- 
aries corroborative  testimony  is  afforded.  Dr.  J.  B.  Thomson,  for  in- 
stance, resident  surgeon  to  the  General  Prison  for  Scotland,  writing  in 
the  Medical  Times  and  Gazette,  vol.  i.,  1868,  speaks  in  favor,  from  ten 
years'  experience,  of  a  diet  into  which  meat  entered  very  sparingly,  and 
which  contained  instead  a  moderate  amount  of  milk.  He  says  since  the 
employment  of  the  improved  dietaries  sanctioned  by  the  Secretary  of 
State  in  1854,  the  dietary  in  the  General  Prison  for  Scotland  for  all  adult 
male  prisoners,  under  sentence  of  nine,  and  not  exceeding  twenty-four 
months,  had  consisted  of  bread,  oatmeal,  barley,  1  oz.  of  meat  per  diem, 
made  into  soup,  with  succulent  vegetables,  and  20  oz.  of  skimmed  or  but- 
ter milk.  One  day  in  the  week  fish  had  been  substituted  for  the  soup. 
The  health  of  the  prisoners  had  been  uniformly  good.  Weighing  on  ad- 
mission and  liberation  had  been  carried  out,  and  88  per  cent,  were  found 
to  have  gained  or  maintained  their  weight.  Again,  as  shown  by  one  of 
Dr.  E.  Smith's  reports,  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find,  amongst  the  agricul- 
tural laborers  of  Scotland,  that  no  meat  is  consumed,  oatmeal  and  milk 
forming  the  staple  articles  of  diet.  Further,  Dr.  Guy,*  from  his  observa- 
tions in  the  case  of  English  prisons,  gives  as  one  of  his  deductions,  "  that  we 
possess  conclusive  evidence  of  the  sufficiency  of  a  diet  from  which  meat  is 
wholly  excluded,  and  even  of  a  diet  consisting  wholly  of  vegetable  matter." 

*  On  Sufficient  and  Insufficient  Dietaries,  with  especial  reference  to  the  Dietaries 
of  Prisoners :  Journal  of  the  Statistical  Society,  vol.  xxvi ,  p.  280.  1863. 


316  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

I  have  introduced  these  particulars,  not  for  the  purpose  of  showing 
that  a  diet  without  meat  is  to  be  considered  desirable,  but  for  strengthen- 
ing the  argument  that  the  consumption  of  meat  to  the  extent  that  many 
persons  believe  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  health  and  strength  is. 
not  in  reality  so.  It  has  been  before  stated  that  physiological  consider- 
ations point  to  a  mixed  diet  as  being  most  in  harmony  with  our  nature, 
and  it  may  probably  be  considered  that  the  most  suitable  admixture  con- 
tains about  one-fourth,  or  rather  more,  of  animal  food.  With  more  ani- 
mal food  than  this,  the  excretory  organs  are  unnecessarily  taxed,  and  the 
svstem  exposed  to  contamination  with  impurities,  for  the  nitrogen  of  the 
superfluous  nitrogenous  matter  has  to  be  eliminated,  and  is  found  to  es- 
cape, in  combination  with  other  elements,  under  the  form  of  certain  ex- 
cretory products,  without  having  contributed  to  any  useful  purpose.  A 
defective  transformative  and  eliminative  action  will  lead  to  a  retention  of 
the  products  of  metamorphosis  of  this  superfluous  nitrogenous  matter  in 
the  system,  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  gouty  affections,  and  other 
morbid  states,  are  sometimes  induced  in  this  way. 

It  has  been  pointed  out,  under  the  head  of  "  Principles  of  Dietetics" 
(vide  p.  303),  how  an  admixture  of  animal  and  vegetable  food  is  better 
fitted  to  yield  what  is  wanted  than  either  consumed  alone.  It  is  assumed 
that,  for  a  man  of  medium  stature  and  in  moderate  work,  about  300  grains 
of  nitrogen  and  4,800  grains  of  carbon  are  daily  required  to  be  introduced 
into  the  system  with  the  food.  Now,  this  is  yielded,  as  nearly  as  possi- 
ble, in  the  case  of  both  elements,  by  2  pounds  of  bread  and  f  pound  of 
meat — that  is,  44  ounces  of  solid  food,  of  which  about  one-fourth  consists 
of  animal  matter.  If  the  lean  of  meat  only  were  consumed  (for  the  proper 
adjustment  could  equally  be  made  with  meat  and  fat),  rather  over  6 
pounds  would  be  needed  to  furnish  the  requisite  amount  of  carbon,  and 
there  would  be  a  very  large  surplus  of  nitrogen ;  whilst  if  bread  only  were 
taken,  the  amount  necessary  to  supply  the  requisite  quantity  of  nitrogen 
would  be  rather  more  than  4  pounds,  and  this  contains  nearly  double  the 
amount  of  carbon  demanded. 

Whilst  speaking  of  the  proper  food  for  man  it  may  be  stated  that,  for 
the  perfect  and  prolonged  maintenance  of  health,  it  is  necessary  that  a 
portion  of  what  is  consumed  should  be  in  the  fresh  state.  This  applies 
to  both  animal  and  vegetable  kinds  of  food.  Neither  one  nor  the  other 
in  a  salted,  cured,  or  dried  state  will  serve  to  keep  the  body  in  health. 
Former  experience  has  but  too  painfully  shown  that  disease  and  death 
are  induced  by  withholding  all  fresh  articles  of  food.  There  may  be  no 
lack  of  quantity,  and  yet  the  body  shall  fail  to  be  maintained  in  a  proper 
state.  Affections  of  the  scorbutic  class  are  produced,  which  are  only  to 
be  checked  and  removed  by  the  supply  of  some  kind  of  fresh  food,  or, 
what  has  been  found  to  equally  answer  the  purpose,  the  juice  of  some  kind 
of  succulent  vegetable  or  fruit.  The  efficacy  of  lemon  and  lime  juice,  for 
instance,  is  well  known  in  the  cure  and  prevention  of  scurvy. 


DIETETIC  RELATIONS    AND  EFFECTS  OF  ANIMAL  AND   VEGETABLE 

FOOD  COMPARED. 

Animal  food,  being  identical  in  composition  with  the  structures  to  be 
built  up  and  maintained,  contains  neither  more  nor  less  than  what  is  re- 
quired for  the  growth  and  renovation  of  the  body.  It  might  be  assumed 
from  this  relation  that  nutrition  upon  a  supply  of  animal  food  would  be 


PRACTICAL    DIETETICS.  317 

carried  on  in  a  more  simple  way  than  nutrition  upon  vegetable  food,  where 
no  such  identity  is  observable,  and  which  contains  various  principles, 
such  as  lignine,  cellulose,  starch,  etc.,  which  have  no  existence  in  the 
animal  body.  Nutrition,  however,  is  not  effected  in  this  simple  manner. 
With  animal  as  well  as  with  vegetable  food,  a  transformation  has  to  take 
place  before  absorption  can  occur. 

It  was  shown  by  Mulder,  and  confirmed  by  Liebig,  that  the  nitrogen- 
ous alimentary  principles  of  the  vegetable  agree  in  composition  with  those 
of  the  animal  kingdom,  and  it  has  been  ascertained  by  physiologists  that 
all  alike  undergo  metamorphosis  under  the  influence  of  the  digestive  pro- 
cess into  a  certain  product,  which  is  characterized  by  the  possession  of 
properties,  viz.,  those  of  great  solubility  and  diffusibility,  that  specially 
adapt  it  for  transmission  by  absorption  from  the  alimentary  canal  into 
the  blood-vessels,  by  which  it  is  conveyed  to  organs  that  elaborate  and 
convert  it  into  the  nitrogenous  principles  existing  in  and  applied  to  the 
purposes  of  the  system.  Thus,  we  elaborate  for  ourselves  the  constituent 
nitrogenous  principles  of  our  bodies  out  of  a  certain  product  of  digestion, 
instead  of  deriving  them  directly  from  our  food,  and  this  brings  alimen- 
tation, as  far  as  these  principles  are  concerned,  to  the  same  position, 
whether  upon  animal  or  vegetable  products.  There  is  only  this  differ- 
ence to  be  noted — that  animal  nitrogenous  substances  appear  to  be  more 
easily  digested  than  vegetable. 

With  fats  the  same  process  occurs,  whether  they  are  of  animal  or 
vegetable  origin;  but,  as  with  nitrogenous  substances,  it  is  believed  that 
animal  fats  are  more  easy  of  digestion  or  preparation  for  absorption  than 
vegetable. 

Nitrogenous  substances  and  fats  may  be  said  to  comprise  the  organic 
portion  of  animal  food.  In  vegetable  food  we  encounter,  besides,  such 
principles  as  starch,  sugar,  gum,  lignine,  and  cellulose,  which  belong  to 
the  group  of  carbohydrates.  The  two  latter  of  these  are  scarcely,  if  at 
all,  susceptible  of  any  digestion,  certainly  by  the  human  digestive  organs, 
and,  therefore,  simply  traverse  the  alimentary  canal,  and  add  to  the  bulk 
of  the  alvine  dejections.  The  others  are  susceptible  of  utilization,  and 
what  digestion  is  required  is,  as  in  the  case  also  of  fat,  carried  on  in  the 
intestine,  and  not  in  the  stomach.  The  physiological  application  of  these 
principles,  which  are  peculiar  to  vegetable  food,  has  previously  received 
attention,  and  need  not  be  adverted  to  here. 

Although  animal  food  certainly  taxes  the  stomach  more  than  the  or- 
dinary forms  of  vegetable  food  that  we  consume,  as  is  well  known  by 
those  who  have  weak  digestive  power,  yet,  taking  digestion  and  assimila- 
tion as  a  whole,  a  more  complex  process  has  to  be  gone  through  where 
vegetable  food  has  to  be  dealt  with.  Accordingly  we  notice  that  the  di- 
gestive apparatus  of  the  herbivora  is  developed  upon  a  more  extended 
scale  than  in  the  carnivora.  The  difference,  for  instance,  in  the  length  of 
the  intestinal  canal  is  exceedingly  marked,  and,  as  already  mentioned,  it 
is  especially  here  where  the  digestion  of  the  principles  that  preponderate 
in  vegetable  products  occurs.  A  portion  of  the  large  intestine,  also, 
known  as  the  caecum,  which  is  not  developed  in  the  carnivora  to  any  par- 
ticular extent,  attains,  in  many  of  the  herbivora,  enormous  dimensions, 
and  it  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that  this  is  designed  for  affording  some 
kind  of  extra  assistance  in  the  digestive  process. 

Looked  at  now  in  relation  to  their  effects  upon  the  system,  there  are 
several  points  that  call  for  consideration. 

It  is  asserted  by  Lehmann  that  animal  food  increases  the  amount  of 


318  A    TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND   DIETETICS. 

fibrine  in  the  blood,  and  also  raises  the  amount  of  the  phosphates  and  of 
the  salts  generally.  A  diet  abounding  in  animal  food  appears  also  to  ren- 
der the  blood  richer  in  red  corpuscles. 

Animal  food,  with  its  preponderance  of  nitrogenous  matter,  tends  to 
produce  firmness  of  muscle  with  an  absence  of  superfluous  fat.  Vege- 
table food,  on  the  other  hand,  tends  to  increase  the  deposition  of  fat. 
Messrs.  Lawes  and  Gilbert  found  in  their  experiments  that  animals  con- 
suming food  containing  an  excessive  quantity  of  nitrogenous  matter 
showed  a  greater  disposition  to  increase  in  frame  and  flesh.  If  we  direct 
our  attention  to  the  animals  around  us,  it  is  open  to  common  observation 
to  notice  that  vegetable  feeders  show  a  greater  proneness  to  become  fat 
than  animal  feeders.  The  animals  we  fatten  all  belong  to  the  herbivora, 
and  even  dogs  and  cats  become  fatter  on  vegetable  food — a  proof  that  it 
is  more  the  nature  of  the  food  than  the  kind  of  animal  that  makes  the 
difference.  Mr.  Banting  found  that  limiting  his  supply  of  vegetable  food 
enabled  him  to  reduce  his  corpulence,  and  it  is  upon  the  application  of 
this  principle  that  the  system  of  '•  Bantingism  "  rests. 

It  appears  from  the  experiments  of  Pettenkofer  and  Voit  that  increas- 
ing the  proportion  of  nitrogenous  matter  in  the  food  determines  an  in- 
creased absorption  of  oxygen  by  the  lungs.  Nitrogenous  matter  it  is 
which  starts  the  changes  occurring  in  the  system,  and  the  suggestion  pre- 
sents itself  that  upon  the  amount  of  nitrogenous  matter  may  to  some  ex- 
tent depend  the  application  of  oxygen  to  the  oxidation  of  fatty  matter. 
Under  this  view  the  success  of  Mr.  Banting's  system  may  be  due,  not  ex- 
clusively to  a  restriction  of  the  principles  that  tend  to  produce  fat,  but  in 
part,  also,  to  an  increased  oxidizing  action  promoted  by  the  large  amount 
of  nitrogenous  matter  consumed. 

It  has  been  observed  that  the  amount  of  urine  secreted  is  notably  in- 
fluenced by  the  nature  of  the  food.  Bischoff  and  Voit  noticed,  in  the 
case  of  the  dog,  that,  upon  giving  a  liberal  supply  of  meat  after  the 
animal  had  been  previously  subsisting  upon  vegetable  food,  the  urine  was 
greatly  increased  in  quantity.  A  striking  example  is  also  afforded  by  a 
series  of  experiments  by  Mr.  Savory  upon  rats.*  Three  pairs  of  rats  that 
had  been  fed  upon  wheat  were  placed,  one  pair  upon  non-nitrogenous 
food,  a  second  pair  upon  lean  meat,  and  the  third  pair  upon  mixed  food. 
The  urine  was  collected  for  the  twenty-four  hours  upon  three  occasions, 
at  intervals  of  a  week,  and  each  time  the  urine  associated  with  the  meat 
diet  was  in  very  large  excess  of  what  it  had  been  previously,  and  of  that 
derived  from  the  other  animals.  The  amount  of  nitrogenous  matter 
passed,  in  accordance  with  what  might  have  been  expected  from  the  re- 
sults that  have  been  referred  to  in  a  previous  part  of  this  work,  bore  a 
corresponding  relation,  and  it  may  be  that  the  two  stand  in  the  position 
of  cause  and  effect.  The  effete  nitrogenous  matter,  in  escaping,  may 
carry  with  it  a  flow  of  water.  The  extra  quantity  of  water  eliminated 
was  met  by  an  extra  quantity  of  fluid  consumed. 

Besides  the  influence  just  referred  to  on  the  amount  of  urine,  the 
solid  matter  is  likewise,  to  a  marked  extent,  influenced  by  the  nature 
of  the  food.  There  is  a  well-known  augementation  in  urea,  etc.,  pro- 
duced by  the  ingestion  of  animal  food,  and,  at  the  same  time,  an  increase 
in  the  sulphates  and  phosphates.  The  reaction  of  the  urine  is  also  modi- 
fied. Under  an  animal  diet  it  is  strongly  acid,  whilst  a  vegetable  diet 
disposes  to  alkalinity.  During  fasting,  it  is  true,  the  urine  of  the  her- 

*  Lancet,  vol.  i.,  p.  413,  1863. 


PEACTICAL    DIETETICS.  319 

bivora  is  acid,  but  after  food  its  reaction  is  alkaline.  Bernard*  has  di- 
lated upon  this  point,  which  must  be  regarded  as  being  of  considerable 
importance  with  reference  to  the  therapeutic  employment  of  food.  He 
mentions  an  experiment  upon  himself,  in  which,  from  previously  present- 
ing a  strongly  acid  reaction,  his  urine  was  rendered  alkaline  in  the  course 
of  twenty-four  hours  by  restriction  to  a  vegetable  diet.  In  the  sucking 
calf,  as  in  the  carnivora,  the  urine  is  acid,  whilst  it  afterward  assume! 
the  character  belonging  to  the  herbivora. 

Animal  food  appeases  hunger  more  thoroughly  than  vegetable,  and 
satisfies  longer.  In  other  words,  it  gives,  as  general  experience  will  con- 
firm, greater  stay  to  the  stomach.  It  also  exerts  a  greater  stimulating 
effect  upon  the  system  generally.  Accounts  are  related  of  the  stimulant 
properties  of  animal  food  having  sufficed,  in  certain  instances,  as  after 
starvation  and  in  those  accustomed  only  to  a  vegetable  diet,  to  produce  a 
state  resembling  intoxication.  Dr.  Dundas  Thompson  f  quotes  a  narrative 
of  the  effects  of  a  repast  of  meat  on  some  native  Indians,  whose  cus- 
tomary fare,  as  is  usual  amongst  the  tribe,  had  consisted  only  of  vege- 
table food.  "  They  dined  most  luxuriously,  stuffing  themselves  as  if  they 
were  never  to  eat  again.  After  an  hour  or  two,  to  his  [the  traveller's] 
great  surprise  and  amusement,  the  expression  of  their  countenances, 
their  jabbering  and  gesticulations,  showed  clearly  that  the  feast  had  pro- 
duced the  same  effect  as  any  intoxicating  spirit  or  drug.  The  second 
treat  was  attended  with  the  same  result." 

Dr.  Druitt,  in  describing  the  properties  of  a  liquid  essence  of  beef,J 
which  had  been  prepared  according  to  his  instructions,  speaks  of  it  as  ex- 
erting a  rapid  and  remarkable  stimulating  power  over  the  brain,  and  in- 
troduced it  to  notice  as  an  auxiliary  to,  and  partial  substitute  for,  brandy, 
in  all  cases  of  great  exhaustion  or  weakness,  attended  with  cerebral  de- 
pression or  despondency.  Correspondingly  stimulating  properties  have 
also  been  recognized  as  an  effect  of  the  copious  employment  of  Liebig's 
Extractum  Carnis. 

The  general  character  of  an  animal  is  related  to  its  food.  Liebig  says  8 
it  is  essentially  their  food  which  makes  carnivorous  animals  in  general 
bolder  and  more  combative  than  the  herbivora  which  are  their  prey.  "A 
bear  kept  at  the  Anatomical  Museum  of  Giessen  showed  a  quiet,  gentle 
nature,  as  long  as  he  was  fed  exclusively  on  bread,  but  a  few  days'  feed- 
ing on  meat  made  him  vicious  and  even  quite  dangerous.  That  swine 
grow  irascible  by  having  flesh  food  given  them  is  well  known — so  much 
so,  indeed,  that  they  will  then  attack  men." 

It  must  be  considered  as  a  part  of  the  plan  of  Nature  that  this  relation 
should  exist.  It  need  not  be  that  the  animal  food  gives  origin  to  the  fero- 
city, but  that  the  ferocity  exists  to  enable  the  animal  to  obtain  its  food. 
In  the  case  where  a  bloodhound  is  rendered  dangerous  by  being  fed  upon 
flesh,  and  also  in  Liebig's  citation,  the  result  need  not  be  attributable  to 
the  food  otherwise  than  by  the  taste  of  it  arousing  the  natural  instinct  of 
the  animal. 

*  Physiologic  Experimentale,  tome  ii.,  p.  459.     Paris,  1856. 

f  Experimental  Researches  on  the  Food  of  Animals,  p.  24.  London,  1846. 

±  Trans,  of  the  Obstetrical  Society,  voL  iii.,  p.  143,  1861. 

§  Lancet,  vol.  i.,  p.  186,  1809. 


320  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 


PROPER  AMOUNT   OF  FOOD. 

The  amount  of  food  required  depends  upon  the  existing  circumstances. 
No  fixed  quantity  can  be  given  as  suited  to  all  cases.  Variation  in  ex- 
ternal temperature,  the  amount  of  work  performed,  and  individual  pecu- 
liarities, occasion  a  variation  in  the  amount  of  material  consumed  in  the 
body;  and  in  a  properly  arranged  diet  the  food  should  be  adjusted  ac- 
cordingly. For  this  adjustment  Nature  has  provided  by  the  instinct  or 
sensation  with  which  we  are  endowed.  Appetite,  or,  in  its  more  exalted 
character,  hunger,  apprises  us  that  food  is  required,  and  produces  an  irre- 
sistible desire  to  seek  and  obtain  its  supply.  By  attending  to  its  dictates  a 
knowledge  is  also  afforded  of  the  proper  amount  to  be  consumed.  We  may 
ascertain  by  observation  the  precise  amount  by  weight  that  is  necessary 
to  keep  the  body  in  a  properly  nourished  condition,  but  Nature's  guide 
was  in  operation  before  weights  and  scales  were  invented.  Speaking  of 
the  natural  state,  it  is  only  where  the  strict  margin,  on  the  score  of  econ- 
omy, as  in  the  feeding  of  large  bodies  of  men,  has  to  be  regarded,  that  a 
process  of  weighing  need  be  employed. 

In  taking  appetite  as  a  guide  in  regulating  the  supply  of  food,  it  must 
not  be  confounded  with  a  desire  to  gratify  the  palate.  When  food  is  not 
eaten  too  quickly  and  the  diet  is  simple,  a  timely  warning  is  afforded  by 
the  sense  of  satisfaction  experienced  as  soon  as  enough  has  been  taken; 
and  not  only  does  a  disinclination  arise,  but  the  stomach  even  refuses  to 
allow  this  point  to  be  far  exceeded.  With  a  variety  of  food,  however, 
and  especially  food  of  an  agreeable  character  to  the  taste,  the  case  is  dif- 
ferent. Satiated  with  one  article,  the  stomach  is  still  ready  for  another, 
and  thus,  for  the  gratification  of  taste,  and  not  the  appeasement  of  appe- 
tite, men  are  tempted  to  consume  far  more  than  is  required,  and  also,  it 
must  be  said,  often  far  more  than  is  advantageous  to  health. 

Whatever  the  precise  immediate  cause  of  the  sensation  constituting 
appetite,  the  source  of  it  is  a  want  of  solid  matter  in  the  system.  Now, 
this  want  will  vary  with  the  consumption  going  on,  which  is  greater  under 
exposure  to  cold  and  during  the  performance  of  work  than  under  oppo- 
site conditions;  and  in  harmony  therewith  it  is  noticeable  that  the  appe- 
tite is  sharpened  and  diminished  accordingly.  The  dictates  thus  afforded 
should  be  obeyed.  They  are  not  likely  to  be  disregarded  when  the  appe- 
tite is  increased,  and  they  should  likewise  be  complied  with  when  it  is  di- 
minished. Concern  is  sometimes  experienced  at  the  falling  off  of  the 
appetite  that  occurs  during  the  heat  of  summer  in  our  own  climate,  and 
that  is  noticed  by  Europeans  on  visiting  the  tropics,  and  attempts  are 
sometimes  made  to  counteract  it  by  the  employment  of  condiments  of  a 
stimulating  nature  to  the  stomach.  This,  however,  is  clearly  an  error, 
and  one  which  is  calculated  to  lead  to  baneful  results,  as  in  other  instances 
where  Nature's  indications  are  set  aside  in  favor  of  artificial  devices. 

Thirst  is  an  expression  of  the  want  of  liquid  in  the  system  as  hunger 
is  of  that  of  solids.  It  leads  us  to  adjust  the  supply  to  the  demand  aris- 
ing from  the  loss  that  has  been  sustained. 

Under  the  head  of  Principles  of  Dietetics  reference  has  been  made 
(vide  p.  291  et  seq.)  to  the  amount  of  food  found  by  observation  to  be 
consumed  by  various  classes  of  persons.  As  already  mentioned,  no  fixed 
amount  can  be  given  as  suited  to  all  individuals  and  conditions.  In 
Moleschott's  representation  of  a  model  diet  (vide  p.  288)  the  daily  quantity 
of  food,  estimated  in  a  water-free  or  anhydrous  state,  amounts  to  about 


PRACTICAL    DIETETICS.  321 

23  ounces.  To  represent  the  amount  of  food  in  the  ordinary  state  to  which 
this  corresponds,  we  must  allow  for  the  water  present.  According  to  the 
table  at  p.  291  bread  contains  37  per  cent,  of  water,  cooked  meat  54  per 
cent.,  and  vegetables  upward  of  70  per  cent.  Say  the  food  consumed 
contained  45  per  cent,  of  water — probably  a  low  estimate — the  23  ounces 
of  water-free  material  would  correspond  to  45  ounces  of  ordinary  food. 
For  people  engaged  in  laborious  occupations,  judging  from  Playfair's 
tables  of  the  food  actually  consumed,  this  is  evidently  none  too  much,  and 
is  even  under  the  amount  actually  consumed  by  many.  For  people,  how- 
ever, who  lead  a  sedentary  and  in-door  mode  of  life  considerably  less  will 
suffice.  I  find  from  observation  of  my  own  diet,  my  height  being  rather 
over  5  feet  9  inches,  and  weight  rather  more  than  10  stone,  that  30  ounces 
fully  cover  what  I  ordinarily  consume,  the  food  consisting  of  the  usual 
admixture  of  animal  and  vegetable  articles,  and  being  weighed  in  the  state 
in  which  it  is  placed  on  the  table;  8  ounces  for  breakfast,  6  for  luncheon, 
and  16  for  dinner,  give  me  the  outride  of  what  I  feel  I  require. 

The  middle  diet  at  Guy's  Hospital — the  diet  on  which  the  majority  of 
the  patients  are  placed — gives  a  mean  daily  allowance  of  29£  ounces  of 
solid  food,  apart  from  the  liquids  supplied.  Taking  solids  and  liquids 
together,  and  calculating  from  the  composition  of  the  articles  according 
to  the  table  at  p.  291,  the  water-free  material  amounts  to  1G|  ounces. 
The  food  actually  supplied  consists  of  4  ounces  of  meat  in  the  cooked 
state,  12  ounces  of  bread,  8  ounces  of  potatoes,  1  ounce  of  butter,  f  ounce 
of  sugar,  £  ounce  of  tea,  and — say  3£  ounces  (8  ounces  three  times  a  week 
Is  the  exact  quantity)  of  rice  pudding  made  of  rice,  sugar,  and  milk.  Be- 
sides this  solid  food  there  is  a  daily  allowance  of  half  a  pint  of  porter  and 
2£  ounces  of  milk,  with  half  a  pint  of  mutton  broth  when  boiled  meat  is 
given,  which  is  four  times  a  week.  Experience  shows  this  diet  to  be  suffi- 
cient for  bodily  maintenance  under  a  condition  of  freedom  from  labor.  A 
conclusion  may  be  drawn,  as  the  subsistence  on  it  often  extends  over  a 
considerable  period,  and  amongst  the  inmates  there  are  many  in  an  ordi- 
nary state  so  far  as  their  constitutional  condition  is  concerned,  some  local 
complaint,  unaffecting  their  general  health,  having  led  to  their  admission. 

Besides  treating  of  the  gross  amount  of  food,  attention  must  be  given 
to  the  relative  proportion  of  the  constituent  alimentary  principles.  Un- 
less these  are  so  related  as  to  be  adjusted  to  the  demands  of  the  system, 
more  food  is  required  to  be  taken  than  would  otherwise  be  the  case,  and 
waste  is  the  result.  As  a  deduction  from  a  review  of  the  dietaries  referred 
to  in  a  preceding  part  of  this  work  (vide  p.  292  et  seg.),  the  following  sum- 
mary account  may  be  given  of  the  respective  amounts  of  the  alimentary 
principles  required.  The  table  furnished  at  p.  291  will  supply  the  means 
for  determining  the  constitution  of  a  given  diet  in  respect  of  alimentary 
principles. 

The  nitrogenous  matter  should  constitute  about  one-fifth  of  the  water- 
free  food,  and,  under  medium  conditions,  from  4  to  5  oz.  may  be  looked 
upon  as  the  quantity  that  should  be  supplied  daily.  With  an  inactive 
life  much  less  will  suffice,  viz.  3  or  3£  oz.  In  Playfair's  subsistence-diet 
(p.  292)  the  quantity  is  rather  under  2£  oz.  Exposure  to  hard  work  leads, 
judging  from  observation,  to  the  instinctive  consumption  of  food  yielding1 
a  full  supply  of  nitrogenous  matter.  In  some  of  the  collected  dietaries 
the  nitrogenous  matter  amounts  to  from  5  to  6  oz. 

It  has  been  mentioned  that  about  one-fifth  of  the  water-freed  food 
should  consist  of  nitrogenous  matter,  and  this,  in  the  case  of  bread  and 
meat,  is  afforded  by  an  admixture  of  about  one  part  of  animal  with  three 
21 


322 


A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 


parts  of  vegetable  material.  Now,  such  an  admixture,  as  before  shown 
(p.  302),  is  also  that  which  is  adjusted  to  replace  without  waste  the  car- 
bon and  nitrogen  passing  out  of  the  system.  It  was  pointed  out  that  if 
bread  alone,  or  meat  alone,  were  consumed,  in  order  to  supply  the  re- 
quisite quantity  of  both  elements,  a  considerable  waste  of  either  one  or 
the  other  would  in  each  case  ensue,  because  in  the  articles  of  food  taken 
separately  they  are  not  in  the  proper  proportion  to  balance  the  loss  oc- 
curring. For  example,  2  pounds  of  bread  and  $  pound  of  lean  uncooked 
beef  contain,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  amounts  of  carbon  and  nitrogen 
represented  as  escaping  from  the  body  under  average  circumstances. 
In  this  admixture,  amounting  to  44  oz.,  the  meat  (12  oz.)  forms,  with 
only  a  slight  excess,  a  fourth  of  the  whole;  and  if  we  look  to  the  com- 
position of  it,  we  find  that  in  a  water-free  state  about  one-fifth  consists 
of  nitrogenous  matter.  The  following  representation  of  the  amounts  of 
the  alimentary  principles  contained  in  it,  calculated  from  the  table  fur- 
nished at  p.  291,  will  be  seen  to  bear  out  this  statement. 


Bread  2  Ibs. 

Lean  beef  %  Ib. 
uncooked. 

Total. 

Nitrogenous  matter,      .                 .... 

Oz. 

2.592 

Oz. 

2.316 

Oz. 

4.908 

Fat,      

0.512 

0.432 

0.944 

Carbohydrates,    .                       .... 

16.320 

16.320 

Mineral  matter,  .      .                 .      . 

0.736 

0.612 

1.348 

23.520 

It  may  be  noticed,  further,  that  the  composition  of  these  2  pounds  of 
bread  and  f  pound  of  meat  agrees  pretty  closely  with  that  of  the  model 
diet  of  Moleschott  (p.  287),  framed  upon  grounds  of  quite  a  different  na- 
ture. The  whole  difference  of  any  account  is  in  the  respective  amounts 
of  fats  and  carbohydrates;  but  what  is  deficient  in  the  one  is  balanced 
by  a  surplus  in  the  other,  and,  in  an  alimentary  point  of  view,  the  two 
are  capable,  to  a  certain  extent,  of  replacing  each  other. 

Fat  appears  to  influence  favorably  the  assimilation  of  the  other  prin- 
ciples, and  to  be  intimately  concerned  in  tissue  formation  and  nutrition, 
besides  contributing  to  force  production;  and  it  is  believed  that  a  defi- 
ciency of  it  in  the  food  is  sometimes  the  source  of  the  development  of 
the  scrofulous  and  strutnous  states.  The  supply,  it  may  be  considered, 
ought  not  to  be  less,  even  with  inactivity,  than  one  ounce  daily,  and  the 
composition  of  dietaries  usually  shows  considerably  more.  About  2£  oz. 
appears  to  form  the  average  amount  in  the  diets  of  various  working 
classes. 

The  carbohydrates  may  be  looked  upon  as  forming  a  supplementary 
group  of  principles.  They  have  no  existence  in  an  animal  diet,  and  in  a 
mixed  diet  should  be  in  such  quantity  as  to  fill  up  what  is  defective  for 
force-production — heat  and  mechanical  work — in  the  other  principles. 
Looking  at  the  various  dietaries  of  mixed  food' to  which  the  attention  of 
the  reader  has  been  already  directed,  and  leaving  out  of  consideration 
the  lowest  or  subsistence  diet,  the  supply  of  carbohydrates  is  seen  to 
range  in  amount  from  between  14  and  15  to  22  oz.  per  diem. 

The  amount  of  mineral  matter  required  may  be  set  down  at  from  £  oz. 
to  1  oz.  daily. 


PEACTICAL   DIETETICS.  323 

Water  is  needed  beyond  that  contained  in  our  food.  It  may  be 
reckoned  that  we  receive  from  about  15  to  25  o/.  of  fluid  into  the  system 
mixed  with  the  solid  food  that  is  consumed;  and  besides  this,  it  is  advis- 
able that  about  GO  to  70  oz.,  or  even  in  some  cases  more,  should  be  taken. 
The  average  amount  of  urine  passed  daily  may  be  said  to  be  about  50 
oz.,  and  there  is  a  considerable  loss  of  fluid  from  the  skin  and  the  lungs. 
To  meet  these  sources  of  elimination,  compensation  must  be  effected  by 
a  corresponding  ingestion,  and,  as  long  as  the  fluid  taken  is  devoid  of 
noxious  properties,  a  free  supply  must  be  regarded  as  beneficial,  form- 
ing, as  it  does,  a  means  of  carrying  off  impurities  from  the  system.  Per- 
haps the  benefit  derivable  from  a  course  of  water-treatment  is  often,  in  a 
great  measure,  due  to  this  cause.  I  am  strongly  inclined  to  think  so. 

Having  spoken  of  the  proper  amount  of  food,  let  me  next  direct  at- 
tention to  the  effects  produced  by  a  deficiency  and  excess  in  its  supply. 
I  may  commence  by  saying  that  there  is  far  more  evil  to  be  encountered 
attributable  to  too  much  food  being  taken  than  to  too  little.  It  is  only 
in  exceptional  cases  that  the  latter  kind  is  met  with;  whilst  the  amount 
of  disorder,  disease,  and  likewise  even  curtailment  of  life,  attributable  to 
excess  in  eating  and  drinking  is  immeasurably  great.  Where  the  living 
is  plain  and  simple,  and  the  dictates  of  Nature  are  followed,  there  is  no 
need  for  weights  and  scales;  but  how  many  are  there  who  would  not  be 
in  an  infinitely  better  state  if  they  lived  upon  a  weighed  and  measured 
allowance  of  food  and  drink!  Seeking  for  what  is  pleasurable  instead  of 
natural,  the  promptings  of  instinct  are  overruled,  and  it  is  the  inclination 
instead  of  appetite  that  regulates  what  is  consumed.  Were  it  not  for 
the  temptation  to  exceed,  induced  by  the  refinements  of  the  culinary  art, 
the  physician's  aid  would  be  much  more  rarely  required. 

Amongst  the  effects  arising  from  excess  in  feeding  may  be  mentioned 
an  oppressed  stomach,  deranged  digestion,  a  loaded  tongue,  vitiated 
secretions,  with  disordered  action  of  the  bowels,  a  gorged  liver,  obesity, 
plethora  and  its  consequences,  a  sluggish  brain  and  troubled  sleep,  sur- 
charged urine,  leading  to  deposits,  perverted  nutrition  from  the  preter- 
natural accumulation  of  products  of  disintegration  in  the  system,  and,  as 
a  concomitant,  gouty  and  rheumatic  affections.  Such,  and  others  too, 
are  the  ills  arising  from  over-feeding.  Excess  in  animal  food  is  worse 
than  excess  in  vegetable  food,  especially  when  combined  with  sedentary 
habits.  It  is  true,  vegetable  food  especially  leads  to  the  production  of  obe- 
sity, and  this  may  amount  to  such  as  to  constitute  a  serious  evil,  but,  being 
less  charged  with  nitrogenous  matter,  there  is  less  of  the  nitrogenous  pro- 
ducts of  disintegration  for  elimination — products  which  unless  oxidi/ed  and 
metamorphosed  to  a  full  extent  by  free  exercise,  and  so  placed  in  a  favor- 
able position  for  discharge,  are  apt  to  accumulate  in  the  system,  and 
thence  impair  the  performance  of  the  functional  operations  of  life.  Some 
of  the  phenomena  of  gout,  for  example,  are  due  to  this  defective  meta- 
morphosis and  retention  of  nitrogenous  products  within  the  system. 

The  effects  of  privation  and  insufficiency  of  food  constitute  the  well- 
known  phenomena  comprised  under  the  terms  inanition  and  starvation. 
As  we  can  have  no  manifestation  of  vital  properties  without  chemical 
change,  a  consumption  of  material  must  be  constantly  going  on,  and,  un- 
less a  supply  equal  to  the  loss  is  provided,  a  progressive  wasting  of  the 
body  and  failure  of  its  powers  must  ensue.  These,  therefore,  form  the 
necessary  concomitants  of  starvation,  and  it  is  only  a  question  of  time  for 
the  exhaustion  of  material  to  proceed  to  a  point  sufficient  to  render  the 
continuance  of  life  impossible. 


324  A   TREATISE    OX    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

From  the  elaborate  series  of  experiments  performed  by  Chossat,*  it 
lias  been  shown  that  the  immediate  cause  of  death  from  starvation  is  a 
decline  of  the  animal  temperature.  He  found  during  the  first  portion  of 
the  period  a  gradual,  but  not  very  extensive,  fall.  Then  it  diminished 
more  rapidly,  and  when  it  reached  about  29°  or  30°  (Fahr.)  below  the 
normal  point  the  animal  died.  A  state  of  torpor  preceded  death,  and  it 
was  noticed  by  Chossat  that  when  this  stage  was  reached  a  restoration  of 
consciousness  and  muscular  power  could  be  effected  by  exposing  the  sub- 
ject of  experiment  to  artificial  warmth,  and  thereby  raising  its  tempera- 
ture. Some  of  his  animals  were  thus  rescued  from  impending  death,  and 
afterward  completely  restored  by  supplying  them  with  food.  In  fact,  the 
operations  of  life  can  only  be  carried  on — that  is,  in  the  case  of  ourselves 
and  other  warm-blooded  animals — within  a  certain  range  of  temperature, 
and  if  from  any  cause,  either  external  or  internal,  this  range  is  passed,  no 
matter  whether  on  the  side  of  excess  or  deficiency,  death  is  the  inevitable 
consequence. 

The  usual  length  of  time  that  life  continues  under  complete  abstinence 
from  food  and  drink  may  be  put  down  at  from  eight  to  ten  days.  Longer 
periods,  however,  in  exceptional  instances,  have  been  noticed,  and  the 
duration,  indeed,  is  liable  to  be  influenced  by  the  surrounding  circum- 
stances, such  as  the  amount  of  available  material  accumulated  in  the  S3rs- 
tem  at  the  commencement  of  starvation,  the  surrounding  temperature,  and 
the  state  of  the  atmosphere  as  regards  the  amount  of  moisture  present. 

It  will  be  readily  understood  that,  other  circumstances  being  equal,  the 
greater  the  amount  of  combustible  material  to  draw  upon,  the  longer  will 
the  capacity  exist  for  maintaining  the  heat  of  the  body,  and  with  it  life. 
An  instructive  instance  bearing  upon  this  point  is  afforded  by  the  fat  pig 
referred  to  at  p.  58.  In  Chossat's  experiments  the  animals  provided  with 
most  fat  lived  the  longest,  and  it  Avas,  moreover,  found  that  they  lived 
until  the  fat  was  nearly  exhausted.  It  seemed,  indeed,  as  though  the 
approach  of  death  was  coincident  with  the  consumption  of  nearly  all  the 
disposable  combustible  material.  The  animals  lost,  on  an  average,  about 
40  per  cent,  in  weight — in  other  words,  about  two-fifths  of  their  original 
weight  disappearing — before  the  occurrence  of  death.  In  the  case  of  the- 
fat  of  the  body,  taken  alone,  the  loss  amounted  to  upward  of  90  per  cent. 
The  waste  of  this  material,  it  was  found,  far  exceeded  that  of  any  other. 

As  regards  the  surrounding  temperature,  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that 
exposure  to  cold  in  conjunction  with  starvation  very  much  accelerate* 
death. 

The  presence  of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere  to  some  extent  favors  the 
prolongation  of  life,  and  evidently  by  diminishing  the  exhalation  of  water 
from  the  body.  Persons,  for  instance,  have  been  excavated  alive  after 
confinement  in  a  mine,  or  have  continued  alive  whilst  placed  under  such- 
like circumstances,  for  periods  considerably  longer  than  the  usual  time. 

In  the  absence  of  both  food  and  drink,  the  distress  from  thirst  is  far 
greater  than  that  from  hunger.  With  access  to  water  and  a  very  small 
supply  of  food,  life  may  be  prolonged  for  an  extensive  period. 

The  Welsh  fasting  girl,  about  whom  so  much  excitement  prevailed  in 
1869,  lived  exactly  eight  days  from  the  time  that  she  was  placed  under 
systematic  inspection.  The  supply  of  food  under  which,  it  may  be  as- 
sumed, she  had  for  some  time  previously  subsisted  had,  doubtless,  been 
very  irregular  and  scanty,  but  then  she  lay  in  bed  and  passed  her  time  in 


*  Recherches  Experimentales  sur  1'Inanition.      Paris,  1843. 


PRACTICAL    DIETETICS.  325 

a  perfectly  quiescent  state — conditions  that  would  diminish,  to  the  fullest 
extent,  the  waste  or  consumption  of  material.  The  deception  was  so  suc- 
cessfully carried  out,  and  it  was  so  stoutly  affirmed  by  the  parents  of  the 
girl  that  she  had  existed  for  many  weeks  without  touching  food,  that 
many  believed  it  as  a  fact,  and  she  was  daily  visited  by  numbers  of  per- 
sons from  far  and  near.  So  much  wonder  and  excitement  did  the  case 
create,  that  it  was  ultimately  arranged  to  place  the  girl  under  such  super- 
vision as  would  secure  that  110  access  to  food  existed.  The  problem,  in 
reality,  that  was  thus  systematically  arranged  to  solve  was  tantamount  to 
whether  a  fire  could  continue  to  burn  without  being  replenished  with  fuel. 
The  watching  commenced  at  4  P.M.  on  Thursday,  December  the  9th,  and 
the  girl  died  at  3  P.M.  on  Friday,  the  17th.  She  was  cheerful,  and  noth- 
ing extraordinary  presented  itself  during  the  first  part  of  the  period.  As 
time  advanced,  it  was  found  that  she  could  not  be  kept  warm.  She  then 
sank  into  a  state  of  torpor  from  which  she  could  not  be  roused.  This  oc- 
curred only  a  short  time  before  death. 

The  most  prominent  symptoms  of  starvation,  says  Dr.  Carpenter,*  as 
they  have  been  noted  in  the  human  subject,  are  as  follows:  In  the  first 
place,  severe  pain  in  the  epigastrium,  which  is  relieved  on  pressure;  this 
subsides  after  a  day  or  two,  but  is  succeeded  by  a  feeling  of  weakness 
and  sinking  in  the  same  region;  and  an  insatiable  thirst  supervenes,  which, 
if  water  be  withheld,  thenceforth  becomes  the  most  distressing  symptom. 
The  countenance  becomes  pale  and  cadaverous;  the  eyes  acquire  a  pecu- 
liar wild  and  glistening  stare;  a  general  emaciation  soon  manifests  itself. 
The  body  then  exhales  a  peculiar  fetor,  and  the  skin  is  covered  with  a 
brownish,  dirty-looking,  and  offensive  secretion.  The  bodily  strength  rap- 
idly declines;  the  sufferer  totters  in  walking;  his  voice  becomes  weak, 
and  he  is  incapable  of  the  least  exertion.  The  mental  powers  exhibit  a 
similar  prostration;  at  first  there  is  usually  a  state  of  stupidity,  which 
gradually  increases  to  imbecility,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  induce  the  suf- 
ferer to  make  any  effort  for  his  own  benefit;  and  on  this  a  state  of  mani- 
acal delirium  frequently  supervenes.  Life  terminates,  either  calmly,  by 
gradually  increasing  torpidity,  or  as  occasionally  happens,  suddenly,  in  a 
convulsive  paroxysm. 

In  many  respects  the  effects  on  the  brain  have  a  close  resemblance  to 
those  produced  by  exposure  to  cold.  In  consequence  of  the  torpor  of  the 
brain  and  intellectual  faculties,  it  is  often  difficult  to  obtain  from  the  suf- 
ferer information  regarding  his  state.  Instead  of  showing  any  anxiety 
to  communicate  the  particulars  about  himself,  or  to  relate  the  priva- 
tions he  has  undergone,  he  generally  shows  an  unwillingness  to  be  ques- 
tioned, lies  in  a  listless  or  lethargic  state,  taking  but  little  notice  of  what 
is  going  on,  and  seeming  desirous  only  of  not  being  disturbed.  It  is  of 
the  deepest  importance  that  such  symptoms  should  be  recognized  by  the 
medical  practitioner  in  their  proper  light,  and  that  they  should  not  be 
mistaken  for  the  effects  of  narcotism  produced  by  drinking. 

Sudden  transitions  are  always  prejudicial,  and  where  abstinence  has 
prevailed  for  some  days  the  return  to  a  supply  of  food  should  be  prac- 
tised with  caution.  At  first  the  supply  should  be  very  limited,  and  then 
gradually  increased.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  death,  which  might 
otherwise  have  been  averted,  has  been,  in  some  instances,  occasioned  by 
the  too  free  ingestion  of  food  and  fluid  when  succor  has  been  obtained. 
The  svstem  should  have  time  to  accommodate  itself  to  the  new  condition. 


*  Principles  of  Human  Physiology,  4th  ed.,  p.  396. 


326  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

No  matter  whether  a  change  be  from  the  natural  to  the  unnatural  or 
from  the  unnatural  to  the  natural  state,  it  is  always  a  sudden  change  that 
is  especially  difficult  to  be  borne. 


TIMES  OF  EATING. 

Next  to  the  quality  and  quantity  of  food,  attention  must  be  given 
to  the  mode  of  taking  it.  That  the  food  should  be  taken  with  regularity, 
and  at  proper  periods  is  almost  as  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  health 
and  a  vigorous  state  of  the  energies  as  that  it  should  be  of  a  proper  na- 
ture and  in  proper  quantity.  Frequently  recurring  instances  present 
themselves  to  the  medical  practitioner  of  evils  arising  from  the  non-ob- 
servance of  the  precepts  that  should  be  followed  in  reference  to  this 
point. 

We  know  that  a  certain  amount  of  food  is  required  to  be  consumed 
daily  in  order  that  the  body  may  be  properly  maintained.  Discarding  for 
the  moment  the  practices  of  mankind,  let  us  look  at  the  evidence  that  can 
be  adduced  to  enable  us  to  arrive  at  a  rational  determination  of  the  man- 
ner in  which  it  is  best  that  our  food  should  be  taken. 

Carnivorous  animals  appear  to  thrive  best  upon  food  taken  at  lon<>-  in- 
tervals. It  is  the  custom  in  zoological  menageries  to  feed  the  wild  ani- 
mals once  a  day  only,  and  it  is  stated  that  they  have  been  found,  by 
observation,  to  do  better  when  fed  in  this  way  than  upon  the  same  allow- 
ance of  food  given  to  them  tAvice  daily.  Now,  if  we  look  to  the  habits 
of  these  animals,  we  notice  that  their  mode  of  existence  entails  the  occur- 
rence of  more  or  less  protracted  intervals  between  the  times  of  feeding. 
Their  supply  is  precarious  and  irregular,  having  to  be  captured  as  the 
opportunity  presents  itself,  by  the  exercise  of  stealth  and  cunning.  The 
food  obtained  is  voraciously  devoured  to  repletion,  and  then,  from  the 
heavy  tax  imposed  upon  the  powers  by  the  loaded  state  of  the  stomach, 
the  animal  remains  for  some  time  in  a  sluggish  or  inactive  and  drowsy 
condition. 

Such  is  the  result  where  long  intervals  elapse  between  the  periods  of 
consumption  of  food.  From  the  nature  of  the  circumstances,  it  is  a  mat- 
ter of  necessity  with  these  animals  that  this  should  be  their  mode  of 
feeding.  There  are  those  amongst  mankind,  however,  who  have  been 
satisfied  with  one  meal  a  day.  But  is  it  in  conformity  with  our  nature 
that  our  food  should  be  taken  in  this  way  ?  In  proportion  to  the  length  of 
the  interval,  so  must  be  the  amount  of  food  consumed  at  one  time,  and  in 
proportion  to  this  so  will  be  the  degree  and  duration  of  the  inaptitude 
for  the  performance  of  any  bodily  or  mental  work.  The  feast  of  the 
glutton  places  him  for  awhile  in  the  position  of  the  brute,  that  is  by  na- 
ture compelled  to  fill  his  stomach  to  repletion  when  the  opportunity  oc- 
curs. The  monks  of  the  monastery  of  La  Trappe,  near  Nantes,  says  Dr. 
Combe,  make  it  a  part  of  their  religion  to  eat  only  once  a  day.  While 
travelling  upon  a  French  diligence  journey,  Dr.  Combe  was  thrown  in 
contact  for  three  days  with  one  of  the  order,  and  was  surprised  at  the 
store  of  food  consumed  at  each  daily  meal — a  store  appearing  "  sufficient 
to  last  a  week  instead  of  a  day."  But,  as  in  the  case  of  the  boa  constric- 
tor, under  similar  circumstances,  remarks  Dr.  Combe,  "  a  deep  lethargy 
immediately  succeeded,  and  it  was  not  till  four  or  five  hours  afterward 
that  his  almost  apoplectic  features  became  again  animated  and  expres- 
sive." 


PRACTICAL   DIETETICS.  327 

Now,  looking  to  our  relation  to  the  supply  of  food,  which  involves  no 
necessity  for  protracted  intervals  between  the  times  of  eating,  and  to  the 
fact  that  our  mental  capacity  constitutes  our  characteristic  attribute,  and 
that  this  is  notably  blunted  after  repletion  of  the  stomach  to  the  extent 
incurred  where  only  one  meal  a  day  is  taken,  we  have  physiological * 
grounds  for  dismissing  from  consideration  such  a  mode  of  life  as  unsuited 
to  our  position. 

With  the  vegetable  feeders,  we  pass  to  an  illustration  of  the  other 
extreme.  These  animals,  constantly  within  reach  of  their  food  as  they 
are,  pass  a  considerable  portion  of  their  time  in  feeding.  We  do  not  find 
that  they  gorge  themselves  at  a  repast  so  as  to  become  placed  in  the  same 
inactive  condition  as  the  carnivorous  animal,  but  that  they,  instead,  leis- 
urely and  frequently  partake  of  the  food  within  their  reach. 

Is  this,  it  may  next  be  asked,  the  mode  of  taking  food  that  is  adapted 
for  mankind  ?  To  consume  what  is  eaten  in  small  quantities  and  at  fre- 
quently repeated  intervals  would,  doubtless,  serve  our  purpose  so  far  as 
alimentation  is  concerned,  but  experience  shows  that  it  is  not  necessary, 
and  much  of  our  usefulness  would  be  lost  by  the  time  devoted  to  the  con- 
sumption of  food.  Indeed,  as  we  are  designed  by  Nature  for  a  mixed 
diet,  so  it  may  be  considered  that  the  most  appropriate  mode  of  taking 
food  is  something  between  that  adopted  by  the  animal  and  the  vege- 
table feeder;  and  this  happens  to  accord  with  the  general  practice  of  the 
majority  of  nations.  The  prevailing  custom — and,  doubtless,  this  has 
arisen  from  instinct  and  from  what  has  been  found  by  experience  to  be 
best  suited  to  our  requirements — is  for  three  meals  of  a  substantial  nature 
to  be  taken  during  the  day,  at  intervals  of  about  five  or  six  hours'  dura- 
tion. Observation  has  shown  that  an  ordinary  meal  is  digested  and  has 
passed  on  from  the  stomach  in  about  four  hours'  time,  and  thus,  accord- 
ing to  the  precept  laid  down,  the  stomach  is  allowed  to  remain  for  a  short 
period  in  a  state  of  quiescence  before  it  is  filled  with  food  again. 

It  is  important  that  we  should  break  our  fast,  or,  as  the  term  goes, 
"  breakfast,"  without  much  delay  after  rising.  The  length  of  time  that 
has  elapsed  since  the  last  meal  of  the  previous  day  leads  to  a  demand  for 
food  for  the  ordinary  purposes  of  life.  The  system,  moreover,  at  a  period 
of  fasting — as  experience  has  but  too  plainly,  and  it  may  be  said,  on  some 
occasions,  painfully  testified — is  more  prone  to  be  perniciously  influenced 
by  infection,  miasmata,  exposure  to  cold,  and  other  morbid  conditions, 
and  less  adapted  for  sustaining  fatigue  than  at  any  other  time.  In  any 
case,  therefore,  where  exposure  to  influences  of  this  kind  has  to  be  under- 
gone, it  becomes  of  the  deepest  importance  that  food  should  be  previously 
taken. 

The  size  of  the  meal  should  be  regulated  by  collateral  circumstances. 
If  food  has  been  taken  late  in  the  previous  evening,  the  appetite  is  not 
great  for  food  in  the  morning.  Where  considerable  exertion  has  to  be 
afterward  sustained,  a  substantial  meal  may  be  looked  upon  as  advis- 
able. Otherwise,  however,  a  light  meal  will  be  found  most  conducive  to 
health  and  activity.  A  maid  of  honor,  it  is  stated,  in  the  court  of  Eliza- 
beth, breakfasted  upon  beef  and  drank  ale  after  it.  Such  may  be  com- 
patible with  plenty  of  out-door  exercise  to  carry  off  the  meal,  but  not  so 
with  the  in-door  life  which  is  led  by  so  many  of  the  present  generation. 

Supposing  breakfast  to  bo  taken  at  8  or  9  A.M.,  the  next  meal,  no 
matter  by  what  name  it  is  called,  should  follow  about  1  or  2.  A  fairly 
substantial  meal  should  be  taken  at  this  time,  and  it  does  not  signify 
whether  it  goes  under  the  name  of  luncheon  or  dinner.  Some  dine  in  the 


328  A    TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

middle  of  the  day,  and  make  this  their  heaviest  repast.  To  many,  how- 
ever, it  is  inconvenient  to  give  up  the  amount  of  time  that  is  usually  de- 
voted to  the  principal  meal  of  the  day  at  such  a  period,  and,  moreover, 
the  more  or  less  marked  disposition  to  inactivity  that  follows  a  heavy  meal 
may  interfere  with  the  subsequent  engagements.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, the  less  ceremonious  and  lighter  repast,  designated  luncheon,  will 
best  fall  in  with  the  daily  arrangements.  The  dejeuner  d  la  fourchette 
in  France  represents  our  luncheon,  but  is  usually  more  substantial  and 
taken  rather  earlier,  the  amount  of  food  that  has  been  consumed  pre- 
viously having  been  but  slight. 

The  error  is  often  made  of  omitting  to  take  food  in  the  middle  of  the 
day,  or  of  only  taking  biscuit  or  something  of  equal  insignificance.  There 
are  many  business  or  professional  men  who,  after  leaving  home  for  their 
office  or  chambers  in  the  morning,  do  not  taste  food,  or,  if  they  do,  take 
only  a  minute  quantity,  until  they  return  in  the  evening.  Actively  en- 
gaged all  day,  the  system  becomes  exhausted,  and  they  arrive  home  in  a 
thoroughly  jaded  or  worn-out  condition.  They  expect  that  their  dinner 
is  to  revive  them.  It  may  do  so  for  a  while,  but  it  is  only  a  question  of 
time  how  long  this  system  can  be  carried  on  before  evil  consequences 
arise.  They  begin  to  feel  heavy,  drowsy,  and  uncomfortable  after  din- 
ner, and  no  wonder  from  the  amount  of  food  that  it  has  been  necessary 
to  introduce  at  one  time  into  the  stomach  to  supply  the  requisite  mate- 
rial for  meeting  the  wants  of  the  system,  and  also  from  the  exhaustion  of 
power  produced  by  the  work  performed  and  the  long  abstinence  from 
food.  Vigor  is  required  for  digestion  equally  as  much  as  for  muscular 
or  any  other  action,  and  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  it  can  properly  pro- 
ceed under  the  state  that  has  been  described.  Added  to  these  indica- 
tions that  the  digestive  power  is  not  equal  to  the  amount  of  work  thrown 
upon  it,  evidences  of  disordered  action  begin  to  show  themselves.  The 
sufferer  becomes  dyspeptic,  and  the  heart  and  brain  may  sympathize  with 
the  derangement.  The  physician  is  frequently  encountering  instances  of 
the  description  I  have  depicted;  and  when  advice  is  given  that  food  in 
proper  quantity  should  be  consumed  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  the  usual 
answer  met  with  is  that  if  a  luncheon  were  taken  it  would  have  the  effect 
of  rendering  the  person  unfit  for  his  employment  afterward.  It  is  a  sine 
qua  non,  however,  that  the  interval  should  be  broken  by  a  repast  between 
an  early  breakfast  and  a  late  dinner,  and  no  medical  treatment  will  suffice 
to  afford  relief  unless  attention  is  given  to  this  point.  When  once  the 
alteration  has  been  made  and  persevered  in  a  short  time,  as  much  reluc- 
tance will  be  felt  in  omitting  the  luncheon  upon  any  single  occasion  as 
was  experienced  in  taking  it  to  begin  with.  Often,  in  cases  where  indi- 
gestion forms  the  chief  complaint,  will  it  be  found  to  have  arisen  from 
some  unwitting  breach  of  the  principles  of  dietetics,  and  thence  it  fre- 
quently happens  that  instruction  on  the  dietetic  precepts  requiring  to  be 
obeyed  for  the  maintenance  of  health  will  be  all  that  is  needed  to  set 
matters  right. 

When  the  middle  of  the  day  is  allotted  to  dinner,  the  evening  meal  is 
designated  supper,  and  as  this  is  not  usually  taken  till  an  advanced  hour 
of  the  evening  an  intermediate  light  repast  is  generally  introduced  under 
the  name  of  tea.  A  heavy  supper,  especially  if  taken  only  a  short  time 
before  going  to  bed,  is  unquestionably  bad.  During  sleep  there  is  a  di- 
minished activity  of  all  the  bodily  functions,  and  the  condition  is  not  fa- 
vorable for  the  due  performance  of  digestion.  He  who  retires  to  rest  with 
a  full  stomach  is  fortunate  if  he  escape  passing  a  restless  night,  being 


PRACTICAL   DIETETICS.  329 

troubled  with  dreams,  and  rising  in  the  morning  with  a  foul  mouth.  The 
supper,  when  supper  at  all  is  taken,  should  be,  as  far  as  practicable,  made 
to  approach  to  the  early  part  of  the  evening — that  is,  supposing  the  usual 
hour  for  retiring  to  rest  be  observed;  and  where  the  engagements  of  life 
render  such  a  course  inconvenient,  the  meal  should  be  light  and  a  heavier 
tea  consumed. 

The  best  arrangement  for  health  is  that  the  third  substantial  meal 
should  be  taken  about  six  or  seven  in  the  evening — in  other  words,  that 
breakfast,  luncheon,  and  dinner  should  form  the  order  observed.  The 
opportunity  is  thus  given  for  digestion  to  have  approached  completion 
before  the  night's  sleep  is  begun.  In  fashionable  society  it  is  now  com- 
mon to  find  the  dinner  postponed  till  a  later  hour,  bringing  it,  in  fact, 
nearly  to  the  old-fashioned  period  for  supper.  If  the  time  of  retiring  to 
rest  is  proportionally  late,  as  is  usually  the  case,  there  is  nothing  seri- 
ously objectionable  in  the  course  adopted,  but  if  early,  the  remark  ap- 
pKes  with  equal  force  that  has  been  made  under  the  head  of  supper.  A 
dinner  at  eight  or  half-past  eight,  however,  calls  for  an  intermediate  light 
repast,  under  the  form  of  tea,  to  break  the  length  of  interval  that  would 
otherwise  occur.  But,  besides  being  customary  under  these  circum- 
stances for  tea  to  be  taken  about  five,  fashion  has  led  to  its  being  also 
taken  when  the  dinner  hour  is  earlier,  and  against  a  simple  cup  of  tea  at 
this  time  nothing  can  be  said.  It  serves  to  refresh,  although  it  cannot 
be  considered  as  needed.  Temptation,  however,  is  also  offered  to  partake 
of  food,  and  when  this  is  done  to  any  extent,  it  must  be  looked  upon  as 
pernicious,  by  impairing  the  appetite  for  one  of  the  principal  meals. 

After  a  late  dinner,  and  with  the  observance  of  ordinary  hours,  no  fur- 
ther food  is  required.  The  tea,  therefore,  which  is  generally  taken  after- 
ward, should  be  confined  to  liquid,  and  a  cup  of  warm  tea,  coffee,  or 
cocoa,  has  the  effect  of  arousing  the  energies,  and  apparently  also  of 
favorably  influencing  digestion. 

The  error  of  going  to  bed  upon  a  full  stomach  has  been  alluded  to. 
It  is  also  equally  unadvisable  that  the  stomach  should  be  in  a  perfectly 
empty  condition.  Fasting  excites  restlessness  and  watchfulness,  and 
many  a  person  has  needlessly  passed  sleepless  hours  through  retiring  to 
rest  after  too  long  an  interval  since  the  last  meal.  The  literary  man,  for 
example,  who  carries  his  labors  far  into  the  night,  goes  to  bed  with  an 
empty  stomach  and  finds  that  he  cannot  sleep.  Let  a  little  food,  how- 
ever, be  taken,  and  it  will  be  found  to  exert  a  tranquillizing  and  comfort- 
ing effect,  and  so  will  dispose  to  sleep. 

I  have  been  speaking  of  the  meals  adapted  for  a  state  of  health. 
Three  substantial  meals — morning,  mid-day,  and  evening — should  be 
taken,  and,  unless  the  interval  between  one  or  the  other  be  considerably 
prolonged,  no  intermediate  repast  of  solid  food  is  required.  Indeed,  it  is 
not  beneficial  for  a  person  to  be  constantly  eating  through  the  day. 
Some  are  in  the  habit  of  taking  food  at  odd  times  between  the  meals,  but 
such  a  practice  is  not  to  be  upheld.  Eating  should  be  confined  to  the  meals, 
otherwise  a  constant  state  of  repletion  is  kept  up,  and  the  stomach  has  no 
opportunity  of  resting.  In  sickness,  it  is  true,  advantage  is  gained  by 
the  frequent  administration  of  food,  but  then  only  a  small  quantity  at  a 
time  can  be  taken.  The  stomach  will  not  bear,  or  the  invalid  cannot 
take,  more  than  a  very  limited  amount  at  once;  and  to  compensate  for  this, 
and  enable  a  sufficiency  to  be  ingested,  more  frequent  administration  is 
required.  In  proportion  to  the  limited  amount  that  can  be  taken  at  a 
time,  so,  it  may  be  said,  should  be  the  frequency  of  administration. 


330  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

Infants  and  young  children  require  food  more  frequently  than  grown- 
up persons.  They  dispose  of  what  is  taken  more  rapidly,  and  do  not 
bear  fasting  well.  Less  lengthy  intervals  should  therefore  be  allowed  to 
elapse  between  the  periods  of  eating.  The  best  arrangement  of  meals 
for  children  that  are  a  little  older  is — breakfast,  dinner,  tea,  and  supper: 
the  supper  consisting  of  light  but  nutritious  food.  A  late  dinner  is  to  be 
strongly  condemned.  There  are  many  children  whose  delicate  health 
and  feeble  constitution  is  owing  to  the  error  of  their  parents  in  making 
them  join  in  a  late  dinner.  Instead  of  dining,  say  at  seven  or  after,  it 
would  be  better  for  them  to  be  going  to  bed,  and  the  evils  of  going  to 
bed  upon  a  heavy  meal  have  already  been  adverted  to. 

In  connection  with  these  remarks  upon  the  times  of  taking  food,  I 
may  refer  to  the  following  collateral  points. 

A  hearty  meal  should  neither  immediately  follow  nor  precede  violent 
exercise.  In  each  case  the  stomach  is  rendered  unfit  for  the  vigorous 
discharge  of  its  office. 

A  hearty  dinner  taken  in  the  evening  after  an  unusual  day's  exertion 
is  sure  to  be  followed  by  more  or  less  indigestion,  and,  it  may  be,  vomit- 
ing. Sportsmen  and  pedestrians  are  acquainted  by  experience  with  this 
fact.  The  depression  of  general  bodily  power  occasioned  by  the  fatigue 
endured  is  incompatible  with  the  possession  of  full  energy  by  the  stomach. 
By  a  little  repose,  however,  time  is  given  for  the  production  of  fresh 
power  to  raise  the  system  from  its  previous  state  of  exhaustion,  and  ren- 
der the  stomach  equal  to  the  easy  digestion  of  a  moderate  meal. 

The  sensation  experienced  on  undertaking  any  violent  bodily  exer- 
tion immediately  after  a  hearty  meal  is  sufficient  to  show  that  the  task 
imposed  is  greater  than  the  system  is  adapted  for.  With  a  loaded 
stomach,  the  fullest  amount  of  energy  that  can  be  given  is  required  to 
enable  it  to  get  through  its  work.  We  notice,  indeed,  under  such  cir- 
cumstances, that  the  energies  are  so  concentrated  upon  what  the  stomach 
is  doing  that  an  indisposition,  and  even  incapacity,  for  vigorous  and  sus- 
tained mental  or  bodily  exertion  is  induced.  Whilst  after  a  light  meal, 
muscular  or  mental  work  can  with  ease  and  comfort  be  performed,  after 
a  heavy  meal  an  effort  to  accomplish  it  so  diverts  from  the  stomach  the 
energy  required  of  it  as  to  occasion  manifest  signs  of  incapacity  for  the 
function  to  be  discharged.  The  process  of  digestion  fails  to  be  carried 
on  as  it  ought  to  be.  The  food  remains  longer  than  it  should  within  the 
stomach,  and  ultimately,  it  may  be,  is  rejected  by  vomiting. 

If  sharp  exercise  after  a  hearty  meal  is  to  be  avoided,  is  it  desirable,  it 
may  be  asked,  to  encourage  the  inclination  for  repose,  and  allow  indul- 
gence in  a  siesta  f  A  short  and  light  nap  after  dinner  will  not  be  sufficient 
to  do  any  harm,  but  if  the  nap  is  permitted  to  pass  into  a  profound  and 
a  prolonged  sleep,  unquestionably  a  retarding  influence  is  exercised  upon 
digestion,  and  a  prejudicial  influence  upon  the  stomach.  However  agree- 
able, therefore,  it  may  be  to  gratify  the  desire  for  a  nap,  if  there  is 
danger  of  its  passing  into  a  lengthy  and  heavy  sleep,  it  is  well  to  have 
recourse  to  some  light  mental  or  bodily  employment,  whether  under  the 
shape  of  one  of  the  various  games  of  amusement,  as  billiards,  bagatelle, 
cards,  chess,  etc.,  or  otherwise  to  obviate  its  occurrence.  But,  with  a 
natural  state  of  things,  there  ought  to  be  no  strong  desire  for  sleep  after 
a  meal.  If  there  be  such,  it  may  be  concluded  that  some  fault  exists: 
either  the  meal  has  been  excessive,  in  consequence  of  yielding  to  the 
gratification  of  the  palate,  or  of  eating  largely  to  make  up  for  a  too  pro- 
longed fast,  or  else  the  digestive  power  is  below  the  healthy  standard. 


PRACTICAL    DIETETICS.  331 

A  cheerful  state  of  mind  is  conducive  to  the  easy  digestion  of  a  meal. 
The  influence  exerted  by  states  of  the  mind  upon  the  appetite  and  diges- 
tion, as  well  as  the  nutrition  of  the  body  generally,  is  a  matter  of  com- 
mon observation.  A  person  receiving  a  piece  of  unwelcome  intelligence 
just  before  the  commencement  of  a  repast  may  be  unable  to  eat  a  mouth- 
ful, no  matter  what  might  have  been  the  appetite  previously.  Henry  VIIL 
frowning  upon  Wolsey,  and  handing  him  papers  notifying  his  disgrace, 
is  made  by  Shakespeare  to  say — 

-"Read  o'er  this; 


And  after  this ;  and  then  to  breakfast  with 
WJiat  appetite  you  have." 

"  Experience,"  says  Dr.  Combe,*  "  must  have  taught  every  one  with 
what  zest  we  sit  down  to  enjoy  the  pleasures  of  the  table,  and  how  largely 
we  incline  to  eat,  when  the  mind  is  free,  unburdened,  and  joyous,  com- 
pared with  the  little  attention  we  bestow  on  our  meals  when  we  are  over- 
whelmed with  anxiety,  or  have  the  whole  energies  of  the  mind  concentrated 
on  some  important  scheme."  "  Laughter,"  also  says  Hufeland,  of  Berlin, f 
"is  one  of  the  greatest  helps  to  digestion  with  which  I  arn  acquainted; 
and  the  custom  prevalent  among  our  forefathers,  of  exciting  it  at  table 
by  jesters  and  buffoons,  was  founded  on  true  medical  principles.  In  a  word, 
endeavor  to  have  cheerful  and  merry  companions  at  your  meals;  what 
nourishment  one  receives  amidst  mirth  and  jollity  will  certainly  produce 
good  and  light  blood." 


CULINARY  PREPARATION  OF  FOOD. 

Several  important  purposes  are  fulfilled  by  the  process  of  cooking. 
By  it  our  food  is  rendered  more  pleasing  to  the  eye,  agreeable  to  the 
palate,  and  digestible  by  the  stomach.  We  all  know,  for  example,  the 
influence  exerted  by  the  appearance  presented  by  food — how,  if  pleasing 
to  the  eye,  it  becomes  tempting  to  the  palate,  and,  if  revolting  to  the 
sight,  the  stomach  may  turn  against  it.  Again,  food  which  is  savory — 
and  cooking  has  the  effect  of  developing  flavor — excites  the  inclination  in 
a  manner  peculiar  to  itself.  Lastly,  by  the  alterations  it  induces  of  a  phy- 
sical and  chemical  nature,  cooking  renders  our  food  more  easy  of  diges- 
tion, and  may  remove  an  obnoxious  property  by  killing  parasites  or  their 
germs,  where  such  exist. 

Cooking  lessens  cohesion  and  alters  -the  texture  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  render  a  substance  more  easy  of  mastication  and  subsequent  reduction 
to  a  fluid  state  by  the  stomach. 

The  effect  upon  meat  is  to  coagulate  albumen  and  coloring  matter;  to 
solidify  fibrine,  and  gelatinize  tendinous,  fibrous,  and  connective  tissues. 
A  piece  of  meat,  for  instance,  which  before  cooking  is  tough,  tenacious, 
and  stringy,  so  as  to  be  insusceptible  of  proper  mastication,  has  firmness 
or  solidity  given  to  the  muscular  fibres,  whilst  the  connective  tissue  is 
transformed  into  a  soft  gelatinous  material.  The  connective  tissue  being 
softened,  the  muscular  fibres  are  loosened.  Thus,  the  whole  substance 
becomes  less  coherent,  and  is  easily  broken  down  by  the  application  of 
pressure.  It  is  thereby  more  digestible,  for  the  digestibility  of  meat  may 

*  Physiology  of  Digestion,  2d  ed.,  p.  300.     Edinburgh,  1836. 

f  Art  of  Prolonging  Human  Life,  English  ed.,  p.  282.     London,  1829. 


332  A    TEEATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

be  regarded  as  standing  in  proportion  to  its  tenderness  or  want  of  cohesion. 
Tenderness  and  digestibility  are  influenced  by  the  circumstances  antece- 
dent to  cooking.  Jf  flesh,  whether  of  fish,  fowl,  or  any  other  animal,  be 
cooked  before  rigor  mortis  has  set  in,  its  texture  is  looser,  and  the  article 
is  thereby  more  easy  of  digestion  than  when  cooked  after  this  state  has 
passed  off.  It  is  rare,  however — seldom  practicable  indeed — for  cooking 
to  be  performed  at  so  early  a  period  after  death,  and  when  the  flesh  has 
set,  its  tenderness  and  digestibility  are  increased  by  its  being  kept  for  a 
time.  The  flesh  of  an  animal,  also,  which  has  been  driven  or  hunted  just 
prior  to  death  is  more  tender  and  digestible  than  where  it  has  been  pre- 
viously quiescent.  Bruising  loosens  the  texture  of  meat,  and  makes  it 
more  tender  when  cooked:  hence  the  advantage  of  the  process  of  beating 
to  which  steaks  and  chops  are,  in  many  households,  subjected. 

The  effect  of  cooking  upon  vegetables  is  to  soften  their  consistence, 
.and  so  allow  them  to  be  more  readily  masticated  or  broken  up  in  the 
mouth.  It  also  loosens  their  intercellular  structure,  and  thereby  facili- 
tates the  penetration  of  digestive  juices  into  their  substance.  It  further 
.aids,  in  an  important  manner,  digestibility,  by  its  physical  action  on  the 
starch  granule — an  ingredient  which  enters  more  largely  than  any  other 
into  the  constitution  of  vegetable  aliment.  It  causes  this  granule  to 
swell  up,  and  its  outer  envelope  to  burst.  The  digestive  fluids  are  thus 
permitted  to  come  in  contact  with  the  central  part.  In  the  absence  of 
this  change,  the  starch  granule  is  much  less  easily  attacked,  its  outer 
•covering  being  hard  and  offering  considerable  resistance  to  digestive 
action.  Albuminous  and  fibrinous  matters,  as  with  those  in  meat,  are 
-coagulated;  and,  in  the  case  of  boiling,  some  of  the  gummy,  saccharine, 
•coloring,  and  saline  matters  are  extracted.  This  occurs  to  a  less  extent 
when  vegetables  are  boiled  in  hard  water,  or  water  impregnated  with 
s;;lt,  than  when  boiled  in  soft  water,  but  the  article  is,  at  the  same  time, 
less  tender  and  digestible.  The  effect  of  a  little  salt  added  to  the  water 
in  which  vegetables  are  boiled  in  preserving  their  color,  is  well  known  to 
those  versed  in  the  economy  of  the  kitchen,  but  the  eye  is  pleased  at  the 
.sacrifice  of  tenderness. 

The  warmth  imparted  to  food  by  the  process  of  cooking  aids  the  di- 
gestive action  of  the  stomach,  and,  where  fatigue  or  exposure  to  cold  has 
been  sustained,  exerts  a  reviving  effect  upon  the  system. 

With  these  observations  of  a  general  nature,  I  will  now  offer  some 
remarks  on  the  various  modes  of  cooking  in  common  use,  which  may  be 
enumerated  as  follows:  Boiling,  roasting,  broiling,  baking,  frying,  stew- 
ing. 

Jioiling. — There  is  an  art  in  cooking  food  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
cause  as  little  loss  as  possible  of  its  nutritive  principles. 

If  the  object  to  be  attained  should  be  the  extraction  of  the  goodness 
of  meat  into  the  surrounding  liquid,  as  in  making  soups,  brotJis,  etc.,  tho 
article  should  be  minced  or  cut  up  finely,  and  placed  in  cold  water.  After 
soaking  for  a  short  time,  heat  should  be  applied,  and  the  temperature 
gradually  raised.  For  broths,  no  actual  boiling  is  needed — it  is  desirable, 
indeed,  that  it  should  be  avoided,  so  as  not  to  consolidate  and  lose  more 
than  possible  of  the  albumen.  For  soups,  however,  prolonged  boiling  is 
necessary,  in  order  fully  to  extract  the  gelatine.  It  is  this,  in  fact,  which 
forms  the  basis  of  soup,  for  the  floating  albumen  is  hardened  or  condensed 
and  got  rid  of  by  straining. 

Thus  treated,  the  principles  of  the  meat,  so  far  as  circumstances  will 
allow,  pass  out  into  the  surrounding  liquid,  and  as  this  gains  in  flavor  and 


PRACTICAL   DIETETICS.  335 

nutritive  properties,  so  the  meat  becomes  impoverished,  a  hard,  fibrous,, 
and  insipid  residue  being  produced. 

Where,  however,  it  is  desired  that  the  flavor  and  nutritive  properties 
should  be  retained  in  the  meat,  an  opposite  process  must  be  adopted. 
The  piece  of  meat  should  be  large,  and  it  should  be  plunged  suddenly 
into  boiling  water,  and  the  process  of  boiling  briskly  maintained  for 
about  five  minutes.  This  coagulates  the  albuminous  matter  upon  the 
surface,  and  leads  to  the  formation  of  a  more  or  less  impermeable  exter- 
nal layer,  which  precludes  the  escape  of  the  juices  from  the  substance  of 
the  meat.  After  this  object  has  been  fulfilled,  instead  of  boiling  being 
continued,  a  temperature  of  between  160°  and  170°  Fahr.  constitutes 
what  is  wanted,  and  this  degree  should  be  maintained  until  the  process 
of  cooking  is  completed.  Cooked  in  this  way,  the  central  part  of  the 
meat  remains  juicy  and  tender,  and  possesses,  in  the  highest  degree,  the 
properties  of  nutritiveness  and  digestibility.  Unless  exposed  throughout 
to  the  temperature  named,  the  albuminous  and  coloring  matters  are  not 
properly  coagulated,  and  the  meat  presents  a  raw  or  underdressed  ap— 
pearance.  If  exposed  to  a  temperature  much  above  170°,  the  muscular 
substance  shrinks  and  becomes  proportionately  hard  and  indigestible. 
The  usual  fault  committed  in  cooking  meat  is  keeping  the  water  in  which 
it  is  being  boiled  at  too  high  a  temperature  after  the  first  exposure  to- 
brisk  ebullition  is  over. 

Fish  is  rendered  firm  in  proportion  to  the  hardness  of  the  water  in 
which  it  is  boiled.  Hence,  fish  boiled  in  sea-water  or  in  water  to  which' 
salt  has  been  added,  is  firmer,  and,  at  the  same  time,  more  highly  flavored,, 
than  when  boiled  in  soft  water,  on  account  of  the  less  solvent  action  exerted. 
Upon  the  principle  of  endeavoring  to  retain,  so  far  as  practicable,  the 
soluble  constituents  of  an  article  of  food,  potatoes  should  be  boiled  in  their 
skins,  and  the  object  aimed  at  is  still  further  secured  by  the  addition  of  a 
little  salt  to  the  water.  By  steaming,  instead  of  boiling,  the  result  is  still 
more  completely  attained. 

Boiled  food  is  more  insipid  than  food  cooked  in  other  ways.  From 
the  lower  temperature  employed,  no  empyreumatic  products  are  devel- 
oped. Being  more  devoid  of  flavor,  it  is  less  tempting  to  the  palate,  but 
sits  more  easily  on  a  delicate  stomach. 

In  cooking,  meat  loses  about  one-fourth  or  more  of  its  weight.  The 
loss  varies  with  the  quality  of  the  meat  and  the  process  of  cooking  em- 
ployed. According  to  Dr.  Letheby,  the  ordinary  percentage  of  loss  is- 
about  as  follows: 

Boiling.     Baking.     Roasting. 

Beef  generally,  ......     20  29  31 

Mutton  generally,      .         .         .         .20  31 

Legs  of  mutton,          .         .''       .          .20 

Shoulders  of  mutton.  .     24 

Loins  of  mutton,        .         .   "  .30 

Necks  of  mutton,       .         V         .         .25 

Average  of  all,       ...     23  31  34 

Thus,  the  loss  by  baking  is  greater  than  by  boiling,  and  by  roasting- 
greater  than  all.  The  loss  arises  chiefly  from  the  evaporation  of  water 
and  the  melting  down  and  escape  of  fat,  although  some  is  due  to  the  de- 
structive action  of  the  heat  and  the  exudation  of  nutritive  juice  under  the 
form  of  gravy. 


334  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

Jioasti-ng  should  be  conducted  upon  the  same  principle  as  boiling.  In 
order,  as  far  as  possible,  to  retain  the  nutritive  juices,  meat  should  first  be 
subjected  to  a  sharp  heat.  This  leads  to  the  formation  of  a  coagulated 
layer  upon  the  surface,  which  subsequently  offers  an  impediment  to  the 
escape  of  the  fluid  matter  within.  After  a  short  exposure  to  a  sharp  heat, 
the  meat  should  be  removed  to  a  greater  distance  from  the  fire,  so  as  to 
allow  a  lower  heat  gradually  to  penetrate  to  the  centre.  In  this  way  the 
albumen  and  coloring  matters  are  coagulated  without  the  fibrine  being 
corrugated  and  hardened. 

As  has  been  already  stated,  on  account  of  the  great  heat  employed, 
roasted  meat  is  more  savory  than  boiled.  The  surface  also  is  more  or 
less  scorched,  and  a  portion  of  the  fat  is  melted,  and  drops  away  under 
the  form  of  dripping.  Some  of  the  fat  likewise,  under  a  prolonged  expo- 
sure to  a  strong  heat,  undergoes  decomposition,  attended  with  a  produc- 
tion of  fatty  acids,  and  an  acrid  volatile  product  known  as  acroleine,  which 
may  cause  derangement  of  a  weak  stomach.  In  boiling,  the  temperature 
is  not  sufficient  to  incur  the  risk  of  rendering  the  fat  in  a  similar  way  ob- 
noxious. 

When  properly  roasted,  the  meat  is  juicy  enough  within  to  lead  to  the 
escape  of  a  quantity  of  red  gravy  when  the  first  cut  is  made  into  it. 

llroiling  produces  the  same  effect  as  roasting,  but  the  proportion  of 
scorched  material  is  greater,  on  account  of  the  relatively  larger  amount 
of  surface  exposed.  The  principle  of  cOoking  should  be  the  same,  in 
order  to  retain  the  central  portion  juicy. 

Baking  renders  meat  more  impregnated  with  empyreumatic  products, 
and  therefore  richer  or  stronger  for  the  stomach  than  any  other  process 
of  cooking.  The  operations  being  carried  on  in  a  confined  space  the  vol- 
atile fatty  acids  generated  are  prevented  from  escaping,  and  thus  per- 
meate the  cooked  articles.  Meat  cooked  in  this  way  is  ill  adapted  for 
consumption  where  a  delicate  state  of  system  exists. 

Frying  is  also  an  objectionable  process  of  cooking  for  persons  of  weak 
digestive  power.  The  heat  is  applied  through  the  medium  of  boiling  fat 
or  oil.  The  article  of  food  thus  becomes  more  or  less  penetrated  with 
fatty  matter,  which  renders  it,  to  a  greater  extent  than  would  otherwise 
be  the  case,  resistent  to  the  solvent  action  of  the  watery  digestive  liquid 
secreted  by  the  stomach.  It  is  apt  also  to  be  impregnated  with  fatty- 
acid  products  arising  from  the  decomposition  of  the  fat  used  in  the  pro- 
cess. These  are  badly  tolerated  by  the  stomach,  and,  whether  generated 
in  this  way  or  when  the  food  is  in  the  act  of  undergoing  digestion,  ap- 
pears to  form  the  source  of  the  gastric  trouble  known  as  heartburn. 

Stewing  places  food  in  a  highly  favorable  state  for  digestion.  The 
articles  to  be  cooked  are  just  covered  with  water,  and  should  be  exposed 
to  a  heat  sufficient  only  to  allow  of  gentle  simmering.  A  considerable 
portion  of  the  nutritive  matter  passes  into  the  surrounding  liquid,  which 
is  consumed  as  well  as  the  solid  material.  Properly  cooked  in  this  way, 
meat  should  be  rendered  sufficiently  tender  to  break  down  under  mod- 
erate pressure.  If  boiling  be  allowed  to  occur,  the  meat  becomes,  instead, 
tough  and  hard. 

Hashing  is  the  same  process  applied  to  previously  cooked  instead  of 
fresh  meat. 

By  surrounding  the  vessel  in  which  the  article  of  food  is  contained 
with  water,  so  as  to  secure  that  no  burning  shall  occur,  meat  may  be 
slewed  in  its  own  vapor.  For  example,  a  chop  or  other  piece  of  meat 
taken  upon  a  small  scale,  may  be  placed  in  an  ordinary  preserve-jar,  and 


PRACTICAL   DIETETICS.  335 

this  tied  over  at  the  top,  and  partially  immersed  in  water  contained  in  a 
saucepan.  The  water  in  the  saucepan  is  made  to  simmer  or  gently  boil, 
and  when  the  proper  time  has  elapsed,  the  meat  is  found  perfectly  soft 
and  tender,  and  surrounded  by  a  liquor  derived  from  the  juice  which  has 
escaped  during  the  process.  Meat  thus  prepared  is  in  an  exceedingly 
suitable  state  for  the  convalescent  and  invalid. 

It  is  upon  this  principle  that  the  action  of  Captain  Warren's  "  cooking- 
pot  "  depends.  This  consists  of  a  kind  of  double  saucepan,  the  inner  ves- 
sel containing  the  joint  or  other  article  to  be  cooked,  and  the  outer  some 
water,  through  the  medium  of  which  the  cooking  is  effected,  but  without 
its  coming  into  actual  contact  with  the  food.  The  utensil  constitutes,  in 
fact,  a  bain-marie,  or  water-bath.  There  need  be  no  loss  whatever  of 
any  of  the  solid  matter  of  the  meat,  and  the  loss  of  weight  that  occurs  in 
a  joint  is  considerably  less  than  when  cooked  by  roasting.  If  it  be  de- 
sired to  increase  the  flavor,  the  joint  may  be  first  roasted  for  a  short  time 
before  being  stewed. 

I  may  here  refer  to  the  "  Norwegian  nest,"  or  "  self-acting  cooking  ap- 
paratus "  which  was  introduced  to  notice  in  this  country  a  few  years  back. 
Messrs.  Silver  &  Co.,  of  Cornhill  and  Bishopsgate  street,  are  now  the  pat- 
entees and  manufacturers.  It  consists  of  a  box  constructed  upon  the  prin- 
ciple of  a  refrigerator,  the  only  difference  in  action  being  that  it  keeps  the 
heat  in  instead  of  keeping  it  out.  The  box,  indeed,  may  be  made  use  of 
either  as  a  refrigerator  or  for  the  purpose  of  cooking.  It  is  padded  in- 
side with  a  non-conducting  material,  arranged  so  as  to  leave  a  space  in 
the  centre  for  receiving  the  movable  tin  vessel  in  which  the  process  of 
cooking  is  carried  on.  The  vessel  is  lifted  out  from  its  "  nest  "  and  filled 
with  water  and  the  article  to  be  cooked.  Heat  is  applied,  so  as  to  bring 
the  water  to  the  boiling  point,  and  afterward  maintain  it  at  this  for  a 
short  time.  The  vessel  is  then  replaced  in  the  box  and  shut  in  by  the 
closure  of  the  lid.  The  heat  being  prevented  from  escaping,  the  process 
o'i  cooking  goes  on  away  from  the  fire,  and  no  matter  in  what  situation 
the  box  may  be  placed.  The  contrivance  recommends  itself  on  the  score 
of  economy  for  household  use,  and  the  box  being  easily  carried  about,  it 
affords  the  means  of  furnishing,  without  a  fire  being  needed,  hot  food  out 
of  doors,  as  in  campaigning,  travelling,  pleasure-making,  etc.  It  is  also 
susceptible  of  being  turned  to  useful  account  as  an  appurtenance  to  the 
.sick-room. 

Soups  and  Brotlis.  — The  process  of  preparation  is  here  directed  to  ex- 
tracting the  goodness  from  the  article  employed — the  reverse  of  that  in 
the  case  of  boiling.  To  accomplish  what  is  aimed  at  in  the  most  complete 
manner,  the  article  should  be  chopped  or  broken  into  fine  pieces,  and 
placed  in  cold  water.  After  being  allowed  to  macerate  for  a  short  time, 
for  the  soluble  constituents  to  become  dissolved  out,  it  is  gradually  heated 
to  a  point  which  should  vary  according  to  the  product  required.  In  the 
case  of  broths  and  beef-tea,  which  properly  contain  only  the  flavoring 
principle  of  meat — osmazome — and  the  soluble  constituents  with  finely 
coagulated  albuminous  matter,  all  that  is  required  is  to  produce  gentle 
simmering,  and  this  should  be  kept  up  for  about  half  an  hour.  In  the 
case  of  soups  a  prolonged  gentle  boiling  is  required,  in  order  that  the  gela- 
tine may  be  extracted,  this  being  the  principle  which  gives  to  good  soup 
its  property  of  solidifying  on  cooling.  Bones  require  boiling  a  longer 
time  than  meat.  The  chief  principle  they  yield  is  gelatine,  and  its  ex- 
traction is  greatly  facilitated  by  the  bones  being  broken  into  fine  frag- 
ments previous  to  being  used. 


336  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

?<•  ilt ing,  pickling,  and  smoking  are  processes  to  which  articles  of  food 
are  sometimes  subjected  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  them  to  be  preserved 
previous  to  cooking.  These  processes  have  been  already  referred  to  un- 
der the  head  of  "  Preservation  of  Food  "  (p.  270),  but  may  be  alluded  to- 
here  for  the  sake  of  stating  that  by  their  hardening  action  they  give  an 
article  of  difficult  digestibility,  which  cannot  be  overcome  by  cooking. 
Food,  therefore,  which  has  been  submitted  to  these  processes  should  b& 
avoided  by  the  dyspeptic,  except,  it  may  be  said,  in  the  case  of  bacon, 
which  happens,  as  a  rule,  to  sit  easily  on  the  stomach.  Indeed,  accord- 
ing to  general  experience,  the  cured  article  (particularly  the  fat  belonging 
to  it)  is  here  more  digestible  than  the  fresh — that  is,  than  either  pork  or 
pig-meat. 


DIET  OF  INFANTS. 

The  importance  of  this  branch  of  dietetics  can  scarcely  be  overrated. 
At  no  period  of  life  is  discreet  management  throughout  so  much  called 
for  as  during  the  helpless  condition  of  early  infancy,  and  nothing  consti- 
tutes so  fruitful  a  source  of  infantile  sickness  and  mortality  as  injudicious 
feeding. 

The  proper  food  during  the  first  period  of  infancy  is  that,  and  that 
only,  which  has  been  provided  by  Nature  for  the  young  of  mammals,  viz., 
milk  General  observation  and  carefully  collected  statistics  agree  in  con- 
clusively showing  that  nothing  can  adequately  replace  this  natural  food. 
"  The  infant,"  says  Dr.  West,*  "  whose  mother  refuses  to  perform  toward 
it  a  mother's  part,  or  who,  by  accident,  disease,  or  death,  is  deprived  of 
the  food  that  Nature  destined  for  it,  too  often  languishes  and  dies.  Such 
children  you  may  see  with  no  fat  to  give  plumpness  to  their  limbs — no 
red  particles  in  their  blood  to  impart  a  healthy  hue  to  their  skin — their 
face  wearing  in  infancy  the  lineaments  of  age — their  voice  a  constant 
wail — their  whole  aspect  an  embodiment  of  woe.  But  give  to  such  chil- 
dren the  food  that  Nature  destined  for  them,  and  if  the  remedy  do  not 
come  too  late  to  save  them,  the  mournful  cry  will  cease,  the  face  will  as- 
sume a  look  of  content,  by  degrees  the  features  of  infancy  will  disclose 
themselves,  the  limbs  will  grow  round,  the  skin  pure  red  and  white,  and 
when,  at  length,  we  hear  the  merry  laugh  of  babyhood,  it  seems  almost 
as  if  the  little  sufferer  of  some  weeks  before  must  have  been  a  changeling, 
and  this  the  real  child  brought  back  from  fairy -land." 

Formed  for  the  special  purpose  of  constituting  the  sole  nourishment 
during  the  first  period  of  infantile  life,  milk  not  only  contains  the  princi- 
ples required  for  the  growth  and  maintenance  of  the  body,  but  contains 
them  under  such  a  form  as  to  be  especially  adapted  to  the  state  of  the  di- 
gestive powers  then  existing.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  exercise 
of  the  digestive  organs  only  comes  into  operation  after  birth.  At  the 
time  of  birth  these  organs  are  in  a  comparatively  immature  state  of  de- 
velopment, and  it  is  only  gradually  that  their  full  power  becomes  evolved. 
For  the  first  few  months  it  appears  that  no  saliva  at  all  is  secreted;  and 
it  is  true,  under  natural  circumstances,  from  the  character  of  the  food 
and  the  absence  of  masticatory  organs,  that  it  is  not  required.  The  ali- 
mentary canal  is  short,  and  that  portion  of  it  called  the  c«ecum  very 


*  Lectures  on  the  Diseases  of  Infancy  and  Childhood,  fifth  edition,  p.  532.     1865. 


PRACTICAL   DIETETICS.  337 

small.  The  teeth,  as  is  well  known,  do  not  appear  until  after  the  lapse 
of  several  months.  Besides  these  evidences  of  immature  development, 
experience  shows  that  the  alimentary  canal  is  in  an  exceedingly  suscepti- 
ble state,  and  most  easily  deranged  by  slight  deviations  in  the  character 
of  the  food.  So  strikingly,  indeed,  is  this  the  case,  that  the  mother, 
whilst  suckling,  knows  that  for  the  sake  of  her  infant's  comfort  it  is  ne- 
cessary to  exercise  care  over  what  she  herself  eats.  All  this  points  to 
feeble  digestive  capacity,  and  suggests  a  want  of  power  of  adaptiveness 
to  alien  articles  of  food.  It  may  be  considered  that,  up  to  about  the 
eighth  month,  the  infant  is  designed  to  be  sustained  solely  by  its  parent's 
milk.  The  teeth,  which  about  this  time  begin  to  show  themselves,  indi- 
cate that  preparation  is  now  being  made  for  the  consumption  of  food  of 
a  solid  nature,  and  the  most  suitable  to  begin  with  will  be  one  of  the  fari- 
naceous products.  Bread,  baked  flour,  biscuit-powder,  oatmeal,  or  one  of 
the  numerous  kinds  of  nursery  biscuits  that  are  made,  may  be  employed 
for  a  time  as  a  supplement  to  the  previous  food.  Then,  at  about  the  tenth 
month,  the  maternal  supply,  which  should  have  been  already  lessened, 
should  be  altogether  stopped,  and  the  child  started  upon  the  life  of  inde- 
pendence that  is  to  follow.  For  a  while,  milk  and  the  farinaceous  pro- 
ducts referred  to  above  still  form  the  most  suitable  food;  but  as  the  child 
advances  in  its  second  year  and  the  teeth  become  more  developed,  meat 
may  be  added. 

Such  forms  the  natural  course  to  be  pursued,  but  it  often  happens, 
either  as  the  result  of  choice  or  of  necessity — either  because  she  will  not 
or  cannot — that  the  mother's  part  fails  to  be  fulfilled.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances, the  question  of  the  nature  of  the  supply  to  be  provided  as  a 
substitute  has  to  be  decided  upon. 

Undoubtedly  the  nearest  approach  to  the  actual  food  which  has  been 
designed  to  be  given  is  the  milk  furnished  by  another  woman,  and 
amongst  the  more  wealthy  classes  this  is  often  had  recourse  to.  Now,  in 
the  selection  of  a  wet-nurse  there  are  certain  points  which,  in  the  interest 
of  the  infant  to  be  reared,  require  to  be  attended  to.  It  is  scarcely 
necessary  to  say  that  the  woman  should  be  free  from  constitutional 
taint  and  in  a  healthy  condition.  The  most  suitable  age  is  from 
twenty  to  thirty.  The  milk  should  be  sufficient  in  quantity  and  good  in 
quality,  and  as  its  composition  alters  to  some  extent  as  time  advances 
from  the  date  of  confinement,  it  is  desirable  that  the  infant  should  be 
nourished  by  a  person  who  has  given  birth  about  the  same  time  as  its  own 
mother.  A  brunette  is  considered  to  make  a  better  nurse  than  a  blonde. 
Upon  the  authority  of  the  analyses  of  L'Heritier,  the  milk  of  the  former 
is  said  to  be  richer  in  solid  constituents  than  the  latter;  but,  besides  this, 
the  difference  in  temperament  exerts  its  influence  in  maintaining  a  more 
steady  condition  in  the  one  case  than  in  the  other.  For  example,  the 
sanguine  temperament,  with  its  associated  susceptible  organization,  be- 
longing to  the  blonde,  disposes  to  a  greater  liability  of  sudden  alterations 
from  mental  causes  than  the  phlegmatic  temperament,  with  its  less  im- 
pressionable organization,  of  the  brunette. 

Next  in  appropriateness  to  the  food  supplied  by  a  wet-nurse  comes  the 
milk  derived  from  one  of  the  lower  animals;  and  this  may  be  employed 
either  to  make  up  for  a  deficient  supply  from  the  mother,  or  as  the  sole 
article  of  nourishment.  It  is  obvious  that  the  milk  to  be  selected  should ' 
be  that  which  is  readily  obtainable,  and  which  presents  the  closest  approxi- 
mation to  the  infant's  natural  food.  The  cow,  goat,  and  ass  are  the  ani- 
mals which  best  answer  the  conditions  required;  and  reference  to  the 
22 


338  A   TREATISE   ON    FOOD   AND   DIETETICS. 

analytical  table  at  p.  117  will  show  which  of  the  three  furnishes  the  most 
appropriate  kind  of  milk.  In  the  first  place,  the  milk  of  the  ass,  although 
it  has  had  its  advocates  as  a  food  for  infants,  presents  considerable  dis- 
parity in  composition  from  that  of  the  human  subject.  Whilst  being 
richer  in  sugar  and  soluble  salts,  it  shows  a  marked  deficiency  in  both  ni- 
trogenous matter  and  fat.  It  may  be  adapted  for  the  delicate  stomach 
of  a  person  reduced  by  illness  to  a  great  state  of  debility,  but  it  can  hardly 
be  looked  upon  as  representing  what  is  most  suitable  for  a  growing  child. 
The  milk  of  the  cow  gives  the  nearest  approach  to  what  is  wanted, 
and  it  happens,  also,  that  this  in  general  is  more  easily  procurable  than 
that  of  any  other  animal.  In  Payen's  table  (vide  p.  117),  cow's  milk  is 
represented  as  richer  in  all  its  solid  constituent  principles  than  woman's, 
and  slight  dilution  with  water  will  be  all  that  is  required  to  bring  it  to  a 
sufficiently  close  approximation  for  serving  as  a  substitute.  The  analyses 
given  by  other  authorities,  however,  render  it  presumable  that  the  sugar 
of  woman's  milk  is  under-estimated  in  the  table  in  question;  and  that, 
•whilst  the  caseine  and  butter  are  in  less  quantity  than  in  cow's  milk,  the 
lactine,  on  the  other  hand,  is  in  excess.  The  practical  management  of 
infants  shows  that  in  employing  cow's  milk,  it  is  desirable  to  sweeten  as 
well  as  dilute  it.  Instead  of  simply  adding  water,  a  solution  of  sugar,  or, 
what  is  more  in  conformity  with  the  natural  state,  sugar  of  milk,  in  the 
proportion  of  an  ounce  to  three-fourths  of  a  pint,  may  be  used,  and  at 
first  mixed  to  the  extent  of  about  one-third  with  two-thirds  of  milk. 
Later  on,  the  quantity  of  the  diluent  may  be  somewhat  diminished.  The 
milk  of  the  goat  is  even  richer  in  solid  constituents  than  that  of  the  cow, 
and,  therefore,  stands  somewhat  further  removed  from  that  of  the  human 
subject.  Goat's  milk  also  possesses  a  strong  and  peculiar  odor  of  its  own, 
but,  in  the  case  of  infants,  this  does  not  seem  to  form  any  serious  obstacle 
to  its  use,  for,  if  repugnant  at  first,  custom  soon  overcomes  the  difficulty. 

The  importance  of  securing,  as  far  as  practicable,  that  the  niilk  is  de- 
rived from  an  animal  in  a  healthy  state,  and  surrounded  by  wholesome 
conditions,  will  be  readily  understood.  The  alimentary  canal  of  infants, 
and  particularly  of  some,  is  exceedingly  impressionable  to  unwholesome 
food,  and  the  milk  of  cows  kept,  as  cows  in  large  cities  and  towns  not  un- 
frequently  are,  in  an  unnatural  state,  may  prove  the  source  of  violent 
irritation  of  the  stomach  and  bowels,  and  lead,  if  persevered  in,  to  serious 
impairment  of  the  health,  terminating  ultimately,  it  may  be,  in  a  fatal 
result. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  of  the  desirability  of  always  obtaining  the 
supply  from  the  same  animal,  instead  of  indiscriminately  from  any  cow, 
and  arrangements  for  this  are  generally  made  in  dairies.  In  the  case  of 
the  goat,  the  animal  is  often  kept  solely  for  the  purpose  under  considera- 
tion, and  has  before  now  been  domesticated,  and  tutored  to  discharge  its 
office  in  the  manner  of  a  wet-nurse. 

Respecting  the  use  of  condensed  milk  as  food  for  infants,  the  reader's 
attention  is  directed  to  the  foot  note  at  p.  122.  The  milk,  as  sold,  is  al- 
ready in  a  highly  sweetened  condition. 

Articles  of  a  farinaceous  nature,  such,  for  instance,  as  bread,  biscuit- 
powder,  baked  flour,  rusks,  and  a  variety  of  biscuits  and  preparations  sold 
at  different  establishments,  which  enter  so  extensively  into  general  nursery 
use,  must  be  looked  upon  as  foreign  to  the  diet  of  infants  of  tender  age. 
Constituted  in  great  part,  as  these  articles  are,  of  a  principle — starch — 
which  has  nq  existence  in  milk,  and  which  requires  to  undergo  a  special 
kind  .of  digestion  to  fit  it  for  absorption,  it  is  presumable  that  the  digestive 


PRACTICAL   DIETETICS.  339 

organs  are  not  adapted  at  this  stage  properly  to  meet  the  demand  that  is 
made  when  these  substances  are  consumed.  From  the  fact  that  they  are 
light  and  nourishing  for  older  children,  there  is  a  popular  tendency  to  re- 
gard them  as  forming  suitable  food  for  early  infancy;  but  all  authorities 
concur  in  condemning  them  as  improper  for  use  at  such  a  period.  It  is 
true,  later  on  they  represent  the  most  appropriate  solid  material  to  begin 
with;  but  this  is  when  the  digestive  organs  have  reached  a  more  advanced 
stage  of  development.  Liebig,  in  his  pamphlet  *  on  the  "  Food  for  In- 
fants "  devised  by  himself,  goes  so  far  as  to  assert  that  the  usual  farina- 
ceous foods  are  the  cause  of  most  of  the  diseases  and  of  half  of  the  deaths 
of  infants. 

Looking  at  its  composition,  the  sweet  almond  has  properties  which 
furnish  a  food  more  analogous  to  milk  than  the  farinaceous  products. 
Pounded  and  made  into  an  emulsion,  a  liquid  is  obtained  which,  as  re- 
gards the  chemical  nature  of  its  constituents  and  the  physical  condition 
in  which  the  fatty  matter  exists,  presents  a  close  alliance  to  milk. 

Liebig  has  introduced  a  food  for  infants,  devised  upon  chemical  prin- 
ciples, to  form  a  substitute  for  the  mother's  milk.  It  is  derived  from  malt- 
flour,  wheat-flour,  cow's  milk,  bicarbonate  of  potash,  and  water.  For 
further  particulars  regarding  its  precise  mode  of  preparation,  vide  p.  122. 
It  appears  to  be  extensively  used  in  Germany,  and  has  been  brought 
prominently  into  notice  in  England.  To  avoid  the  uncertainty  arising 
from  not  properly  attending  to  the  directions  given,  it  is  manufactured 
and  sold  in  a  dried  state,  the  preparation  thus  supplied  keeping  for  an 
indefinite  time,  and  requiring  only  to  be  dissolved  in  a  certain  quantity 
of  warm  water  to  be  rendered  fit  for  use.  Infants,  as  a  rule,  take  it 
readily,  and  seem  to  thrive  satisfactorily  upon  it. 

The  amount  of  milk  consumed  by  a  child  fed  naturally  at  the  breast, 
has  been  determined  by  weighing  immediately  before  and  immediately 
after  suckling.  Dr.  West,  upon  the  authority  of  M.  Guillot's  results,  ob- 
tained at  the  Foundling  Hospital  in  Paris,  says  that  the  increase  in  weight 
has  been  found  to  vary  from  2  to  5  ounces  in  infants  under  a  month  old, 
and  that  2£  pounds  avoirdupois  has  been  concluded  to  form  the  smallest 
quantity  that  will  suffice  for  the  daily  nourishment  of  a  healthy  infant 
during  the  first  month  of  its  existence.  It  is  suggested,  however,  that 
the  observations  made  were  not  numerous  enough  to  furnish  more  than  a 
rough  approximation  to  the  truth. 


DIET  FOR  TRAINING. 

The  object  of  training  is  the  preparation  of  the  system  for  some  un- 
usual feat  of  exertion,  and  the  results  which  the  art  aims  at  producing  are 
(1)  increased  muscular  strength,  (2)  increased  power  of  endurance,  and 
(3)  "  improvement  of  the  wind."  It  is  principally  by  attention  to  diet 
and  exercise  that  these  results  are  attained,  and  about  six  weeks  is  the 
time  usually  devoted  to  the  process  when  fully  carried  out.  Under  a  suc- 
cessful progress  the  muscles  increase  in  bulk,  grow  firmer,  and  become 
more  subordinate  to  the  influence  of  the  will,  thereby  leading  to  the  pro- 
duction of  a  feeling  of  freedom  and  lightness,  or  "  corkiness,"  as  it  has 

*  Food  for  Infants.      Walton,  Gower  street,  1867. 


340  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

been  termed,  of  the  limbs.  The  muscular  tissue,  in  fact,  increases  in 
quantity  and  improves  in  quality.  There  is  a  removal  of  superfluous  fat 
and  water,  and  by  "over-training"  the  body  may  become  so  completely 
deprived  of  fat,  or  the  museles  so  finely  drawn,  as  to  lead  to  a  loss,  in- 
stead of  gain,  of  the  power  of  enduring  prolonged  exertion.  The  skin  be- 
comes clear,  smooth,  fresh-colored,  and  elastic.  There  is  no  part  of  the 
body,  it  is  said,  on  which  training  produces  a  more  conspicuous  effect 
than  on  the  skin,  and  by  its  state  a  criterion  is  afforded  which  enables  an 
experienced  person  to  judge  of  the  fitness  of  the  individual  for  the  task 
in  view. 

The  rule  as  regards  exercise  is  to  begin  with  a  moderate  amount,  and 
gradually  increase  it,  and  the  muscles  which  are  to  be  specially  called  into 
play  require  to  be  systematically  trained  in  excess  of  the  others.  Run- 
ning is  the  kind  of  exercise  which  most  "  improves  the  wind,"  and,  what- 
ever the  feat  to  be  performed,  it  is  usual  to  enforce  a  certain  amount  of 
running  daily,  for  the  special  object  of  making  the  person  "longer 
winded." 

There  is  a  general  agreement  regarding  exercise,  but  respecting  diet 
and  other  measures  most  fanciful  notions  have  been  held.  Emetics,  pur- 
gatives, and  sometimes  diaphoretics,  were  formerly  recognized  as  forming 
an  essential  part  of  the  process  of  training.  Sir  John  Sinclair,*  in  his 
article  on  "Training,"  says,  "With  a  view  of  clearing  the  stomach,  and 
getting  rid  of  all  superfluities,  either  of  blood  or  anything  else,  and  also 
to  promote  good  digestion  afterward,  medicines  are  given  when  the  train- 
ing is  commenced.  They  begin  with  an  emetic,  and  in  about  two  days 
afterward  give  a  dose  of  Glauber's  salts,  from  one  to  two  ounces;  and, 
missing  about  two  days,  another  dose,  and  then  a  third.  It  is  supposed 
that  one  emetic  and  three  doses  of  physic  will  clear  any  man  of  all  the 
noxious  matter  he  may  have  had  in  his  stomach  and  intestines."  It  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  state  that  no  Such  heroic  measures  are  now  deemed 
advisable,  and,  if  our  present  ideas  are  correct,  considerable  harm  must 
have  frequently  resulted  from  their  employment. 

The  tendency  of  the  present  day  is  not  to  attach  so  much  importance 
to  strictness  of  diet  as  formerly,  and  perhaps  the  latitude  given  is  some- 
times beyond  what  is  desirable.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that,  to  begin 
with,  there  should  be  no  sudden  deviation  of  a  marked  nature  from  the 
accustomed  diet,  and  afterward  that  the  restriction  should  not  be  so  severe 
as  to  excite  any  repugnance.  Sudden  changes  always  incur  the  risk  of  a 
disturbance  of  health,  and,  unless  the  food  subsequently  allowed  proves 
grateful  to  the  palate,  the  dietetic  scheme  may  fail  to  secure  the  fully 
nourished  condition  that  is  needed. 

Lean  meat  has  always  entered  largely  into  the  diet  for  training,  and 
experience  shows  that  it  contributes  in  a  higher  degree  than  other  food 
to  the  development  of  strength  and  energy.  If  we  look  to  the  lower  ani- 
mals, and  compare  the  carnivora  with  the  herbivora,  we  notice  a  .striking 
contrast  in  their  muscular  vigor  and  activity.  It  has  been  ascertained 
physiologically  that  animal  food  disposes  to  the  removal  of  superfluous 
water  (vide  the  effect  in  increasing  the  flow  of  urine,  p.  318)  and  fat.  and 
makes  the  muscles  firm  and  rich  in  solid  constituents.  The  accounts  that  are 
furnished  by  travellers  point  to  the  aptitude  of  a  meat  diet  for  increasing  the 
power  of  performing  muscular  exertion.  Dr.  Livingstone  f  says:  "When 

*  The  Code  of  Health  and  Longevity,  4th  ed.,  p.  32.     1818. 
f  Livingstone's  Zambesi,  p.  272. 


PRACTICAL    DIETETICS.  341 

the  Makololo  go  on  a  fora}',  as  they  sometimes  do,  a  month  distant,  many 
of  the  subject  tribes  who  accompany  them,  being  grain-eaters,  perish  from 
sheer  fatigue,  while  the  beef-eaters  scorn  the  idea  of  ever  being  tired." 
Sir  Francis  Head,*  when  crossing  the  Pampas,  got  tired  at  first  with  the 
constant  galloping,  and  was  obliged  to  ride  in  a  carriage  after  passing  five 
or  six  hours  on  horseback;  but  after,  he  says:  "I  had  been  riding  for 
three  or  four  months,  and  had  lived  on  beef  and  water,  I  found  myself  in 
a  condition  which  I  can  only  describe  by  saying  that  I  felt  no  exertion 
could  kill  me.  .  .  .  This  will  explain  the  immense  distances  which  people 
in  South  America  are  said  to  ride,  which,"  adds  Sir  Francis  Head,  "  I  am 
confident  could  only  be  done  on  beef  and  water."  The  Guachos,  belong- 
ing to  South  America,  are  a  race  of  people  well  known  for  the  extraordi- 
nary number  of  hours  they  pass  in  active  exercise  on  horseback,  and  they 
are  observed  to  subsist  almost  entirely  on  animal  food.  It  will  thus  be 
seen  that  evidence  is  not  wanting  to  substantiate  the  position  accorded  to 
meat  in  the  trainer's  regimen. 

Roasting  and  broiling  are  considered  to  be  the  best  modes  of  cooking. 
All  are  agreed  that  the  meat  should  not  be  over-cooked,  but  some  have 
advocated  that  it  should  be  eaten  very  much  underdone.  Perhaps  in  the 
latter  state  it  possesses  higher  stimulating  properties,  but  reason  calls  fcr 
its  being  cooked  sufficiently  to  be  palatable  and  susceptible  of  mastica- 
tion. There  can  be  no  doubt  that,  by  over-cooking,  its  digestibility  and 
virtue  are  lessened. 

Beef  and  mutton  are  the  meats  to  be  preferred,  and  it  is  not  necessary 
that  all  the  fat  should  be  excluded.  Stale  bread  or  dry  toast,  potatoes, 
and  some  kind  of  green  vegetable  in  moderation,  are  the  appropriate  arti- 
cles to  be  taken  in  conjunction.  Water-cresses  are  considered  good.  Pas- 
try, flour-pudding,  sweets,  and  made  dishes,  should  find  no  place  in  the 
dietary  of  the  man  in  training.  The  farinaceous  articles,  as  rice,  sago, 
etc.,  are  allowable,  but  should  only  be  taken  to  a  moderate  extent.  To 
avoid  too  great  sameness  is  an  important  point,  especially  with  those  who 
have  been  previously  accustomed  to  a  liberal  diet;  at  the  same  time  it  is 
not  desirable  that  the  person  should  be  tempted  to  eat  to  satiety.  A  full 
stomach,  as  is  well  known,  disposes  to  inactivity.  Condiments,  as  pickles, 
sauces,  etc.,  are  objectionable,  on  account  of  their  effect  being  to  force 
the  appetite,  which  should  be  simply  allowed  to  have  its  natural  play. 

In  former  times  it  was  the  practice  to  rigorously  restrain  the  con- 
sumption of  liquids  to  the  lowest  point  that  could  be  borne.  Sir  John 
Sinclair  f  states:  "  There  is  no  circumstance  which  seems  to  be  more  essen- 
tial in  training  up  persons  to  the  acquisition  of  athletic  strength,  than  to 
permit  them  to  take  only  a  small  quantity  of  liquid  food.  .  .  .  The 
ancient  athletce  were  allowed  but  a  very  small  quantity  of  fluid.  This 
dry  diet,  as  it  is  termed,  seems  to  have  formed  an  essential  and  important 
part  of  their  regimen."  Such  a  course  of  procedure  must  evidently  be 
wrong  in  principle.  The  exercise  undertaken  involves  an  extensive  loss 
of  fluid,  and  it  is  only  natural  that  this  should  be  replaced  in  proportion 
as  thirst  indicates  its  requirement.  In  proof  of  the  actual  amount  of  loss 
occurring  during  active  exercise,  Maclaren  J  says;  "  In  one  hour's  ener- 
getic fencing,  I  found  the  loss  by  perspiration  and  respiration,  taking  the 
average  of  six  consecutive  days,  to  be  about  3  Ibs.,  or,  accurately,  40  oz., 
with  a  varying  range  of  8  oz."  The  sensation  of  thirst  may  be  taken  as  af- 

*  Journeys  Across  the  Pampas,  p.  51.     1828.  f  Op.  cit. ,  p.  83. 

\  Training  in  Theory  and  Practice,  by  A.  Maclaren,  p.  89.     1866. 


342  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD   AND    DIETETICS. 

fording  a  correct  guide  upon  the  point  of  the  amount  of  liquid  to  be  con- 
sumed, but  instead  of  drinking  freely  at  a  draught  to  satiety,  the  liquid 
should  be  sipped  in  small  quantities,  to  give  time  for  absorption,  and  thus 
satisfy  thirst,  without  incurring  the  risk  of  introducing  a  surplus  amount 
into  the  stomach.  In  this  way  the  error  is  not  likely  to  be  committed  of 
drinking  too  much.  The  liquids  consumed  must  be  of  a  simple  and  un- 
exciting nature,  Beer  and  the  light  wines  are  allowable,  but  spirits 
should  be  scrupulously  avoided.  Tea,  coffee,  and  cocoa  may  be  taken 
according  to  inclination,  and,  as  a  simple  diluent,  nothing  is  better  than 
toast  and  water,  or  barley  water. 

The  proper  number  of  meals  to  be  taken  during  the  day  consists  of 
three — viz.,  one  about  9  A.M.,  the  second  between  1  and  2  P.M.,  and  the 
third  in  the  early  part  of  the  evening. 

It  has  been  mentioned  that,  at  the  commencement  of  training,  instead 
of  plunging  suddenly  into  a  severe  system  of  diet  and  exercise,  a  gradual 
advance  should  be  made.  The  same  equally  applies  to  thfe  cessation  of 
training,  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  seeds  of  more  or  less 
serious  mischief  are  often  sown  by  the  sudden  retreat  that  is  customarily 
made  from  the  life  of  discipline  that  has  been  practised. 

Subjoined  are  the  training  tactics  employed  for  rowing  at  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  according  to  the  tables  contained  in  the  appendix  to  the 
work  of  Maclaren  already  referred  to. 


THE  OXFORD  SYSTEM. 

A  day's  training  for  the  summer  races. — Rise  about  7  A.M.  A 
short  walk  or  run.  Breakfast  at  8.30  of  meat  (beef  or  mutton,  under- 
done), bread  (the  crust  only  recommended),  or  dry  toast,  and  tea  (as  lit- 
tle as  possible  recommended).  Dinner  at  2  P.M.,  of  meat  (much  the  same 
as  for  breakfast),  bread,  and  no  vegetables  (a  rule,  however,  not  always 
adhered  to),  with  one  pint  of  beer.  About  5  P.M.  a  row  twice  over  the 
course  on  the  river,  the  speed  being  increased  with  the  strength  of  the 
crew.  Supper  at  8.30  or  9,  of  cold  meat  and  bread,  with  perhaps  jelly 
or  water-cresses,  and  one  pint  of  beer.  Retire  to  bed  about  10. 

A.  day's  training  for  the  winter  races. — Rise  about  7.30  A.M.  A 
short  walk  or  run.  Breakfast  at  9,  as  for  the  summer  races.  Luncheon 
about  1,  of  bread  or  a  sandwich,  and  half  a  pint  of  beer.  About  2  a  row 
twice  over  the  course.  Dinner  at  5,  of  meat,  as  for  the  summer  races; 
bread;  vegetables,  the  same  rule  as  for  the  summer  faces;  pudding  (rice) 
or  jelly,  and  half  a  pint  of  beer. 

It  is  particularly  impressed  on  men  in  training  that  as  little  liquid  as 
possible  is  to  be  drunk,  water  being  strictly  forbidden. 


THE  CAMBRIDGE  SYSTEM. 

A  day's  training  for  the  summer  races. — Rise  at  7  A.M.  A  run  of 
100  or  200  yards  as  fast  as  possible.  Breakfast  at  8.30  of  meat — beef  or 
mutton — underdone;  dry  toast;  tea — two  cups,  or  toward  the  end  of 
training  a  cup  and  a  half  only;  and  water-cresses  occasionally.  Dinner 
about  2  of  meat — beef  or  mutton;  bread;  vegetables — potatoes,  greens; 
and  one  pint  of  beer.  (Some  colleges  have  baked  apples,  or  jellies,  or 


PRACTICAL    DIETETICS.  343 

rice  puddings).  Dessert — oranges,  or  biscuits,  or  figs,  with  two  glasses 
of  wirie.  About  5.30  a  row  to  the  starting-post  and  back.  Supper 
about  8.30  or  9  of  cold  meat;  bread;  vegetables — lettuce  or  watercresses, 
and  one  pint  of  beer.  Retire  to  bed  at  10. 

A  day's  training  for  the  winter  races. — Rise  about  7  A.M.  Exercise 
as  for  the  summer  races.  Breakfast  at  8.30,  as  for  the  summer  races. 
Luncheon  about  1  of  a  little  cold  meat,  bread,  and  half  a  pint  of  beer;  or 
biscuit  with  a  glass  of  sherry — perhaps  the  yolk  of  an  egg  in  the  sherry. 
At  2  a  row  over  the  course  and  back!  Dinner  about  5  or  6,  as  for  sum- 
mer races.  Retire  to  bed  about  10. 


THERAPEUTIC  DIETETICS. 


HOLDING  the  position  that  food  does  in  relation  to  the  operations  of 
life,  the  art  of  dietetics  not  only  bears  on  the  maintenance  of  health,  but 
is  capable  of  being  turned  to  advantageous  account  in  the  treatment  of 
disease. 

Under  natural  circumstances,  instinct  guides  us  in  the  selection  and 
consumption  of  food  and  drink.  Whilst  keeping  to  simple  articles  of  diet, 
it  may  be  left  to  the  sensations  of  hunger  and  thirst  to  regulate  the 
amount  of  solids  and  liquids  taken.  In  many  disordered  conditions, 
however,  there  is  such  a  perverted  state  existing  that  the  promptings  of 
nature  fail  to  be  evoked,  and  it  devolves  upon  reason  to  assume  the 
initiative  and  dictate  the  supply  to  be  furnished.  Under  these  circum- 
stances the  nature  and  amount  of  food  administered  will  often  exert  a 
most  potent  influence  for  good  or  evil,  and  the  art  of  dietetics  thus  comes 
into  great  importance.  Skill  and  attention  are  called  into  requisition — 
indeed,  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  success  in  the  treatment  of  disease 
is  largely  dependent  upon  a  display  of  judicious  management  with  re- 
gard to  food. 

It  frequently  happens  that  the  difficulty  encountered  in  the  sick-room 
is  to  get  what  may  be  considered  a  proper  amount  of  food  taken.  The 
inclination  to  eat  depends  upon  the  state  both  of  the  body  and  the  mind. 
The  food  must  be  rendered  pleasing  to  the  eye  and  agreeable  to  the 
palate;  and  in  order  to  rouse  and  keep  in  action  a  flagging  appetite,  a 
suitable  variety  in  what  is  provided  must  be  secured.  Herein  lies  a  great 
point  in  catering  for  sick  people,  and  but  too  often  the  error  is  com- 
mitted of  allowing  an  excess  of  sameness  to  prevail. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  demand  for  food  is  dependent  upon 
its  proper  application,  and  failure  of  the  appetite  is  often  due  to  the  de- 
fective manner  in  which  nutrition  is  performed.  It  is  not  what  we  eat, 
but  what  we  digest,  assimilate,  and  apply,  that  concerns  us  as  regards 
nutrition.  Food  introduced  into  the  stomach,  but  not  digested,  assimi- 
lated, and  employed,  is  calculated  to  prove  a  source  of  irritation  and  to 
do  harm.  It  is  not,  therefore,  to  be  thought  that  because  it  is  got  down 
it  must  needs  prove  of  service.  Judicious  persuasion  should  be  exer- 
cised, but  I  believe  that  much  needless  worry  is  often  inflicted  by  the  in- 
cessant solicitation,  however  well  meant,  that  is  frequently  made  by  those 
around  a  patient  to  get  food  taken.  The  disinclination,  indeed,  for  tak- 
ing food  is  sometimes  such  that  the  thought  of  it  is  sufficient  to  excite  a 
feeling  of  repulsion,  which,  more  powerful  over  the  muscles  concerned 
than  the  will,  overcomes  any  effort  that  may  be  made  to  swallow  it. 

The  quantity  of  food  administered  at  a  time  should  be  in  proportion 
to  the  power  of  digesting  it,  and  to  properly  compensate  for  a  diminished 
quantity  there  should  be  a  corresponding  increase  in  the  frequency  of  ad- 


THERAPEUTIC    DIETETICS.  345 

ministration.  "  Little  and  often  "  is  the  maxim  upon  many  occasions  to 
be  followed,  and  much  will  sometimes  depend  upon  the  strictness  with 
which  it  is  carried  out;  for,  apart  from  complying  with  what  is  wanted 
upon  the  principle  that  has  been  just  referred  to,  it  meets  the  defective 
aptitude  that  exists  in  sickness  for  sustaining  any  lengthened  duration  of 
absence  of  food. 

As  a  natural  result  of  the  administration  of  food  at  short  intervals,  no 
appetite  is  at  any  time  experienced,  even  although  the  circumstances  may 
be  such  as  would  otherwise  allow  it  to  become  developed.  The  fact  must 
not  be  lost  sight  of,  that  fche  return  of  a  feeling  of  desire  for  food  may  be 
kept  back  in  this  way;  and  the  expediency  must  always  be  held  in  view 
of  conforming  as  soon  and  as  far  as  is  allowable  with  what  is  natural. 
Under  all  circumstances,  it  may  be  said,  the  rule  should  be  to  follow, 
alike  as  to  quality,  quantity,  and  periods  of  taking  food,  as  closely  as 
the  conditions  to  be  dealt  with  will  permit,  the  course  that  is  natural  in 
health. 

It  devolves  upon  the  physician,  in  the  dietetic  management  of  his  case, 
to  point  out  the  suitable  kinds  and  quantities  of  food  to  be  taken,  but  it 
depends  upon  the  system  of  his  patient  whether  his  recommendation  can 
be  carried  out.  It  is  no  good  to  lay  down  and  attempt  to  enforce,  as 
may  be  done  in  health,  rigid  dietetic  regulations,  founded  upon  the  number 
of  grains  of  carbon  and  nitrogen  required  for  carrying  on  the  operations 
of  life.  The  difficulty  with  which  the  practitioner  is  more  often  than  not 
assailed  is  as  to  what  can,  and  not  as  to  what  should,  be  taken. 

As  the  principles  of  dietetics  have  become  better  understood,  we  do 
not  hear  of  those  disastrous  consequences  of  improper  dieting,  affecting 
large  numbers  of  people,  that  were  formerly  from  time  to  time  recorded. 
There  is  still,  however,  a  large  amount  of  scattered  evil  to  be  met  with, 
in  many  instances  directly  dependent  on  the  food  that  is  taken,  and  in 
others,  if  not  directly  occasioned  by  the  food,  at  all  events  removable  by 
an  altered  system  of  dieting.  It  may  happen  that  this  evil  arises  out  of 
poverty  or  ignorance,  but  more  frequently  it  is  the  fruits  of  indiscretion. 
Much  of  the  deranged  health  which  the  physician  is  called  upon  to.  treat, 
stands  as  the  offspring  of  some  kind  of  error  in  eating  or  drinking,  and 
his  first  concern  should  be  to  find  out  what  is  wrong,  in  order  that  he  may 
know  how  to  shape  his  advide  advantageously. 

In  speaking  of  the  appropriate  diets  to  be  employed  in  various  morbid 
conditions,  attention  will  require  to  be  directed  to  the  particular  diatheses 
or  states  of  the  body  which  different  kinds  of  food  tend  to  induce,  for  it 
may  be  considered  that  the  information  thus  supplied  often  directs  us  to 
a  rational  mode  of  procedure  in  therapeutic  dietetics. 

It  may  be  premised,  to  start  with,  that  our  natural  diet  consists  of  an 
admixture  of  animal  and  vegetable  food;  that  different  combinations  of 
alimentary  principles  are  best  suited  for  particular  modes  of  life;  and  that, 
if  the  combination  supplied  be  wrongly  adjusted,  a  tendency  to  the  de- 
velopment of  an  unhealthy  state  will  exist. 

The  effect  of  a  highly  nitrogenized  diet — and  it  is  animal  food  which 
is  characterized  by  richness  in  nitrogenous  matter— is  to  throw  upon  the 
system  a  large  amount  of  eliminative  work.  The  nitrogenous  matter  in 
excess  of  that  which  is  directly  applied  to  the  growth  and  renovation  of 
the  structures  of  the  body  undergoes  a  process  of  retrograde  metamor- 
phosis, and  is  resolved  in  part  into  certain  useless  nitrogenous  products 
which  have  to  be  cast  out  by  the  agency  of  the  glandular  organs  with 
which  we  are  provided.  Now,  as  long  as  free  exercise  is  taken  and  the 


346  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

circulation  is  kept  in  an  active  state,  favorable  circumstances  exist  for 
the  absorption  of  oxygen  and  the  proper  occurrence  of  metamorphosis 
and  elimination.  Thus  circumstanced,  a  diet  into  which  animal  food  en- 
ters largely — a  diet  that  is  rich  in  nitrogenous  matter— -is  borne  with 
ease,  and  indeed  may  be  said  to  conduce  to  increase  tissue-formation  and 
the  development  of  a  high  state  of  bodily  health  and  strength.  Conjoined 
with  sedentary  habits,  however,  a  different  result  is  observed.  The  slug- 
gish circulation  which  such  habits  tend  to  occasion  naturally  entails  de* 
fective  oxygenation.  This,  in  its  turn,  leads  to  imperfect  metamorphosis, 
and  the  two  together  conspire  to  induce  deficient  eliminative  action.  Thu& 
the  system  becomes  more  or  less  clogged  with  effete  products,  which  act 
perniciously  in  various  ways  upon  the  body.  For  instance,  there  is  reason 
to  believe  that  they  may  sometimes  in  a  direct  manner  constitute  the 
source  of  gouty  deposits  in  the  joints.  They  undoubtedly  give  rise  to 
the  presence  of  a  preternatural  amount  of  solid  matter  in  the  urine,  mani- 
festing a  proneness  to  become  deposited  under  the  form  of  sand,  gravel, 
or  stone.  They  likewise  disturb  the  action  of  the  liver,  producing  a  dis- 
position to  the  occurrence  of  bilious  derangement.  Besides  these  effects, 
evidence  is  not  wanting  to  show  that  through  their  influence  the  other 
functions  of  life  are  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  interfered  with.  To  ob- 
viate, therefore,  the  production  of  these  disordered  actions,  those  who  lead 
an  inactive  life  should  not  allow  their  diet  to  contain  a  preponderance  of 
nitrogenous  food — that  is,  they  should  abstain  from  partaking  largely  of 
animal  products. 

Gout  has  been  enumerated  above  amongst  the  evils  that  may  arise 
from  the  consumption  of  a  highly  nitrogenized  diet,  and  the  present  op- 
portunity may  be  taken  for  referring  to  the  appropriate  dietetic  course 
to  be  pursued  by  those  who  are  suffering  from,  and  those  who  desire  to 
avert  the  invasion  of,  the  disorder.  Cullen  remarked  that  gout  seldom 
attacks  persons  employed  in  constant  bodily  labor,  or  those  who  live 
principally  upon  vegetable  diet,  and  general  observation  confirms  the 
truth  of  this  statement.  If  not  completely  proved,  it  is  nevertheless 
highly  probable,  that  gout  is  the  offspring  of  an  undue  accumulation  of 
imperfectly  metamorphosed  nitrogenous  products  within  the  body,  and 
that  either  an  excess  of  nitrogenous  matter  in  the  food,  a  deficiency  on 
the  part  of  the  metamorphosing  capacity  of  the  system  (such  as  may  be 
produced  by  an  inactive  life),  or  the  ingestion  of  certain  alcoholic  drinks 
which  appear  to  contain  extractive  matter  prone  to  undergo  imperfect 
metamorphosis  (vide  p.  240),  and  perhaps  to  impede  the  metamorphosis 
of  other  substances,  may  be  the  source  of  this  condition.  Whether  or  not 
the  above  reasoning  is  correct,  it  is  known  as  the  result  of  experience 
that  a  highly  animalized  diet,  sedentary  habits,  and  indulgence  in  the 
use  of  the  richer  varieties  of  wine  and  beer,  individually  and  conjointly 
tend  to  encourage  the  development  of  gout.  It  has  been  previously  stated 
that  a  diet  rich  in  animal  food  may  be  consumed  with  advantage  where 
much  muscular  work  is  performed.  It  seems,  under  these  circumstances, 
to  be  both  promotive  of  health  and  bodily  vigor.  Not  so,  however,  where 
sedentary  habits  prevail,  and  particularly  is  this  the  case  where  a  gouty 
disposition  exists.  With  those  who  have  already  experienced  symptoms 
of  gout,  and  those  also  who  have  grounds  for  apprehending  its  invasion,  it 
is  important  that  an  excess  of  nitrogenous  food  should  be  avoided.  The 
diet  should  be  simple,  in  order  that  the  temptation  may  be  avoided  of 
eating  too  much,  and  should  at  the  same  time  be  adjusted  to  the  mode  of 
life,  the  principle  to  observe  being,  that  the  higher  the  degree  of  inactiv- 


THERAPEUTIC    DIETETICS.  347 

ity  the  greater  ought  to  be  the  preponderance  of  food  derived  from  the 
vegetable  kingdom. 

Even  of  more  importance  than  what  is  eaten  is  what  is  drunk,  where 
the  Question  of  gout  is  concerned,  and  observation  shows  that  it  is  not 
distilled  spirits,  but  the  stronger  wines  and  malt  liquors  which  favor  the 
production  of  the  disorder.  Nothing  is  more  potent  than  port  wine  in 
leading  to  the  production  of  gout,  and  a  few  years'  liberal  indulgence  in 
it  has  often  been  known  to  be  instrumental  in  bringing  it  on  where  no 
family  predisposition  had  existed.  Dry  sherry  and  the  light  wines,  as 
claret,  burgundy,  hock,  champagne,  etc.,  may  be  drunk,  certainly  in  mod- 
eration, with  comparatively  little  or  no  fear  of  inducing  the  disease,  al- 
though any  kind  of  wine  appears  capable  of  sometimes  acting  as  the 
exciting  cause  of  a  paroxysm  where  the  gouty  disposition  is  already  estab- 
lished. Stout,  porter,  and  the  stronger  ales,  especially  those  which  have 
become  hard  from  age,  rank  next  to  port  wine  in  their  power  of  predisposing 
to  gout.  As  regards  the  light  bitter  beers,  which  are  so  extensively  used 
at  the  present  time,  the  same  must  be  said  of  them  as  of  the  light  wines — 
viz.,  that  with  little,  if  any,  disposition  to  induoe  the  disease,  they  never- 
theless appear  capable  of  sometimes  exciting  its  manifestation  in  a  gouty 
subject.  A  pure  spirit,  as  whiskey,  hollands,  or  brandy,  diluted  with 
water,  often  forms  the  only  kind  of  alcoholic  drink  that  is  found  to  agree 
with  those  who  are  sufferrng  from  gout. 

The  effect  of  a  deficiency  of  nitrogenous  matter  is  to  tell  prejudicially 
upon  nutrition  and  vigor.  Forming,  as  it  does,  the  essential  basis  of  liv- 
ing structures,  a  definite  quantity  is  indispensable  for  the  proper  develop- 
ment and  maintenance  of  the  body.  However  freely  the  other  elements 
of  food  may  be  supplied,  an  ill-nourished  and  feeble  condition,  such  as 
was  formerly  noticeable  amongst  the  potato-eating  Irish,  must  necessarily 
follow  a  scanty  allowance  of  nitrogenous  matter.  As  the  instrument  of 
living  action,  power  will  be  proportionate,  other  circumstances  being 
equal,  to  the  amount  of  nitrogenous  matter  existing  in  operation. 

Fatty  matter  occupies  a  position  of  considerable  importance  as  an  ali- 
mentary agent.  Apart  from  its  high  capacity  as  a  force-producing  agent, 
its  presence  seems  to  be  essential  to  tissue-formation,  and,  rightly  or 
wrongly,  the  belief  is  entertained  that  the  existence  of  a  deficiency  for 
application  in  this  way  furnishes  a  source  of  diseased  action  in  the  direc- 
tion of  scrofula  and  tubercle.  Experience  shows  the  beneficial  effect  that 
is  often  derivable  from  the  administration  of  cod-liver  oil  in  the  scrofulous 
and  tubercular  diatheses.  Now,  it  is  probably  to  the  increased  systematic 
employment  of  fatty  matter  that  this  effect  is  to  a  large  extent  due,  and 
it  is  only  reasonable  to  infer  that  a  measure  which  proves  of  efficacy  in 
removing  an  unhealthy  condition  would  also  tend  to  prevent  its  develop- 
ment. 

Taken  in  excess,  fatty  matter  is  apt  to  derange  the  alimentary  canal. 
It  is  always  more  or  less  trying  to  the  stomach,  and  particularly  so  when 
it  has  undergone  change  from  keeping  or  from  prolonged  exposure  to 
heat.  Entering  the  bowels  beyond  the  capacity  that  exists  for  effecting 
its  digestion  and  absorption,  it  is  liable  to  set  up  diarrhoea. 

Starchy  and  saccharine  matters  form  advantageous  constituents  of 
our  food,  and  serve  to  take  the  place  that  would  otherwise  require  to  be 
filled  by  any  extra  amount  of  fat.  Consumed  in  moderate  amount  they 
are  utilized  by  application  to  the  operations  of  life;  but  taken  to  a  large 
extent,  and  in  association  with  a  proper  proportion  of  albuminous  and 
fatty  matter,  they  lead  to  an  advancing  deposit  of  fat,  which  may  proceed 


348  A  TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND   DIETETICS. 

to  such  a  point  as  to  prove  a  source  of  serious  evil.  They  possess  the 
convenient  quality  of  taxing  lightly  the  digestive  organs,  and  thereby 
usefully  contribute  to  afford  appropriate  food  for  sick  and  delicate  per- 
sons. Used  in  excess  and  too  exclusively,  however,  they  are  liable  to  give 
rise  to  acidity  of  stomach  and  flatulence. 

The  present  may  be  looked  upon  as  forming  the  most  fitting  oppor- 
tunity for  referring  to  the  kind  of  food  best  suited  for  increasing  and  di- 
minishing stoutness.  The  condition  of  the  body  is  to  a  large  extent 
dependent  on  the  quality  and  quantity  of  food  consumed.  It  is  not, 
however,  wholly  the  question  of  food  that  is  concerned,  but  also  the  tem- 
perament or  nervous  organization  belonging  to  the  individual.  It  is  well 
known  that,  whatever  and  however  much  some  people  may  eat,  they  al- 
ways remain  thin,  whilst  others  grow  stout  although  eating  comparatively 
little.  The  same  holds  good  in  the  case  of  the  lower  animals,  and  fat- 
teners  of  animals  for  the  table  are  practically  made  aware  that  a  restless 
disposition  is  unfavorable  to  successful  fattening.  "  A  restless  pig," 
states  Liebig,*  upon  the  strength  of  practical  information  furnished  to 
him,  "  is  not  adapted  for  fattening,  and,  however  great  the  supply  of 
food,  it  will  not  grow  fat.  Pigs  which  are  fit  for  fattening  must  be  of  a 
quiet  nature;  after  eating  they  must  sleep,  and  after  sleeping  must  be 
ready  to  eat  again." 

From  what  is  contained  in  the  foregoing  pages,  we  learn  that  the  in- 
crease of  muscle  is  most  promoted  by  a  diet  which  is  rich  in  nitrogenous 
matter  conjoined  with  exercise.  It  is  simply,  however,  a  growth  of  mus- 
cular tissue  which  occurs  under  these  conditions.  The  fat  undergoes  no 
increase.  Indeed,  the  effect  of  such  a  regimen  is  to  lead  to  a  reduction 
of  fat  if  a  superfluity  has  existed  at  the  commencement.  These  are  facts 
which  have  long  been  known^  and  are  constantly  being  attested  by  the 
results  obtained  by  training.  It  has  been  equally  well  known  that  the 
conditions  most  conducive  to  the  accumulation  of  fat  are  a  diet  which  is 
rich  in  either  fat  or  carbohydrates  (provided  the  requisite  amount  of 
nitrogenous  matter  be  present  for  affording  what  is  wanted  for  the  opera- 
tions of  life),  exposure  to  a  warm  atmosphere,  and  inactive  habits.  The 
food  used  for  the  fattening  of  domestic  animals  by  those  who  have  ac- 
quired the  knowledge  by  experience  of  what  is  best,  is  of  the  nature  de- 
scribed. The  efficacy  of  sugar  in  promoting  fatness  is  displayed  by  the 
change  th«..t  occurs  in  the  condition  of  the  negro  during  the  sugar-making 
season  in  the  West  Indies.  The  ordinary  food  of  these  people,  I  was  in- 
formed by  a  plantation  proprietor  belonging  to  Barbadoes,  consists  of 
Indian  corn-meal,  rice,  butter,  and  salt,  with,  during  a  portion  of  the  year, 
the  sweet  potato,  which  is  grown  as  a  succession-crop  to  the  sugar-cane. 
I  learnt  from  the  same  source,  in  confirmation  of  what  has  been  mentioned 
by  others,  that  during  the  season  for  gathering  the  sugar-cane,  which  ex- 
tends through  March,  April,  and  May,  the  work-people  are  noticed  to  grow 
conspicuously  stouter,  and  that  this  change  is  attributed  (and  doubtless 
correctly  so)  to  their  habit  of  constantly  chewing  pieces  of  the  succulent 
cane  whilst  they  are  working  amongst  it. 

That  a  supply  of  fat  should  tend  to  augment  the  accumulation  of  fat  in 
the  body  is  simple  and  intelligible  enough.  Digestion,  absorption,  and  ac- 
cumulation when  in  excess  of  the  immediate  requirements  of  the  body,  fol- 
low its  ingestion  as  natural  sequences.  With  the  carbohydrates,  however, 
an  elaborating  process  has  to  be  carried  out — they  necessarily  require,  in 

*  Animal  Chemistry,  2d  ed,,  p.  312. 


THERAPEUTIC    DIETETICS.  349 

the  first  place,  to  become  converted  by  assimilative  action  into  fat  before 
they  can  lead  to  the  accumulation  of  this  principle.  Although  the  point 
was  at  one  time  disputed,  precise  experimental  evidence  is  now  adducible 
(vide  p.  76  et  seq.}  showing  that  this  assimilative  power  is  enjoyed  by  the 
animal  system,  and  common  observation  affords  confirmatory  testimony. 
For  the  conversion  to  take  plaee,  the  food  must  contain  a  due  proportion  of 
nitrogenous  matter.  Without  this  nutrition  suffers,  and  the  carbohydrates 
fail  to  produce  an  increase  of  fat.  The  presence  of  a  certain  proportion 
of  fatty  matter  seems  also  to  promote  the  conversion  of  the  carbohydrates 
into  fat.  I  have  found,  for  example,  in  experimenting  upon  the  subject, 
that  the  addition  of  a  moderate  amount  of  fat  to  a  fixed  daily  allowance 
of  barley-meal  and  potatoes,  which  had  previously  maintained  a  dog  with- 
out any  material  variation  in  weight,  caused  an  increase  in  weight  beyond 
the  amount  of  fat  administered.  The  food  employed,  also,  for  fattening 
the  goose  and  obtaining  the  foie  ffras,  consists  of  Indian  corn,  which  is 
characterized  amongst  farinaceous  seeds  by  the  large  proportion  of  fatty 
matter  it  contains. 

Guided,  then,  by  the  information  we  possess,  the  dietary  to  be  pre- 
scribed, where  the  aim  is  to  produce  increased  stoutness,  should  comprise 
such  articles  as  fat  meats,  butter,  cream,  milk,  cocoa,  chocolate,  bread, 
potatoes,  peas,  parsnips,  carrots,  beet-root,  farinaceous  and  flour  pud- 
dings, pastry,  almond  puddings  and  biscuits,  custard,  frumenty,  oatmeal 
porridge,  sugar  and  sweets,  sweet  wines,  porter,  stout,  sweet  ales,  and 
liqueurs.  Women  in  the  Bey's  seraglio  at  Tripoli  we  are  told  (Mrs. 
Walker's  "  Female  Beauty  ")  "  are  fattened  against  a  certain  day  by  means 
of  repose  and  baths,  assisted  by  a  diet  of  Turkish  flour  mixed  with  honey." 

For  reducing  stoutness,  just  the  converse  mode  of  dieting  is  naturally 
dictated;  and  that  there  is  nothing  new  in  applying  dietetics  to  this  pur- 
pose is  shown  by  the  subjoined  extract  from  the  writings  of  Sir  John  Sin- 
clair. Amongst  the  remedies  for  corpulency,  the  following  dietary  rules 
are  given:  "  Liquid  food — Acid  wines,  like  hock,  ought  to  be  preferred 
to  sweet  wines,  and  cider  to  malt  liquors;  for  when  the  former  is  the 
usual  beverage  the  people  are  leaner  than  when  the  latter  is  usually 
drunk.  Plain  water,  or  mixed  with  a  small  proportion  of  the  best  vine- 
gar, may  be  taken.  Vinegar  is  better  than  the  juice  of  lemons,  having 
passed  through  the  process  of  fermentation.  Tea  and  coffee  should 
be  taken  by  corpulent  people  without  cream.  Solid  food — The  bread 
should  have  the  bran  in  it,  so  as  to  be  more  digestible.  Vegetable 
diet  to  be  preferred;  hard  dumplings  excellent.  If  any  animal  food  is 
taken,  let  it  be  fish  or  lean  and  dry  meat.  No  eggs  or  butter,  and  the 
less  sugar  the  better."  *  We  cannot  now,  it  is  true,  subscribe  in  their  en- 
tirety to  the  recommendations  here  furnished,  for,  in  some  respects,  owing 
to  the  imperfect  knowledge  of  physiology  which  prevailed  in  Sir  John 
Sinclair's  time,  they  stand  at  variance  with  the  precepts  founded  on  tho 
teachings  of  modern  science. 

A  few  years  ago  a  great  stir  was  made  about  the  treatment  of  corpu- 
lency by  the  publicity  given  by  Mr.  Banting  to  his  own  case,  in  which, 
after  unsuccessfully  trying  other  means,  he  reduced  himself  from  cumber- 
some to  comely  dimensions  by  dietetic  measures.  His  original  dietary 
table,  Mr.  Banting  tells  us,  consisted  of  "  bread  and  milk  for  breakfast, 
or  a  pint  of  tea  with  plenty  of  milk,  sugar,  and  buttered  toast;  meat,  beer, 
much  bread,  and  pastry  for  dinner;  the  meal  of  tea  similar  to  that  of 

*  The  Code  of  Health  and  Longevity,  4th  ed.,  p.  530.     1818. 


350  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

breakfast;  and  generally  a  fruit  tart  or  bread  and  milk  for  supper."  For 
this  he  substituted — ^Breakfast  at  9  A.M.:  five  or  six  ounces  of  either  beef, 
mutton,  kidneys,  broiled  fish,  bacon,  or  cold  meat  of  any  kind  except  pork 
or  veal;  a  large  cup  of  tea  or  coffee  (without  milk  or  sugar),  a  little  biscuit 
or  one  ounce  of  dry  toast:  making  together  six  ounces  of  solids  and  nine 
of  liquids.  Dinner  at  2  P.M.:  five  or  six  ounces  of  any  fish  except  sal- 
mon, herrings,  or  eels;  any  meat  except  pork  or  veal;  any  vegetable  ex- 
cept potato,  parsnip,  beet-root,  turnip,  or  carrot;  one  ounce  of  dry  toast; 
fruit  out  of  a  pudding  not  sweetened;  any  kind  of  poultry  or  game,  and 
two  or  three  glasses  of  good  claret,  sherry,  or  madeira — champagne,  port, 
and  beer  forbidden:  making  together  ten  to  twelve  ounces  of  solids  and 
ten  of  liquids.  Tea,  at  6  P.M.:  two  or  three  ounces  of  cooked  fruit,  a  rusk 
or  two,  and  a  cup  of  tea  without  milk  or  sugar:  making  two  to  four  ounces 
of  solids  and  nine  of  liquids.  Supper  at  9  P.M.:  three  or  four  ounces  of 
meat  or  fish,  similar  to  dinner,  with  a  glass  or  two  of  claret  or  sherry  and 
water:  making  four  ounces  of  solids  and  seven  of  liquids. 

With  this  change  of  diet  Mr.  Banting  states  that  he  fell  in  weight 
from  14  stone  6  pounds  to  11  stone  2  pounds  in  about  a  year.  Such  is  noth- 
ing more  than,  without  the  aid  of  experience  afforded  by  his  case,  would 
have  been  physiologically  looked  for.  If  he  had  been  trying  before  the 
change  to  increase  his  corpulence  he  could  scarcely  have  selected  a  more  ap- 
propriate diet.  The  transition,  having  in  view  the  object  to  be  obtained,  and 
speaking  upon  the  strength  of  previously  acquired  physiological  know- 
ledge, was  from  an  erroneously  to  a  properly  constructed  dietary. 

No  new  principle  of  action  was  brought  to  light,  but  there  is  this  to 
be  said,  that  before  the  introduction  of  "  Bantingism  "  it  was  not  suffi- 
ciently realized  that  dietetics  might  be  turned  to  such  practical  account 
as  it  is  really  susceptible  of  for  the  reduction  of  corpulency. 

It  must  not  be  lost  sight  of  that  the  quantity  of  food  in  Mr.  Bant- 
ing's dietary  is  such  as  would  be  calculated  to  contribute  its  share  of 
influence  toward  reducing  the  weight  of  the  body;  and  it  certainly  must 
not  be  looked  upon  as  safe  to  be  indiscriminately  followed — indeed,  there 
is  reason  to  believe  that,  when  the  popular  rage  for  "  Bantingism  "  pre- 
vailed, many  persons  incurred  a  serious  impairment  of  health  by  keeping 
too  strictly  to  the  letter  of  the  recommendation  given.  The  dietary  pro- 
vides twenty -two  to  twenty-six  ounces  of  solid  food,  with  thirty-five  ounces 
of  liquids,  per  diem.  The  twenty-two  to  twenty-six  ounces  of  solid  food 
may  be  taken  as  representing  about  eleven  to  thirteen  ounces  of  water- 
free  material,  and  if  reference  be  made  to  Playfair's  dietaries  (vide  ante> 
p.  292),  it  will  be  seen  that  this  fails  to  come  up  to  what  is  classed  as 
only  a  "  subsistence  diet."  The  middle  diet  of  Guy's  Hospital,  which 
forms  the  general  diet  upon  which  the  inmates  of  the  institution  are 
placed,  and  which  experience  shows  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  furnish- 
ing much,  if  anything,  beyond  what  is  really  required  for  the  support  of 
life  under  a  quiescent  state,  furnishes  29£  ounces  of  solid  food,  and  re- 
presents IGf  ounces  of  water-free  material  (vide  p.  321).  With  these 
comparisons  the  reader  is  supplied  with  data  for  forming  his  own  judgment 
upon  the  point  in  question. 

Dr.  Parkes,  after  remarking  that  an  excess  of  albuminates  causes  a 
more  rapid  oxidation  of  fat,  says,*  "  It  is  now  generally  admitted  that  the 
success  of  Mr.  Banting's  treatment  of  obesity  is  owing  to  two  actions: 
the  increased  oxidizing  effect  of  fat  consequent  on  the  increase  of  meat 

*  On  Hygiene,  3d  ed.,  p.,  161. 


THEBAPEUTIC    DIETETICS.  351 

(especially  if  exercise  be  combined),  and  the  lessened  interference  with 
™n  oxidization  of  fat  consequent  on  the  deprivation  of  starches." 
Whether  or  not  an  increase  of  meat  produces  the  alleged  effect  of  pro- 
moting the  oxidation  of  fat,  it  is  practically  evident  that  enough  to  ac- 
count for  what  occurs  is  to  be  found  in  the"spare  allowance  of  food  and 
the  restraint  imposed  in  the  use  of  fat  and  fat-forming  principles. 

As  a  resume  for  the  guidance  of  the  corpulent,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
fat  of  meat,  butter,  cream,  sugar  and  sweets,  pastry,  puddings,  farinaceous 
articles,  as  rice,  sago,  tapioca,  etc.,  potatoes,  carrots,  parsnips,  beet-root, 
sweet  ales,  porter,  stout,  port  wine,  and  all  sweet  wines,  should  be  avoided 
or  only  very  sparingly  consumed.  The  articles  allowable,  and  they  may 
be  taken  to  the  extent  of  satisfying  a  natural  appetite,  are  lean  meat, 
poultry,  game,  eggs,  milk  (moderately),  green  vegetables,  turnips,  succu- 
lent fruits,  light  wines  (as  claret,  burgundy,  hock,  etc.),  dry  sherry,  bitter 
ale  (in  moderation),  and  spirits.  Wheaten  bread  should  be  consumed 
sparingly,  and  brown  bread  is  to  some  extent  better  than  white.  The 
gluten  biscuits  which  are  prepared  for  the  diabetic  may,  on  account  of 
their  comparative  freedom  from  starch,  be  advantageously  used  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  bread  in  the  treatment  of  obesity. 

In  diabetes  mellitus  a  morbid  condition  exists,  attended  with  a  want 
of  assimilative  power  over  the  starchy  and  saccharine  principles  of  food, 
and  in  order  to  keep  down  the  symptoms  of  the  disease,  the  dietary  re- 
quires to  be  framed  so  as  to  secure  as  far  as  practicable  an  exclusion  of 
these  principles.  The  following  is  the  dietary  plan  for  this  complaint, 
introduced  into  my  work  "On  the  Nature  and  Treatment  of  Diabetes." 


DIETARY  FOR  THE  DIABETIC. 

MAT  EAT. — Butcher's  meat  of  all  kinds,  except  liver;  ham,  bacon,  or 
other  smoked,  salted,  dried,  or  cured  meats;  poultry,  game,  shell-fish  and 
fish  of  all  kinds,  fresh,  salted,  or  cured;  animal  soups,  not  thickened,  beef- 
tea,  and  broths;  the  almond,  bran,  or  gluten  substitute  for  ordinary  bread,* 
eggs  dressed  in  any  way,  cheese,  cream-cheese,  butter,  cream,  greens, 
spinach,  turnip-tops,  f  turnips,  f  French  beans,  f  Brussels  sprouts,  f  cauli- 
flower, f  broccoli,  f  cabbage,  f  asparagus,  f  seak-ale,  f  vegetable  marrow, 
mushrooms,  water-cress,  mustard  and  cress,  cucumber,  lettuce,  endive,  rad- 
ishes, celery,  vinegar,  oil,  pickles,  jelly  (flavored,  but  not  sweetened), 
savory  jelly,  blanc-mange  (made  with  cream,  and  not  milk),  custard 
(made  without  sugar),  nuts  of  any  description  (except  chestnuts),  olives. 

MUST  AVOID  EATING. — Sugar  in  any  form,  wheaten-bread  and  ordi- 
nary biscuits  of  all  kinds,  rice,  arrow-root,  sago,  tapioca,  macaroni,  ver- 
micelli, potatoes,  carrots,  parsnips,  beet-root,  peas,  Spanish  onions,  pastry 
and  puddings  of  all  kinds,  fruits  of  all  kinds,  fresh  and  preserved. 

MAY  DRINK. — Tea,  coffee,  cocoa  from  nibs,  dry  sherry,  claret,  dry 
Sauterne,  Burgundy,  Chablis,  hock,  brandy,  and  spirits  that  have  not 
been  sweetened,  soda-water,  Burton  bitter  ale  in  moderate  quantity. 

MUST  AVOID  DRINKING. — Milk  (except  sparingly),   sweet  ales   (mild 

*  These  substitutes  may  be  obtained  at  Mr.  Blatchley's,  362  Oxford  street;  Mr. 
Van  Abbot's,  5  Prince's  street,  Cavendish  square ;  and  Mr.  Bonthron's,  106  Regent 
street. 

f  Those  marked  with  a  dagger  may  only  be  eaten  in  moderate  quantity,  and 
should  be  boiled  in  a  large  quantity  of  water. 


352  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

and  old),  porter  and  stout,  cider,  all  sweet  wines,  sparkling  wines,  port 
wine  (unless  sparingly),  liqueurs. 

Experience  has  shown  that,  for  the  proper  maintenance  of  health,  a 
certain  proportion  of  the  food  must  be  consumed  in  the  fresh  state. 
The  ill  effects  that  are  producible  by  a  too  exclusive  restriction  to  salted 
and  dried  provisions  are  now  recognized  in  their  true  light;  arid  with  the 
knowledge  that  has  been  obtained,  means  have  been  placed  at  our  com- 
mand for  averting  those  calamitous  results  due  to  scorbutic  affections, 
which  were  formerly  so  common,  particularly  amongst  the  maritime 
classes.  Without  being  able  to  give  the  precise  reason  for  what  occurs, 
it  is  evident  that  there  is  something  absent  from  dried  and  salted  food 
which  the  system  requires,  for  under  restriction  to  its  use  for  a  length- 
ened period,  a  state  of  poverty  of  the  blood  is  induced  which  leads  to  the 
various  manifestations  of  defective  nutrition  that  accompany  scurvy; 
and,  moreover,  by  the  employment  of  a  certain  amount  of  fresh  or  succu- 
lent vegetable  food,  and  even  of  vegetable  juices  (lemon-juice  and  lime- 
juice  are  specially  used  for  the  purpose),  not  only  may  the  evils  of  scurvy 
be  averted,  but  the  diseased  condition  when  established  may  be  cured. 
It  is  generally  considered  that  the  anti-scorbutic  virtue  of  the  articles 
named  is  owing  to  the  vegetable  acids  which  they  contain;  but  it  must 
be  remarked  that  the  pure  acids  cannot  be  efficaciously  used  as  a  substi- 
tute. 

A  beneficial  influence  may  be  exerted  in  certain  states  of  the  system 
by  regulating  the  amount  of  fluid  taken. 

The  supply  of  a  certain  amount  of  fluid  is  as  indispensable  as  that  of 
solid  matter  for  the  performance  of  the  operations  of  life.  One  use  of 
the  fluids  taken  is  to  furnish  the  requisite  liquid  material  for  carrying  the 
effete  products  from  the  body.  With  increased  water-drinking  there  is 
an  increased  discharge  of  urine,  and  with  it  an  increased  removal  of  solid 
matter;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  in  certain  states,  a  powerful  in- 
fluence for  good  may  be  exerted  by  putting  this  principle  of  action  into 
force.  With  those,  for  instance,  who  lead  a  sedentary  mode  of  life,  and 
are  accustomed  to  full  living,  the  effect  of  the  free  consumption  of  a 
watery  fluid  may  be  to  rid  the  system  of  impurities  which  might  other- 
wise lead  to  evils,  such  as  liver  disorder,  gout,  gravel,  etc.  Probably 
much  of  the  benefit  in  many  instances  derived  from  undergoing  the 
course  of  treatment  pursued  at  a  watering-resort  is  in  great  part  due  to 
the  eliminative  effect  of  the  water  drunk. 

The  restriction  of  fluids  is  also  sometimes  capable  of  effecting  good. 
It  constitutes  a  recognized  therapeutic  agency  that  is  occasionally  em- 
ployed in  certain  cases  under  the  denomination  of  the  "dry  treatment." 
It  has  been  recommended  for  cutting  short  a  common  head-cold,  and 
when  so  employed  must  be  put  in  force  at  the  very  commencement  of 
the  attack.  No  liquid  of  any  kind  is  to  be  drunk  until  the  disorder  is 
gone,  the  object  being  to  avoid  supplying  fluid  for  discharge  from  the  in- 
flamed mucous  membrane  of  the  nose.  The  treatment  is  affirmed  to  be 
less  distressing  to  bear  than  might  be  thought,  and  to  be  capable  of  ef- 
fecting a  cure  in  forty-eight  hours.  In  pleurisy,  with  serous  effusion, 
feeding  the  patient  upon  the  driest  possible  diet,  and  withholding  liquids 
as  far  as  practicable,  has,  in  some  cases,  proved  successful  in  leading  to 
an  absorption  of  the  fluid.  The  restriction  of  fluids  likewise  forms  a  part 
of  Mr.  Tufnell's  plan  of  treatment  of  internal  aneurisms  by  "  position  and 
diet."  The  treatment  is  specially  advocated  for  aneurisms  of  the  thoracic 


THEIJAPEUTIC   DIETETICS.  353 

and  abdominal  aorta,  which  cannot  be  otherwise  treated,  and  several  ex- 
amples of  successful  issue  have  been  placed  on  record.  The  points  aimed 
at  are  to  diminish  the  volume  of  blood  and  reduce  the  activity  of  the  cir- 
culation, so  that  coagulation  of  fibrine  within  the  sac  may  be  favored. 
Conjoined  with  a  strict  maintenance  of  rest  in  the  recumbent  position 
for  eight  or  ten  weeks,  the  daily  diet  recommended  for  use  consists  of 
two  ounces  of  white  bread  with  butter,  and  two  ounces  of  cocoa  or  milk, 
for  breakfast;  three  ounces  of  broiled  or  boiled  meat,  with  three  ounces 
of  potatoes  or  bread,  and  four  ounces  of  water  or  light  claret,  for  dinner; 
and  two  ounces  of  bread  and  butter,  with  two  ounces  of  milk  or  tea,  for 
supper;  making,  altogether,  ten  ounces  of  solid  and  eight  ounces  of  fluid 
food  in  the  twenty-four  hours. 

The  nature  of  the  food  exerts  a  marked  influence  on  the  urine,  and 
the  effect  may  be  turned  to  useful  account  therapeutically. 

Physiology  teaches  us  that  the  kidneys  perform  an  eliminative  office. 
The  water  which  they  remove  in  regulating  the  amount  of  fluid  in  the 
system  is  made  the  vehicle  for  carrying  off  solid  matter,  consisting  of 
useless  products  of  metamorphosis  of  the  food  and  effete  materials  result- 
ing from  the  disintegration  of  the  tissues,  which  poison  and  produce  death 
if  allowed  to  accumulate  in  the  blood.  As  long  as  the  kidneys  are  acting 
healthily,  these  matters  are  discharged  as  fast  as  they  are  formed,  and  no 
danger  of  their  undue  retention  within  the  body  is  incurred.  The  kid- 
neys, however,  are  liable  to  become  the  seat  of  disease  of  a  character  to 
lead  to  their  eliminative  capacity  being  interfered  with.  Bright's  disease 
is  of  this  nature,  and  one  mode  of  fatal  termination  in  this  affection  is 
by  uraemic  poisoning — in  other  words,  by  coma  attributable  to  the  imper- 
fect removal  of  urinary  products. 

Now,  the  amount  of  urinary  matter  to  be  discharged  is  largely  de- 
pendent upon  the  nature  of  the  food.  The  fats  and  carbohydrates  throw 
no  work  upon  the  kidneys.  The  products  of  their  utilization — carbonic 
acid  and  water — pass  off  through  another  channel.  The  nitrogenous  in- 
gesta,  on  the  other  hand,  as  explained  in  a  previous  section  of  this  work 
(vide  p.  42),  in  great  part  undergo  metamorphosis,  and  yield  their  nitrogen 
to  be  carried  off  in  combination  with  a  portion  of  their  other  elements, 
under  the  form  of  urinary  products.  In  this  way  the  kidneys  become 
taxed  by  the  food.  Under  an  ordinary  mixed  diet,  indeed,  the  chief  part 
of  the  solid  matter  of  the  urine  consists  of  nitrogenous  products,  and  ob- 
servation has  shown  that  it  is  to  the  nitrogenous  matter  ingested  that 
these  stand  related.  Upon  the  principle,  therefore,  of  endeavoring  to 
lighten  the  work  of  an  affected  organ,  it  is  reasonable  to  infer  that  good 
may  be  done  in  Bright's  disease  by  arranging  the  diet  so  as  not  to  lead  to 
the  introduction  of  more  nitrogenous  matter  into  the  system  than  is  abso- 
lutely needed,  and  this  may  be  effected  by  allowing  vegetable  food  to 
preponderate. 

It  must  not  be  lost  sight  of  that  the  escape  of  albumen  mighl 
brought  forward  as  affording  an  argument  in  favor  of  an  extra  amount  of 
nitrogenous  matter  being  required  in  order  to  compensate  for  the  waste 
occurring.  In  the  form  of  Bright's  disease,  however,  where  the  greatest 
impairment  of  functional  capacity  of  the  kidney  is  encountered— viz.,  in 
the  contracted  kidney— the  amount  of  albumen  escaping  is  frequently 
insignificant,  and  sometimes,  even,  there  may  be  none.  It  may  be  pre- 
sumably considered,  in  fact,  that  the  effect  of  the  mere  loss  of  albumen 
is  not  so  much  to  be  dreaded  as  the  danger  of  uraemia,  which  is  constantly 
impending,  and  which  is  the  most  likely  to  be  staved  off  for  a  time  by  the 
23 


354  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

dietetic  measures  that  are  calculated  to  lead  to  a  limited  production  of 
urinary  matter  for  discharge. 

The  reaction  of  the  urine  is  also  susceptible  of  being  influenced  by  the 
character  of  the  food,  and  this  likewise  may  be  turned  to  account  thera- 
peutically.  The  effect  of  animal  food  is  to  increase  the  acidity,  whilst 
that  of  vegetable  food  is  to  diminish  it,  and  even  to  produce  alkalinitv. 
The  urine  of  the  dog,  like  that  of  the  carnivora  generally,  is  strongly  acid, 
but  it  may  be  rendered  alkaline  by  a  diet  of  potatoes.  The  urine  of  the 
herbivora,  although  acid  during  fasting  or  during  the  intervals  of  diges- 
tion, tends  to  become  alkaline  and  to  remain  so  for  a  certain  period  after 
feeding.  The  ordinary  reaction  of  the  urine  of  man — a  mixed  feeder — is 
acid,  but  after  fruits  and  other  vegetable  articles,  partaken  of  largely,  it 
has  been  observed  to  present  an  alkaline  behavior.  Bernard  conducted 
an  observation  upon  himself  bearing  on  this  point,  and  obtained  a  strongly 
marked  attestation.  His  urine,  to  start  with,  was  examined,  and  found 
to  possess  its  ordinary  acid  character;  and,  moreover,  was  sufficiently 
loaded  with  lithates  to  throw  down  a  deposit  on  cooling.  He  began  in 
the  morning,  and  confined  himself  throughout  the  day  to  vegetables,  fruit, 
and  butter.  The  urine  remained  acid  till  night,  but  on  the  following 
morning  it  was  decidedly  alkaline,  and  no  longer  threw  down  the  lithate 
deposit  that  had  been  noticed  before.  He  partook  at  8  A.M.  of  coffee  and 
milk  and  bread,  and  at  noon  of  meat,  eggs,  cheese,  and  wine.  At  2  P.M. 
the  urine  was  still  alkaline,  but  at  4  P.M.  it  had  become  neutral,  and  at 
6  P.M.  acid,  in  which  state  it  afterward  remained,  and  again  threw  down 
the  lithate  deposit. 

Dr.  Bence  Jones  pointed  out  that  the  effect  of  the  ingestion  of  food, 
without  reference  to  any  special  kind,  is  to  diminish  for  a  time  the  acidity 
of  the  urine.  He  found,  as  the  result  of  an  examination  conducted  at 
short  intervals,  that  a  notable  falling  off  in  its  acidity  was  discoverable 
after  a  meal;  and  that  in  numbers  of  healthy  persons  it  became  neutral 
or  alkaline  for  two  or  three  hours  after  breakfast  and  dinner.  Dr.  Bence 
Jones  regarded  this  result  as  dependent  on  the  withdrawal  of  acid  from  the 
blood  into  the  stomach  for  the  purpose  of  digestion,  the  blood  being  thereby 
left  for  the  time  less  capable  of  yielding  acid  to  the  urine.  Dr.  Roberts  * 
has  discussed  the  subject,  and  refers  the  phenomenon  to  the  effect  of 
the  entrance  of  the  newly  digested  food  into  the  blood.  He  says,  "  If, 
as  is  believed,  the  normal  alkalescence  of  the  blood  is  due  to  the  prepon- 
derance of  alkaline  bases  in  all  our  ordinary  articles  of  food,  a  meal  is 
pro  tanto  a  dose  of  alkali,  and  must  necessarily,  for  a  time,  add  to  the 
alkalescence  of  the  blood;  and  as  the  kidneys  have  delegated  to  them 
the  function  of  regulating  the  reaction  of  the  blood,  the  urine  immediately 
reflects  any  undue  addition  to  or  subtraction  from  the  blood's  proper 
alkalescence."  Without  detracting  from  the  validity  of  the  explanation 
suggested  by  Dr.  Beuce  Jones — for  the  abstraction  of  acid  from  the 
blood  by  the  stomach  may  help  to  produce  the  result — Dr.  Roberts'  view 
is  in  harmony  with  the  circumstance  that  the  effect  of  food  in  the  way 
mentioned  is  most  strikingly  apparent  in  the  vegetable  feeder,  where  the 
saline  matter  ingested  has  the  greatest  capacity  for  giving  alkalescence. 
In  the  rabbit,  for  instance,  the  urine,  which  is  acid  and  clear  during  fast- 
ing, becomes,  as  an  everyday  occurrence,  opaque  and  milky  after  the  in- 
gestion of  food,  in  consequence  of  the  deposition  of  earthy  phosphates 
resulting  from  the  marked  degree  of  alkalescence  acquired. 

*  On  Urinary  and  Renal  Diseases,  2d  ed.,  p.  00. 


THERAPEUTIC   DIETETICS.  355 

From  what  has  preceded,  it  is  seen  that  an  excess  of  acidity  and  of 
solid  matter  may  be  reduced  by  means  of  a  preponderance  of  vegetable 

food  in  the  diet.  With  those  suffering  from  the  lithic  acid  diathesis 

those  in  whom  the  urine  may  throw  down  red  sand,  or  simply  be  unduly 
loaded  and  acid — a  most  beneficial  effect  may  be  produced  by  arranging 
the  diet  so  that  a  limited  allowance  only  of  animal  food  is  consumed,  and 
that  succulent  vegetables  and  fruits,  with  the  light  wines,  as  claret,  hock, 
etc.,  obtain  a  conspicuous  place.  On  the  other  hand,  where  there  is  a  ten- 
dency to  alkalinity  and  the  deposition  of  the  earthy  phosphates,  exactly 
the  opposite  course  should  be  adopted;  but  it  must  be  remarked  that  the 
same  degree  of  success  is  not  always  in  this  case  to  be  obtained;  and, 
where  the  urine  is  alkaline  from  the  presence  of  ammonia,  no  decided 
effect  must  be  looked  for. 

I  have  hitherto  been  speaking  of  the  therapeutic  application  of  die- 
tetics through  influences  exerted  upon  the  system,  and  have  shown  that 
various  morbid  conditions  are  capable  of  being  beneficially  affected  by 
appropriately  regulating  the  nature  of  the  food  consumed.  I  will  now 
pass  to  the  consideration  of  the  application  of  dietetics  to  the  treatment 
of  diseased  and  disordered  conditions  of  the  digestive  organs,  and,  here 
dealing  with  the  immediate  reciprocity  that  is  observed  to  exist,  the 
character  of  the  food  forms  an  all-important  matter  in  the  management 
of  the  case;  indeed,  it  is  not  too  much  to  say,  that  there  is  usually  more 
to  be  done  by  proper  dieting  than  by  the  agency  of  drugs;  and,  without 
some  attention  to  dietetics,  drugs  will  rarely  be  found  to  prove  efficacious 
in  affording  relief. 

It  is  as  organs  in  the  exercise  of  their  functional  capacity  that  the 
digestive  organs  are  brought  into  relation  with  food;  and  it  may  be  re- 
marked, as  a  preliminary  point  of  consideration,  that,  besides  the  abso- 
lute character  of  the  food,  there  are  conditions  of  a  collateral  nature  con- 
nected with  its  ingestion  which  exert  their  influence  for  good  or  evil,  and 
demand  attention.  In  the  first  place,  much  depends  upon  the  state  in 
which  the  food  reaches  the  stomach.  Thorough  mastication  affords  great 
assistance  to  the  performance  of  digestion,  and  derangement  of  the  di- 
gestive system  is  not  unfrequently  attributable  to  the  food  being  swal- 
lowed in  an  imperfectly  masticated  state.  The  dental  art  may  here 
prove  of  incalculable  service,  and  sometimes  it  may  be  found  advisable  to 
recommend  that  the  food  should  be  finely  minced  before  being  eaten — an 
operation  which  may  be  most  effectually  achieved  by  having  recourse  to 
the  aid  of  a  mincing  apparatus,  and  small  mincing  machines  have  been 
specially  constructed  for  the  purpose.  Taking  the  food  at  regular  periods 
also  tends  to  promote  the  orderly  working  of  the  digestive  organs,  and, 
where  derangement  has  to  be  rectified,  should  be  carefully  attended  to. 
The  amount  of  food  that  can  be  taken  at  a  time  should  form  the  guide 
for  regulating  the  frequency  of  taking  it.  The  smaller  the  amount  tole- 
rated °&t  once,  the  more  frequent  should  be  its  administration.  An  inter- 
val of  more  than  four  or  five  hours'  duration  between  the  meals  is  to  be 
avoided.  It  acts  perniciously  in  more  ways  than  one.  By  inducing  an 
exhausted  state  of  the  system,  it  diminishes  the  energy  of  the  digestive 
organs,  and,  whilst  having  this  effect,  it  at  the  same  time  calls  for  the 
exercise  of  increased  energy,  on  account  of  the  larger  amount  of  food 
which  requires  to  be  taken  at  each  meal,  as  a  compensation  for  the  dura- 
tion of  the  interval  that  has  elapsed.  It  is  with  digestion  as  with  other 
kinds  of  work :  the  effect  of  allowing  it  to  be  leisurely  accomplished,  as 
by  taking  moderate-sized  meals  at  intervals  of  moderate  duration,  instead 


356  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

of  crowding  it  into  limited  periods,  as  by  taking  larger  meals  with  inter- 
vals of  longer  duration,  is  to  render  it  more  easily  performed. 

In  giving  attention  now  to  the  kind  of  food  best  adapted  for  employ- 
ment in  different  disordered  states  of  the  alimentary  canal,  the  rational 
course  will  be  to  take  the  influence  exerted  by  the  various  groups  of  ali- 
mentary articles  as  affording  a  guiding  principle  of  action. 

The  office  of  the  stomach  is  to  dissolve  nitrogenous  matter,  and  as  an- 
imal food  is  characterized  by  a  preponderating  amount  of  such  matter,  it 
specially  taxes  the  powers  of  the  organ  in  question.  Peas,  beans,  and 
other  leguminous  seeds  are,  amongst  vegetable  articles,  the  richest  in  ni- 
trogenous matter,  and  hence,  as  common  experience  testifies,  prove  more 
trying  than  other  vegetable  products  to  gastric  digestion. 

In  febrile,  acute  inflammatory,  and  other  conditions  where  an  absence 
of  digestive  power  prevails,  it  is  not  only  useless  to  introduce  food  of  the 
nature  above  referred  to  into  the  stomach,  but  absolutely  pernicious,  as, 
from  its  remaining  undigested,  it  can  only  prove  a  source  of  irritation  and 
disturbance.  Whatever  is  given  should  be  susceptible  of  passing  on 
without  requiring  the  exercise  of  functional  activity  on  the  part  of  the 
stomach.  Hence  the  food  in  such  cases  should  be  confined  to  such  articles 
as  beef-tea,  mutton-,  veal-,  or  chicken-broth,  whey,  calf's  foot  and  other 
kinds  of  jelly,  arrow-root  and  such  like  farinaceous  articles,  barley-water, 
rice-mucilage,  gum-water,  fruit-jelly,  and  the  juice  of  fruits,  as  lemons, 
oranges,  etc.,  made  into  drinks.  Besides  its  objectionable  nature  as  con- 
cerns the  stomach,  it  may  be  presumed  that,  if  nitrogenous  food  were  di- 
gested and  absorbed,  it  would  be  calculated  afterward  to  prove  obnox- 
ious to  the  system,  on  account  of  the  products  it  gives  rise  to  creating  the 
demand  they  do  for  the  performance  of  glandular  eliminative  work. 
With  articles  of  the  carbohydrate  group,  on  the  other  hand,  no  such  glan- 
dular work  is  called  into  requisition.  Where  a  little  latitude  is  allowable, 
the  employment  of  milk,  and  of  eggs  in  a  fluid  form,  may  be  sanctioned. 
Bread-jelly,  which  is  made  by  steeping  bread  in  boiling  water  and  passing 
through  a  sieve  whilst  still  hot,  is  also  an  article  that  may  be  used  under 
similar  circumstances,  either  alone  or  boiled  with  milk.  From  this,  as 
the  circumstances  permit,  an  advance  may  be  made  to  solid  substances 
which  do  not  throw  much  work  on  the  stomach,  such  as  rice,  sago,  tapioca, 
bread  and  custard  puddings,  and  stale  bread  or  toast  sopped.  Next  may 
be  allowed  fish;  and  the  varieties  to  select  are  whiting,  sole,  flounder,  or 
plaice,  which  should  be  boiled  or  broiled,  and  not  fried.  Whiting,  of  all 
fish,  is  that  which  proves  the  lightest  to  the  stomach.  As  power  becomes 
restored,  calves'  feet,  chicken,  game,  and  butcher's  meat — mutton  to  be- 
gin with — may  be  permitted  to  follow.  The  exciting  action  of  animal 
food  upon  the  system  of  the  invalid  is  exemplified  by  its  liability  to  oc- 
casion a  relapse  in  cases  of  rheumatic  fever  when  administered  at  too  early 
a  period  in  convalescence. 

I  have  been  referring  to  the  appropriate  food  to  be  made  use  of  where 
defective  digestive  power  depends  upon  the  general  state;  but  cases  are 
frequently  presenting  themselves  where  the  source  of  defect  primarily  be- 
longs to  the  stomach,  and  equal  care  is  required. in  adapting  the  food  to 
the  amount  of  power  that  exists. 

It  may  be  advisable,  in  some  cases,  to  refrain  altogether  for  a  time 
from  introducing  any  kind  of  food  into  the  stomach,  and  here  recourse 
should  be  had  to  the  employment  of  enemata,  consisting  of  articles  fitted 
to  undergo  absorption  into  the  blood-vessels.  Amongst  these,  in  the 
foremost  rank  as  a  desirable  agent  for  use  in  such  cases,  is  a  preparation 


THERAPEUTIC   DIETETICS.  357 

that  has  been  made  at  my  suggestion  by  Messrs.  Darby  &  Gosden,  of 
140  Leadenhall  street,  London,  and  called  "  Fluid  Meat."  It  constitutes 
meat  that  has  been  reduced  to  a  fluid  state  by  artificial  digestion;  and, 
representing,  as  it  does,  a  product  of  digestion,  it  furnishes  a  material  in 
identically  the  same  favorable  state  for  absorption  as  that  which  naturally 
passes  on  from  the  stomach.  It  may  be  mixed  with  sugar  and  thickened 
with  mucilage  of  starch  or  arrow-root,  and,  if  necessary,  a  little  brandy 
may  be  added.  In  the  absence  of  this,  the  usual  agents  employed  as  nu- 
tritive enemata  are  concentrated  beef-tea,  eggs,  and  milk. 

In  cases  of  ulcer  of  the  stomach,  acute  gastric  catarrh,  and  vomiting, 
whether  from  these  or  from  some  other  cause,  the  food  must  be  selected 
from  that  which  is  nutritious,  and  which,  at  the  same  time,  taxes  least 
the  digestive  powers.  Milk — and  this  is  often  better  borne  after  being 
boiled — milk  and  lime-water,  or  milk  and  soda-water,  will  frequently  be 
found  to  be  tolerated  when  other  articles  excite  irritation  and  are  re- 
turned. Sometimes  the  milk  may  be  advantageously  mixed  with  isin- 
glass, arrow-root,  ground  rice,  or  biscuit-powder.  The  addition  of  agents 
like  the  three  last-named  articles  increases  the  consistence  and  improves 
the  alimentary  value  of  the  food.  They  at  the  same  time,  by  virtue  of 
their  presence,  lessen  the  cohesiveness  of  the  mass  which  is  formed  by  the 
process  of  curdling  which  the  milk  undergoes  on  arriving  in  the  stomach. 

Where  chronic  impairment  of  power  exists,  as  in  ordinary  dyspepsia, 
the  patient  must  be  guided  by  what  it  is  found  from  experience  will 
agree.  Whilst  avoiding  that  which  is  known  to  be  of  an  indigestible 
nature,  and  whatever,  through  idiosyncrasy,  may  happen  in  particular  in- 
stances to  upset  the  stomach,  the  maxim  of  management  should  be  to 
keep  the  diet  as  closely  to  what  is  natural  as  the  circumstances  of  the 
case  will  permit.  Frequently,  because  a  person  is  suffering  from  dyspep- 
sia, he  is  recommended  to  leave  off  this  and  that  article  of  food,  and  may, 
perhaps,  in  the  course  of  time  be  reduced  to  taking  exclusively,  or  almost 
exclusively,  liquid  nourishment.  Such  in  itself  is  sufficient  to  lower  the 
already  enfeebled  power  of  the  stomach.  The  organ,  getting  no  employ- 
ment, becomes  weaker  and  weaker,  and  is  also  prejudicially  influenced  by 
the  defectively  nourished  state  of  the  system.  The  aim  of  the  physician 
in  these  cases  should  be  rather  to  raise  by  appropriate  treatment  the  di- 
gestive capacity  to  the  level  of  digesting  light  but  ordinary  food,  than  to 
reduce  the  food  to  an  adjustment  with  a  low  standard  of  digestive  power. 
The  food  for  the  dyspeptic  cannot  be  too  simple  or  too  plainly  dressed. 
Of  meats,  mutton  is  almost  invariably  found  to  be  the  most  suitable,  and 
will  often  sit  lightly  on  the  stomach  when  even  beef  lies  heavily.  Chicken 
and  game  are  allowable,  also  white  fish  (boiled  or  broiled),  as  whiting, 
sole,  etc.  (but  not  cod).  Stale  bread  and  dry  toast,  floury  potatoes,  rice, 
and  the  various  farinaceous  articles,  form  the  kind  of  food  derived  from 
the  vegetable  kingdom  to  be  selected. 

The  fatty  constituents  of  food  pass  through  the  stomach  to  undergo 
emulsification  or  preparation  for  absorption  in  the  small  intestine.  When 
fats  are  in  a  perfectly  fresh  state,  and  are  not  taken  in  excess,  they  pass 
on  without  giving  signs  of  producing  any  effect  upon  the  stomach.  If 
taken  in  excess,  however,  they  are  apt  to  excite  nausea  and  sickness,  and 
also  subsequently,  from  their  influence  in  the  bowels,  diarrhoea.  From 
their  proneness  to  undergo  change,  and  to  give  rise  to  the  production  of 
volatile  fatty  acids,  they  are  likewise  liable,  under  certain  circumstances, 
to  excite  derangement.  When  delayed,  for  instance,  for  a  long  time  in 
the  stomach,  this  change  becomes  induced,  and  acrid  eructations,  with  a 


358  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

burning  sensation  in  the  stomach  and  throat — phenomena  constituting 
heartburn — are  apt  to  follow.  If  the  fat  has  been  exposed  to  a  strong 
heat  before  being  consumed,  it  is  already  partially  decomposed,  and  now 
with  great  facility  leads  to  the  gastric  trouble  that  has  been  referred  to. 
It  is  for  this  reason  that  anything  containing  fatty  matter  which  has  been 
baked,  as  pastry,  etc.,  and  fried  articles,  prove  obnoxious  to  the  stomach 
unless  the  digestive  power  is  strong.  Dishes  consisting  of  meats,  etc., 
cooked  a  second  time,  are  similarly  unsuited  for  the  dyspeptic,  on  account 
of  the  effect  of  the  prolonged  exposure  to  heat  that  has  occurred.  Apart 
from  exposure  to  heat,  butter,  or  any  other  fatty  article  that  has  under- 
gone change — turned  rancid,  as  it  is  termed — by  keeping,  is  also  particu- 
larly prone  to  upset  the  stomach  and  occasion  heartburn.  It  is  unneces- 
sary, therefore,  to  say,  that  fatty  matter  in  the  least  degree  rancid  should 
be  scrupulously  avoided  by  the  dyspeptic. 

As  with  fatty  matter,  the  principles  of  the  carbohydrate  group  are 
not  digested  in  the  stomach.  Similarly,  also,  they  are  liable  to  undergo 
change,  during  their  sojourn  in  the  organ,  that  may  prove  the  source  of 
discomfort.  Starchy  and  saccharine  matters,  in  certain  states  of  the 
stomach,  seem  to  be  transformed  into  lactic  acid  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
give  a  highly  preternatural  acidity  to  its  contents.  Acid  eructations  that 
may  set  the  teeth  on  edge  are  apt  to  occur;  and,  as  though  the  acid  dif- 
fused itself  along  the  mucous  tract,  a  constantly  sour  taste  is  often  expe- 
rienced in  the  mouth.  Sweet  things  are  more  likely  than  starchy  to  give 
rise  to  acidity.  Amongst  the  latter,  oatmeal  and  potatoes  seem  the  most, 
and  rice  the  least,  disposed  to  prove  obnoxious. 

A  result  not  unfrequently  arising  from  impaired  digestion  is  the  pro- 
duction of  an  inordinate  quantity  of  gas  and  its  accumulation,  so  as  to 
give  rise  to  an  inconvenient  distention  of  the  stomach  and  bowel.  Vege- 
table food,  it  is  found,  is  more  apt  to  create  flatulence  than  animal,  and 
articles  belonging  to  the  cabbage  tribe  are  particularly  to  be  regarded  as 
objectionable  by  those  who  have  a  tendency  to  this  form  of  derangement. 

Common  observation  suffices  to  show  that  the  bowels  are  susceptible 
of  being  in  a  marked  manner  influenced  by  different  kinds  of  food:  diar- 
rhoea, constipation,  flatulence,  and  colic,  constituting  the  effects  by  which 
the  influence  is  betrayed. 

In  the  healthy  state  no  particular  effect  is  observed  to  be  produced  by 
ordinary  animal  food;  but,  as  previously  stated,  the  ingestion  of  a  large 
quantity  of  fat  is  apt,  not  only  to  derange  the  stomach,  but  likewise  the 
bowels,  and  thus  to  produce  diarrhoea. 

The  tendency  of  eggs  is  well  known  to  very  decidedly  favor  costive- 
ness. 

The  alimentary  products  derived  from  the  farinaceous  seeds,  and  also 
other  dried  farinaceous  articles,  are  more  easily  borne  by  the  bowels  than 
any  other  kind  of  food.  They  pass  with  ease  through  the  whole  digestive 
tract,  but,  whilst  their  freedom  from  exciting  action  renders  their  employ- 
ment advantageous  in  irritable  states  of  the  canal,  they  fail  to  supply  the 
stimulus  that  is  needed  to  keep  the  bowels  adequately  moved  where  a 
sluggish  disposition  exists. 

Succulent  vegetable  food,  on  the  other  hand,  whether  consisting  of 
fruit  or  vegetables,  has  the  effect  of  encouraging  alvine  evacuations,  and 
thereby  of  promoting  a  free  state  of  the  intestinal  canal.  A  liberal  em- 
ployment of  food  of  this  kind  is  thus  indicated  where  a  costive  habit  pre- 
vails; and  it  is  not  unfrequently  found  that,  by  partaking  to  a  special  ex- 
tent of  fruit,  particularly  in  the  early  part  of  the  day,  persons  otherwise 


THERAPEUTIC    DIETETICS.  359 

troubled  with  constipation,  may  succeed  in  procuring  a  proper  activity  of 
the  bowels.  Carried  too  far,  an  actual  state  of  looseness  may  be  estab- 
lished; and,  from  the  excited  muscular  action  brought  about,  griping  or 
colicky  pains  may  also  be  induced.  As  an  extensive  use  of  succulent  vege- 
table food  is  indicated  in  cases  of  costiveness,  so  it  is  contraindicafed 
where  a  tendency  to  looseness  prevails.  With  some  persons  it  very  easily 
occasions  colic  and  diarrhoea;  and  it  is  well  known  how  readily,  even  with- 
out such  a  tendency,  fruit  in  an  unripe  or  overripe  state  gives  rise  to  these 
phenomena. 

The  leguminous  seeds,  peas  and  beans,  etc.,  and  the  products  derived 
from  the  cabbage  tribe,  seem  to  be  the  most  prone  of  all  alimentary  arti- 
cles to  give  rise  to  intestinal  flatulence. 

•  A  dietetic  measure  that  has  long  met  with  extensive  employment  for 
rendering  assistance  in  overcoming  habitual  constipation  is  the  use  of 
brown  instead  of  white  bread.  The  particles  of  bran  contained  in  it,  being 
of  an  indigestible  nature,  produce  a  certain  amount  of  mechanical  irrita- 
tion, which  is  often  found  to  supply  the  requisite  stimulus  to  glandular 
and  muscular  action  to  correct  the  effects  of  a  sluggish  intestine  where 
the  want  of  activity  is  not  very  great. 

In  dysentery,  and  other  forms  of  ulcerative  disease  of  the  intestine, 
scrupulous  attention  requires  to  be  paid  to  diet.  The  object  to  be  held 
in  view  is  to  keep  the  intestine  in  as  tranquil  a  state  as  practicable. 
The  food  should  consist  of  articles  which  are  known  to  exert  the  least 
stimulant  and  irritant  action  on  the  mucous  membrane  and  muscular 
fibres,  and  those  which  best  meet  the  demand  in  question  are  such  as 
milk,  isinglass,  and  the  various  farinaceous  products,  amongst  which  rice 
is  pre-eminently  valuable.  Next  to  these  come  eggs,  white  fish  (particu- 
larly whiting  and  sole),  white-fleshed  poultry,  fresh  game,  and  fresh 
meat — mutton  in  preference  to  all  other  kinds.  Salted  and  dried  meats 
are  highly  objectionable.  Their  pernicious  effect  is  quickly  felt,  and  ap- 
parently arises  from  their  difficult  digestibility  in  the  stomach,  leading  to 
an  undue  excitement  of  the  circulation  throughout  the  alimentary  canal. 
Fruits  and  succulent  vegetables,  with  the  exception  of  a  floury  potato, 
which  is  often  easily  borne,  should  be  strictly  shunned. 


DIETETIC   PREPARATIONS  FOR  THE  INVALID. 

PANADA. — Take  the  white  part  of  the  breast  and  wings,  freed  from 
skin,  of  either  roasted  or  boiled  chicken;  or  the  under  side  of  cold  sirloin 
of  roasted  beef;  or  cold  roasted  leg  of  mutton,  and  pound  in  a  mortar 
with  an  equal  quantity  of  stale  bread.  Add  either  the  water  in  which  the 
chicken  has  been  boiled,  or  beef-tea,  until  the  whole  forms  a  fluid  paste, 
and  then  boil  for  ten  minutes,  stirring  all  the  time. 

BEEF-TEA. — Mince  finely  one  pound  of  lean  beef  and  pour  upon  it,  in- 
a  preserve-jar  or  other  suitable  vessel,  one  pint  of  cold  water.  Stir,  and 
allow  the  two  to  stand  for  about  an  hour,  that  the  goodness  of  the  meat 
may  be  dissolved  out.  Next,  stand  the  preserve-jar  or  other  vessel  in  a 
saucepan  of  water,  and  place  the  saucepan  over  the  fire  or  a  gas-stove,  and 
allow  the  water  in  it  to  boil  gently  for  an  hour.  Remove  the  jar  and 
pour  its  contents  on  to  a  strainer.  The  beef-tea  which  runs  through  con- 
tains  a  quantity  of  fine  sediment,  which  is  to  be  drunk  with  the  liquid, 


360  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

after  being  flavored  with  salt  at  discretion.  The  jar  or  other  vessel  in 
which  the  beef-tea  is  made  may  be  introduced  into  an  ordinary  oven  for 
an  hour,  instead  of  being  surrounded  by  the  water  in  the  saucepan. 

Beef-tea,  thus  prepared,  represents  a  highly  nutritive  and  restorative 
liquid,  with  an  agreeable,  rich,  meaty  flavor.  It  is  a  common  practice, 
however,  amongst  cooks,  to  make  it  by  putting  it  into  a  saucepan,  and 
subjecting  it  to  prolonged  boiling  or  simmering  over  the  fire;  but  the 
product  then  yielded  constitutes  in  reality  a  soup  or  broth  instead  of  a 
tea.  The  prolonged  boiling  leads  to  the  extraction  of  gelatine,  and  the 
liquid  gelatinizes  on  cooling  (which  is  not  the  case  when  prepared  as 
above  directed),  but,  at  the  same  time,  the  albuminous  matter  becomes 
condensed  and  agglomerated  in  such  a  manner  as  to  subsequently  form  a 
part  of  the  solid  rejected  residue.  The  liquid  also  loses  in  flavor  and  in- 
vigorating power.  All  that  is  wanted  is  that  the  cold  infusion  should  be 
heated  to  about  170°  Fahr.  This  just  suffices  to  coagulate  the  albumen 
and  coloring  matter,  and  thus  deprive  the  product  of  its  character  of  raw- 
ness. 

The  difficulty  is  often  experienced  of  getting  beef-tea  made  in  the 
kitchen  in  a  careful  and  proper  manner;  and  to  render  the  patient,  as  far 
as  this  is  concerned,  independent  of  the  cook,  Messrs.  Darby  &  Gosden, 
of  140  Leadenhall  street,  London,  have  arranged,  at  my  suggestion,  a 
contrivance  for  conducting  the  process  without  the  aid  of  fire  or  lamp  in 
the  sick  chamber  or  anywhere  that  may  be  desired.  The  contrivance 
consists  of  the  Norwegian  box  or  "  nest "  referred  to  at  page  335,  and  a 
double  tin  case  provided  with  a  suitable  sized  central  space  for  receiving 
the  vessel  containing  the  article  to  be  cooked.  The  tin  appliance  is  re- 
moved from  the  box  and  sent  into  the  kitchen  for  the  outside  chamber  to 
be  filled  with  water,  which  is  then  to  be  made  to  boil  over  a  gas-stove  or 
fire.  The  boiling  water  thus  provided  furnishes  the  heat  which  is  subse- 
quently required.  The  apparatus,  with  its  store  of  heat,  is  carried  back 
and  deposited  in  the  non-conducting  box,  and  the  vessel  containing  the 
article  to  be  cooked  is  placed  in  the  central  chamber.  The  lid  of  the  box 
being  closed,  the  heat  is  retained  and  communicated  to  the  contents  of 
the  central  chamber.  About  an  hour  suffices  for  cooking  a  pint  of  beef- 
tea,  but  the  beef-tea  may  be  retained  in  the  apparatus  as  long  as  may  be 
desired — for  several  hours  or  all  night  if  necessary — and  will  keep  hot  all 
the  while.  Other  articles,  as  a  chop,  pigeon,  etc.,  may  be  likewise  cooked 
by  the  store  of  heat  contained  in  the  boiling  water;  and  there  is  this  ad- 
vantage in  the  use  of  the  apparatus,  that,  after  sufficient  time  has  been 
allowed  for  the  process  of  cooking,  it  does  not  signify  whether  the  food 
is  eaten  at  once  or  not  for  several  hours:  it  is  always  hot  and  ready  when- 
ever it  may  happen  to  be  required. 

The  apparatus  is  also  susceptible  of  being  turned  to  account  for  pre- 
serving a  moderate  store  of  ice  in  the  apartment  of  a  sick  person. 

SAVORY  BEEF-TEA. — Take  three  pounds  of  lean  beef  chopped  up  finely, 
three  leeks,  one  onion  with  six  cloves  stuck  into  it,  one  small  carrot,  a 
little  celery-seed,  a  small  bunch  of  herbs,  consisting  of  thyme,  marjo- 
ram, and  parsley,  one  teaspoonful  of  salt,  half  a  teacupful  of  mushroom- 
ketchup,  and  three  pints  of  water.  Prepare  according  to  the  directions 
already  furnished. 

LIEBIG'S  BEEF-TEA. — Take  half  a  pound  of  raw  lean  beef  (chicken  or 
any  other  meat  may  be  similarly  used)  and  mince  it  finely.  Pour  on  to  it, 


THERAPEUTIC   DIETETICS.  361 

in  a  glass  or  any  kind  of  earthenware  vessel,  three-quarters  of  a  pint  of 
water  to  which  has  been  added  four  drops  of  muriatic  acid  and  about  half 
a  saltspoonful  of  salt.  Stir  well  together,  and  allow  it  to  stand  for  an 
hour.  Strain  through  a  hair  sieve  and  rinse  the  residue  with  a  quarter  of 
a  pint  of  water.  The  liquid  thus  obtained  contains  the  juice  of  the  meat 
with  the  albumen  in  an  uncoagulated  state,  and  syntonine,  or  muscle 
fibrine,  which  has  been  dissolved  by  the  agency  of  the  acid.  It  is  to  be 
taken  cold,  or,  if  warmed,  must  not  be  heated  beyond  120°  Fahr.  It  will 
be  observed  that  no  cooking  is  here  employed,  and,  although  much  richer 
in  nutritive  material  and  more  invigorating  than  ordinary  beef-tea,  the 
raw-meat  color,  smell,  and  taste  that  it  possesses  sometimes  cause  it  to  be 
objected  to. 

CHICKEN-,  VEAL-,  OR  MUTTON-TEA. — To  be  prepared  like  beef-tea, 
substituting  either  of  the  meats  referred  to. 

If  broths  instead  of  a  tea  are  required,  boil  the  article  in  a  saucepan 
for  two  hours  and  strain. 

Pearl  barley,  rice,  vermicelli,  or  semolina  may  sometimes  be  advanta- 
geously added  to  give  increased  nourishing  power. 

The  fleshy  part  of  the  knuckle  of  veal  is  the  best  for  veal-broth. 

For  chicken-broth,  the  bones  should  be  used  as  well  as  the  flesh,  and 
all  chopped  up.  The  feet  strongly  add  to  the  characteristic  flavor. 

LIEBIG'S  EXTRACTUM  CARNIS. — This  article  is  largely  sold,  and,  from 
the  prestige  afforded  by  its  inventor's  name,  has  obtained  a  world-wide 
notoriety.  Its  true  position,  as  I  pointed  out  in  my  work  on  "  Digestion, 
its  Disorders  and  their  Treatment,"  in  1867,  is  scarcely  that  of  an  article 
of  nutrition,  and  this  is  now  beginning  to  be  generally  recognized.  The 
fact  that  from  thirty-four  pounds  of  meat  only  one  pound  of  extract,  as 
stated  by  Liebig,  is  obtained,  shows  how  completely  the  substance  of  the 
meat,  which  constitutes  its  real  nutritive  portion,  must  be  excluded.  The 
article,  indeed,  is  free  from  albumen,  gelatine,  and  fat,  and  may  be  said 
to  comprise  the  salines  of  the  meat,  with  various  extractive  principles,  a 
considerable  portion  of  which,  doubtless,  consists  of  products  in  a  state  of 
retrograde  metamorphosis  and  of  no  use  as  nutritive  agents.  If  not  truly 
of  alimentary  value,  the  preparation  nevertheless  appears  to  possess  stim- 
ulant and  restorative  properties  which  render  it  useful  in  exhausted  states 
of  the  system.  It  may  be  given  in  extreme  cases,  in  combination  with 
wine.  Being  rich  in  the  flavoring  matter  (termed  osmazone)  of  meat,  it 
is  often  used  for  imparting  additional  flavor  to  soups. 

FLUID  MEAT. — This  article  forms  a  complete  representative  of  lean 
meat.  Acting  upon  my  suggestion,  MJessrs.  Darby  &  Gosden,  of  140 
Leadenhall  street,  undertook  its  preparation,  and  since  18G7,  when  it  was 
first  introduced,  it  has  steadily  advanced  into  public  favor.  It  consists  of 
meat  which  has  been  liquefied  by  artificial  digestion,  and,  therefore,  not 
only  includes  all  the  elements  of  the  meat,  but  contains  them  in  the  same 
state  as  they  are  naturally  placed  by  the  stomach — that  is,  in  a  fit  state  for 
absorption,  without  requiring  any  further  aid  from  digestion.  It  resembles 
in  character  a  fluid  extract,  and  is  used  in  various  ways,  either  alone  or  in 
combination  with  other  articles  of  food. 

From  the  properties  it  possesses  as  a  product  of  artificial  digestion,  it 
may  be  spoken  of  as  forming  exactly  what  is  wanted  where  recourse  re- 
quires to  be  had  to  the  employment  of  nutrient  enemata.  Used  for  this 


362  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

purpose,  two  tablespoonfuls,  which  about  correspond  with  a  quarter  of  a 
pound  of  meat,  may  be  mixed  with  two  ounces  of  white  sugar,  and  dis- 
solved in  six  ounces  of  mucilage  of  starch  or  arrow-root. 

ESSENCES  AND  SOLID  EXTRACTS  OF  MEAT,  AND  MEAT  LOZENGES. — These 
are  sold  at  various  establishments.  They  may  be  obtained,  as  well  as  a 
number  of  other  articles  for  the  sick  room,  at  Mr.  Van  Abbott's  special 
dietary  depot  for  the  invalid,  No.  5  Princes  street,  Cavendish  square, 
London;  and  of  Messrs.  Brand  &  Co.,  at  No.  11  Little  Stanhope  street, 
Hertford  street,  Mayfair.  Brand's  "  Essence  of  Beef  "  has  obtained  a 
high  reputation,  and  is  very  extensively  employed. 

MILK  AND  SUET. — Boil  one  ounce  of  finely  chopped  suet  with  a  quarter 
of  a  pint  of  water  for  ten  minutes,  and  press  through  linen  or  flannel.  Then 
add  one  drachm  of  bruised  cinnamon,  one  ounce  of  sugar,  and  three- 
quarters  of  a  pint  of  milk.  Boil  again  for  ten  minutes,  and  strain.  A 
wineglassful  to  a  quarter  of  a  pint  forms  the  quantity  to  be  taken  at  a 
time.  It  constitutes  a  highly  nutritive  and  fattening  article,  but  if  given 
in  excess  is  apt  to  derange  the  alimentary  canal  and  occasion  diarrhosa. 

FLOUR  AND  MILK. — Fill  a  small  basin  with  flour  and  tie  it  over  with  a 
cloth,  or,  if  preferred,  simply  tie  the  flour  up  tightly  in  a  cloth.  Immerse 
it  in  a  saucepan  of  water  and  boil  slowty  for  ten  or  twelve  hours.  The 
flour  becomes  agglomerated  into  a  hard  mass,  and  is  only  wetted  on  the 
surface.  After  drying,  add  one  grated  tablespoonful  to  a  pint  of  milk, 
and  boil.  A  nourishing  and  useful  article  of  food  for  irritable  states  of 
the  stomach  and  bowels,  and  particularly  suitable  in  dysentery  and 
diarrhoea. 

Plain  biscuit-powder  may  be  substituted,  if  thought  proper,  for  the 
cooked  flour. 

EGG  AND  BRANDY  (BRANDY  MIXTURE). — Take  four  ounces  of  brandy, 
the  same  quantity  of  cinnamon-water,  the  yolks  of  two  eggs,  and  half  an 
ounce  of  loaf  sugar.  Rub  the  yolks  of  the  eggs  and  sugar  together,  and 
add  the  cinnamon-water  and  brandy.  Given  in  two  to  four  teaspoonful 
doses  as  a  restorative  and  stimulant. 

BREAD-JELLY. — Steep  stale  bread  in  boiling  water,  and  pass  through 
a  fine  sieve  while  still  hot.  A  light  nourishing  article  for  a  weak  stomachr 
which  may  be  taken  alone  or  after  being  mixed  and  boiled  with  milk. 

OATMEAL  PORRIDGE. — Mix  a  large  tablespoonful  of  oatmeal  with  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  cold  water.  Stir  well,  to  bring  to  a  state  of  uniformity, 
and  pour  into  a  pint  of  boiling  water  in  a  saucepan.  Boil  and  stir  well 
for  ten  minutes.  Flavor  either  with  salt  or  sugar,  as  preferred.  Milk 
may  be  used  instead  of  water,  or  the  boiling  may  be  continued  for  half  an 
hour  and  the  porridge  turned  out  into  a  soup-plate  and  cold  milk  poured 
over  it:  thus  prepared,  the  porridge  sets  and  acquires  a  solid  consistence; 
the  milk  and  porridge  are  mixed  together  little  by  little  as  they  are  eaten 
with  a  spoon. 

If  the  coarse  Scotch  oatmeal  is  used — and  this  is  generally  considered 
the  best — two  tablespoonfuls  may  be  sprinkled  into  a  pint  of  boiling  water 
and  stirred  and  boiled  for  half  an  hour.  At  the  end  of  this  time  the  oat- 
meal is  sufficiently  cooked,  but  many  allow  the  porridge  to  continue  sim- 


THERAPEUTIC    DIETETICS.  363 

mering  for  two  or  three  hours.     It  may  be  turned  out  into  a  soup-plate- 
and  eaten  with  milk,  after  the  manner  mentioned  above. 

Porridge  is  a  nourishing  article  of  food,  but  is  sometimes  apt  to  give 
rise  to  water-brash  and  acidity,  and  from  its  slightly  irritant  properties, 
whilst  advantageous  for  constipation,  must  be  looked  upon  as  objection- 
able where  diarrhoea,  or  a  tendency  to  it,  exists. 

OATMEAL  GRUEL. — Mix  thoroughly  one  tablespoonful  of  groats  with 
two  of  cold  water,  and  pour  over  them  one  pint  of  boiling  water,  stirring 
all  the  while.  Boil  for  ten  minutes,  and  still  continue  to  stir.  Sweeten 
with  sugar,  and  add,  if  desired,  a  little  sherry  or  brandy.  A  soothing  and 
nutritive  food,  holding  a  totally  different  position,  on  account  of  the  nitro- 
genous matter  present,  from  the  farinaceous  preparations,  as  arrow-root, 
etc.  Milk  may  be  used,  if  required,  instead  of  water. 

ARROW-ROOT. — Mix  thoroughly  two  teaspoonfuls  of  arrow-root  with 
three  tablespoonfuls  of  cold  water,  and  pour  on  them  half  a  pint  of  boil- 
ing water,  stirring  well  during  the  time.  If  the  water  is  quite  boiling, 
the  arrow-root  thickens  as  it  is  poured  on,  and  nothing  more  is  necessary. 
If  only  warm  water  is  used,  the  arrow-root  must  be  afterward  boiled  until 
it  thickens.  Sweeten  with  loaf-sugar,  and  flavor  with  lemon-peel  or  nut- 
meg, or  add  sherry  or  brandy,  if  required.  Milk  may  be  employed  in- 
stead of  water,  but  when  this  is  done  no  wine  must  be  added,  as  it  would 
be  otherwise  curdled. 

Tous-les-mois,  another  farinaceous  preparation,  may  be  substituted  for 
arrow-root. 

BARLEY-WATER. — Take  two  ounces  of  pearl  barley,  and  wash  well 
with  cold  water,  rejecting  the  washings.  Afterward  boil  with  a  pint  and 
a  half  of  water  for  twenty  minutes,  in  a  covered  vessel,  and  strain.  The 
product  may  be  sweetened  and  flavored  with  lemon-peel,  or  lemon-peel 
may  be  introduced  whilst  boiling  is  carried  on.  Lemon-juice  is  also  some- 
times added  to  flavor.  A  bland,  demulcent,  and  mildly  nutritive  beverage. 

ORGEAT. — Blanch  two  ounces  of  sweet  almonds  and  four  bitter  almond- 
seeds.  Pound  with  a  little  orange-flower  water  into  a  paste,  and  rub  this 
with  a  pint  of  milk  diluted  with  a  pint  of  water  until  it  forms  an  emul- 
sion. Strain  and  sweeten  with  sugar.  A  demulcent  and  nutritive  liquid. 

RICE-WATER,  OR  MUCILAGE  OF  RICE. — Thoroughly  wash  one  ounce 
of  Carolina  rice  with  cold  water.  Then  macerate  for  three  hours  in  a 
quart  of  water  kept  at  a  tepid  heat,  and  afterward  boil  slowly  for  an  hour, 
and  strain.  A  useful  drink  in  dysentery,  diarrhoea,  and  irritable  states* 
of  the  alimentary  canal.  When  circumstances  permit,  it  may  be  sweet- 
ened and  flavored  in  the  same  way  as  barley-water. 

GUM-WATER. — Take  half  an  ounce  to  an  ounce  of  gum  arabic  and 
wash  with  cold  water.  Afterward  dissolve  by  maceration  in  two  pints  of 
cold  water.  Lemon-peel  may  be  added  to  impart  flavor. 

LINSEED-TEA.— Place  one  ounce  of  bruised  linseed  and  two  drachms  of 
bruised  liquorice-root  into  a  jug,  and  pour  over  them  one  pint  of  boiling 
water.  Lightly  cover,  and  digest  for  three  or  four  hours  near  a  fire. 
Strain  through  linen  to  render  fit  for  use.  A  mucilaginous  liquid  possess- 


364  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

ing  demulcent  properties.  Frequently  used  as  a  drink  in  pulmonary  and 
urinary  affections.  It  is  rendered  more  palatable  by  the  addition  of 
sliced  lemon  and  sugar-candy. 

DECOCTION  OF  ICELAND  Moss. — Wash  one  ounce  of  the  moss  in  cold 
water  to  remove  impurities.  Then  heat  with  water  up  to  nearly  the  boiling 
point,  and  reject  the  liquid,  which  has  extracted  much  of  the  bitter  prin- 
ciple. Next  boil  with  a  pint  of  water  for  ten  minutes  in  a  covered  vessel 
and  strain  with  gentle  pressure  while  hot.  A  mucilaginous  demulcent 
liquid,  with  mild  bitter  tonic  properties.  It  may  be  flavored  with  sugar, 
lemon-peel,  white  wine,  or  aromatics;  or  milk  may  be  used  instead  of  the 
water,  by  which  a  nourishing  liquid  is  obtained. 

DECOCTION  OP  CARRAGEEN  Moss. — Macerate  half  an  ounce  of  Carra- 
geen moss  in  cold  water  for  ten  minutes.  Remove  and  boil  in  three  pints 
of  water  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  and  strain  through  linen.  It  possesses 
the  same  kind  of  properties  as,  and  may  be  flavored  like,  the  decoction  of 
Iceland  moss.  Milk,  also,  may  be  substituted  for  the  water.  By  doub- 
ling the  quantity  of  the  moss  a  mucilage  is  obtained,  and  when  in  a  highly 
concentrated  state  the  product  solidifies  into  a  jelly  on  cooling. 

WHEY. — Curdle  warm  milk  with  rennet,  and  strain  off  the  opalescent 
liquid  for  use.  It  acts  as  a  sudorific  and  diuretic,  and  forms  a  useful 
drink  in  febrile  and  inflammatory  complaints.  Holding  a  little  nitrogen- 
ous matter  in  solution,  and  containing  the  lactine  and  saline  matter  of  the 
milk,  it  possesses  mildly  nutritive  properties. 

WHITE  WINE  WHEY  OR  POSSET. — To  half  a  pint  of  milk  whilst  boil- 
ing in  a  saucepan,  add  one  wineglassful  of  sherry,  and  afterward  strain. 
Sweeten  with  pounded  sugar,  according  to  taste.  A  useful  drink  in  colds 
and  mild  febrile  disorders. 

TREACLE  WHEY  OR  POSSET. — Pour  two  or  three  tablespoonfuls  of 
treacle  into  a  pint  of  boiling  milk,  and  afterward  let  it  boil  up  well  and 
strain.  Drunk  hot,  it  is  frequently  used  as  a  diaphoretic  for  a  common 
cold. 

TAMARIND  WHEY. — Stir  two  tablespoonfuls  of  tamarinds  into  a  pint 
of  milk  whilst  boiling,  and  afterward  strain.  It  forms  a  refrigerant  and 
slightly  laxative  drink. 

CREAM  OF  TARTAR  WHEY. — Stir  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  cream  of 
tartar  (a  large  teaspoonful  piled  up)  into  a  pint  of  boiling  milk,  and  strain. 
A  refrigerant  and  diuretic  drink,  which  is  rendered  more  agreeable  by  the 
addition  of  sugar. 

ALUM  WHEY. — Add  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  powdered  alum  to  a  pint 
of  boiling  milk  and  strain.  An  astringent  drink.  May  be  flavored  with 
sugar  and  nutmeg  if  desired. 

CREAM  OF  TARTAR  DRINK  (Potus  Imperials — Imperial). — Dissolve 
a  drachm  or  a  drachm  and  a  half  of  cream  of  tartar  in  a  pint  of  boiling 
water,  and  flavor  with  lemon-peel  and  sugar.  When  cold,  may  be  taken 
ad  libitum,  as  a  refrigerant  drink  and  diuretic. 


THERAPEUTIC    DIETETICS.  365 

LEMON-PEEL  TEA. — Pare  the  rind  thinly  from  a  lemon  which  has  been 
previously  rubbed  with  half  an  ounce  of  lump-sugar.  Put  the  peelings 
and  the  sugar  into  a  jug  and  pour  over  them  a  quart  of  boiling  water. 
When  cold  decant  the  liquid,  and  add  one  tablespoonful  of  lemon-juice. 

LEMONADE. — Pare  the  rind  from  a  lemon  thinly  and  cut  the  lemon 
into  slices.  Put  the  peel  and  sliced  lemon  into  a  jug,  with  one  ounce  of 
white  sugar,  and  pour  over  them  one  pint  of  boiling  water.  Cover  the 
jug  closely,  and  digest  until  cold.  Strain  or  pour  off  the  liquid. 

Citron  may  be  used  instead  of  lemon,  and  likewise  furnishes  a  grate- 
ful and  refreshing  refrigerant  beverage. 

TOAST  AND  WATER. — Toast  thoroughly,  short  of  burning,  a  slice  of 
stale  bread  (or,  what  is  better,  a  piece  of  crust)  or  a  biscuit,  and  pour 
over  it,  in  a  jug,  a  quart  of  boiling  water.  Cover  it  over,  and  place  aside 
to  cool.  A  small  piece  of  orange-  or  lemon-peel  put  into  the  jug  with  the 
toast  greatly  improves  the  beverage. 


HOSPITAL  DIETAKIES. 


GUY'S  HOSPITAL. 

FULL  OR  EXTRA  DIET. 

14  oz.  of  bread.  1  pint  of  porter  for  males;  £  pint  of  porter  for 
females.  6  oz.  of  dressed  meat,  roasted  and  boiled  alternately,  with  po- 
tatoes (8  oz.).  £  Ib.  of  rice  pudding  *  three  times  a  week.  £  pint  of  mut- 
ton-broth in  addition  on  days  when  boiled  meat  is  given  (which  is  four 
times  a  week).  Or,  occasionally,  1  pint  of  strong  vegetable  soup,  with 
meat  and  rice  pudding,*  twice  a  week.  1  oz.  of  butter  each  day.  Por- 
ridge, gruel,  and  barley-water,  as  required. 

MIDDLE  OR   ORDINARY  DE3T. 


12  oz.  of  bread.  $  P^n*  °f  porter.  4  oz.  of  dressed  meat,  roasted  and 
boiled  alternately,  with  potatoes  (8  oz.).  £  Ib.  of  rice  pudding  *  three 
times  a  week.  £  pint  of  mutton-broth,  in  addition,  on  days  when  boiled 
meat  is  given  (which  is  four  times  a  week).  Or,  occasionally,  1  pint  of 
strong  vegetable  soup,  with  meat  and  rice  pudding,*  twice  a  week;  with 
the  full  diet  allowance  of  bread.  1  oz.  of  butter  each  day.  Porridge, 
.gruel,  and  barley-water,  as  required. 

MILK  OR  PUDDING  DEBT. 

12  oz.  of  bread.  2  pints  of  milk,  or  1  pint  of  milk,  with  rice,  sago, 
or  arrow-root,  boiled,  or  made  into  light  pudding.  %  pint  of  beef-tea, 
when  ordered.  1  oz.  of  butter.  Gruel  and  barley-water,  as  required. 

LOW  DIET. 

10  oz.  of  bread.  |  pint  of  beef-tea,  mutton-broth,  rice,  arrow-root,  or 
sago,  when  specially  ordered,  £  oz.  of  butter.  Gruel  and  barley-water, 
as  required. 

Tea,  £  oz.  ;  sugar,  £  oz.  ;  and  milk,  2£  oz.,  daily,  with  all  diets. 

Fish,  chops,  steaks,  chicken,  and  chicken  soup,  eggs,  and  other  extras, 
are  to  be  specially  ordered  by  the  medical  attendant,  and  will  be  given 
with  the  low  diet.  Wines  and  spirits,  if  continued,  must  be  mentioned 
each  time  the  physician  or  surgeon  attends. 


*  Formula  for  the  rice  pudding — Rice,  2£  IDS. ;  milk,  6  quarts  ;  sugar,  12  oz. ;  but- 
ler, 1  oz.  ;  spice,  1  drachm.     Loss  of  water  in  cooking,  say  37  oz. 


HOSPITAL   DIETARIES.  367 

ST.  BARTHOLOMEW'S  HOSPITAL. 

FULL  DIET  (MEAT). 

BREAKFAST. — 1  pint  of  tea;  bread  and  butter. 

DINNER. — £  Ib.   of   meat  when  dressed;  £  Ib.   of   potatoes;    bread  and 

beer. 

TEA. — 1  pint  of  tea;  bread  and  butter. 
SUPPER. — Bread  and  butter;  beer. 

DAILY  ALLOWANCES  TO  EACH  PATIENT. — 2  pints  of  tea;  14  oz.  of 
bread;  %  Ib.  of  meat  when  dressed;  •£  Ib.  of  potatoes;  2  pints  of  beer 
(men) ;  1  pint  of  beer  (women) ;  1  oz.  of  butter. 

HALF  DIET  (MEAT). 

BREAKFAST. — 1  pint  of  tea;  bread  and  butter. 

DINNER. — J  Ib.  of  meat  when  dressed;    £  Ib.  of  potatoes;    bread    and 

beer. 

TEA. — 1  pint  of  tea;  bread  and  butter. 
SUPPER. — Bread  and  butter;  beer. 

DAILY  ALLOWANCES  TO  EACH  PATIENT. — 2  pints  of  tea;  12  oz.  of 
bread.  £  Ib.  of  meat  when  dressed;  £  Ib.  of  potatoes;  1  pint  of  beer; 
f  oz.  of  butter. 

BROTH  DIET. 

BREAKFAST. — 1  pint  of  tea. 

DINNER. — 1£  pint  of  broth;  6  ounces  potatoes  (mashed);  £  oz.  of  but- 
ter; gruel. 

MILK  DIET. 

BREAKFAST. — 1  pint  of  tea. 

DINNER. — l^pint  of  milk,  or  1  pint  of  milk  with  arrow-root,  rice,  or  sago; 

bread. 

TEA. — 1  pint  of  tea;  bread  and  butter. 
SUPPER. — Bread  and  butter.     Gruel. 

DAILY  ALLOWANCES  TO  EACH  PATIENT. — 2  pints  of  tea;  12  oz.  of 
bread;  1£  pint  of  milk,  or  1  pint  of  milk  with  arrow-root,  rice,  or  sago;  £ 
oz.  of  butter;  gruel. 

LOW  DIET. 

Bread,  broth,  gruel,  or  barley-water,  as  may  be  ordered. 

Children  under  9  years  to  receive  half  allowances. 

EXTRAS  TO  BE  SPECIALLY  ORDERED. — Mutton  chops,  beefsteaks,  beef 
for  beef-tea,  fish,  eggs,  puddings,  jelly,  porter,  ale,  wine,  or  spirits.  ^ 

Each  patient,  on  admission,  to  be  placed  on  milk  diet  until  a  diet 
ordered  by  the  physician  or  surgeon. 


368  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 


ST.  THOMAS'S  HOSPITAL. 

DAILY  ALLOWANCE— FULL  DIET. 

12  oz.  of  bread;  £  oz.  of  butter;  £  pint  of  tea  with  milk  and  sugar  for 
breakfast.  The  same  for  tea.  4  oz.  of  beef  or  mutton  when  dressed; 
roast  or  boiled  alternately;  ^  Ib.  potatoes  or  fresh  vegetables;  \  pint  of 
ntflk  in  the  forenoon;  porter,  etc.,  if  ordered. 

MIXED  DIET. 

12  oz.  of  bread;  £  oz.  of  butter;  £  pint  of  tea  with  milk  and  sugar  for 
breakfast.  The  same  for  tea.  4  oz.  for  men  and  3  oz.  for  women  of  mut- 
ton when  dressed;  roast  or  boiled  alternately;  \  Ib.  of  potatoes  or  fresh 
vegetables;  8  oz.  of  rice  or  bread  pudding  alternately;  £  pint  of  milk. 
When  fish  is  ordered,  meat  to  be  omitted. 

MILK  DIET. 

12  oz.  of  bread;  f  oz.  of  butter;  £  pint  of  tea  with  milk  and  sugar  for 
breakfast.  The  same  for  tea.  8  oz.  of  rice  or  bread  pudding  alternately; 
1£  pint  of  milk.  . 

FEVER  DIET. 
4  oz.  of  bread;  2  pints  of  barley-water  or  gruel;  2  pints  of  milk. 

CHILDREN'S  DIETS. 
(Intended  for  all  Children  under  10  years  of  age. ) 

MIXED. — 12  oz.  of  bread;  £  oz.  of  butter;  \  pint  of  milk  for  breakfast. 
The  same  for  tea.  2  oz.  of  mutton  when  dressed,  roast  or  boiled  alter- 
nately; ^  Ib.  of  potatoes  or  fresh  vegetables;  6  oz.  of  rice  or  bread  pud- 
ding; £  pint  of  milk. 

MILK. — 8  oz.  of  bread;  £  oz.  of  butter;  £  pint  of  milk  for  breakfast. 
The  same  for  tea.  6  oz.  of  rice  or  bread  pudding;  \  pint  of  milk. 

Wine,  brandy,  gin,  porter,  mutton  chops,  fish,  eggs,  beef-tea,  soda- 
water,  lemonade,  and  other  extras,  to  be  served  when  specially  ordered, 
such  order  being  renewed  at  each  regular  visit  of  the  physician  or  surgeon. 

Each  patient,  on  admission  into  the  hospital,  to  be  placed  on  milk  or 
fever  diet  until  the  proper  diet  is  ordered  by  the  physician  or  surgeon. 


LONDON  HOSPITAL. 

FULL  DIET  FOR  MEN  AND  WOMEN. 

DAILY. — 12  oz.  of  bread;  8  oz.  of  potatoes;  1  pint  of  porter. 

BREAKFAST.  — Gruel. 

DINNER. — Sunday  and  Thursday,  6  oz.  of  boiled  mutton.* 

Monday,  Wednesday,  and  Saturday,  6  oz.  of  roast  mutton.* 

Tuesday  and  Friday,  6  oz.  of  roast  beef.* 
SUPPER. — 1  pint  of  broth. 

*  Weighed  when  cooked  and  free  from  bone. 


^  HOSPITAL   DIETARIES.  369 

MIDDLE  DIET  FOR  MEN. 

The  same  as  full  diet,  except  4  oz.  of  meat  instead  of  6  oz.,  and  £  pint 
of  porter  instead  of  1  pint. 

ORDINARY  DIET  FOR  WOMEN. 
The  same  as  middle  diet  for  men. 

MILK  DIET  FOR  MEN  AND  WOMEN. 

DAILY. — 12  oz.  of  bread. 
BREAKFAST.  — Gruel. 
DINNER. — 1  pint  of  milk. 
SUPPER. — 1  pint  of  milk. 

LOW  DIET  FOR  MEN  AND  WOMEN. 

DAILY. — 8  oz.  of  bread. 
BREAKFAST. — Gruel. 
DINNER.  — Broth. 
SUPPER. — Gruel  or  broth. 

DIET  FOR  CHILDREN. 
(Under  7  years  of  age). 

DAILY. — 12  oz.  of  bread;  -J  pint  of  milk. 

2  oz.  of  meat  and  8  oz.  of  potatoes  five  times  a  week,  and  rice  pud- 
ding twice  a  week. 

EXTRAS. 

(To  be  discontinued  unless  order  renewed  by  the  physician  or  surgeon  at  each  visit) 

Mutton  chops,  beefsteaks,  beef-tea,  strong  broth,  puddings  (rice, 
light,  and  batter,  alternately.  JRecipe  for  puddings :  Rice  pudding — 4  oz. 
of  rice,  2  oz.  of  sugar;  light  pudding — 6  eggs,  2  oz.  of  sugar,  1£  oz.  of 
flour;  batter  pudding — 4  eggs,  2  oz.  of  sugar,  6  oz.  of  flour,  milk  in 
each  case  sufficient  to  make  up  1  quart  of  the  mixture),  eggs,  bread, 
green  vegetables,  water-cresses,  wine,  spirits,  porter. 


ST.  GEOKGE'S  HOSPITAL. 

BREAD. — At  discretion,  to  be  served  to  the  nurses  at  the  rate  of  10  oz. 
daily  for  each  patient,  and  to  be  cut  up  by  ithem.  If  more  is  re- 
quired, this  will  be  supplied  by  the  steward. 

BUTTER. — 1  oz.  daily  to  each  patient,  to  be  served  out  three  times  a 
week. 

TEA. — To  be  served  weekly  to  the  nurses  at  the  rate  of  £  oz.  daily  for 
each  patient. 

SUGAR. — To  be  served  twice  a  week  to  the  nurses  at  the  rate  of  1  oz. 
daily  for  each  patient. 

MILK. — £  pint  daily  for  each  patient,  for  both  breakfast  and  tea,  to  be 
served  to  the  nurses  every  morning. 


370  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

EXTRA  DIET. 

DINNER. — 6  oz.  of  cooked  meat,  and  %  Ib.  of  potatoes.     1  pint  of  porter 

to  men  above  16  years  of  age. 
SUPPEK. — £  pint  of  milk,  or  1  pint  of  soup  if  ordered. 

ORDINARY  DD3T. 

DINNER. — 4  oz.  of  cooked  meat  for  men;  3  oz.  for  women.     %  Ib.  of 

potatoes.     •£  pint  of  porter  to  men  above  16  years  of  age. 
SUPPER. — £  pint  of  milk,  or  1  pint  of  soup  if  ordered. 

FISH  DIET. 

DINNER. — 4  oz.  plain  boiled  white  fish  (as  whiting,  plaice,  flounders,  or 

haddock).     £  Ib.  of  potatoes. 
SUPPER. — £  pint  of  milk. 

BROTH  DIET. 

DINNER. — 1  pint  of  broth  and  6  oz.  of  light  pudding  (such  as  tapioca, 
sago,  rice,  corn-flour,  or  such  other  pudding  as  the  superintendent 
of  nurses  shall  arrange). 

SUPPER. — J-  pint  of  milk. 

MILK  DIET. 

DINNER. — Four  days — 1£  pint  of  rice  milk. 

Three  days — £  Ib.  of  bread  or  rice  pudding. 
SUPPEE. — J-  pint  of  milk. 

Beef-tea,  Yorkshire  pudding,  arrow-root,  etc.,  to  be  specially  directed. 

Ordinary  diet  for  children  under  7  years  of  age   to  consist  of  2  oz.  of 
meat,  4  oz.  of  potatoes,  and  some  light  pudding. 


MIDDLESEX  HOSPITAL. 

CONVALESCENT  DIET. 

DAILY. — 10  oz.  of  bread. 

BREAKFAST. — J-  pint  of  milk. 

DINNER. — 12  oz.  of  undressed  meat*  (roast  and  boiled  alternately)  for 

males,  8  oz.  for  females,  and  £  Ib.  of  potatoes. 
SUPPER. — 1  pint  of  gruel  or  1  pint  of  broth. 

HALF  CONVALESCENT  DIET. 

DAILY — 10  oz.  of  bread. 

BREAKFAST. — £  pint  of  milk. 

DINNER. — 4  oz.  of  undressed  meat  *  (roast  and  boiled  alternately).    £  Ib. 

of  potatoes. 
SUPPER. — 1  pint  of  gruel  or  1  pint  of  broth. 

*  Leg  and  shoulder  of  mutton  only,  except  on  Sundays,  when  the  same  quantity 
of  roast  sirloin  and  best  round  of  beef  is  issued. 


HOSPITAL    DIETARIES.  371 

PUDDING  AND  ORDINARY  DIET. 

DAILY. — 10  oz.  of  bread. 

BREAKFAST. — £  pint  of  milk. 

DINNER. — 6  oz.  of  undressed  meat  *  (roast  and  boiled  alternately) ;  £  lb. 

of  potatoes;   1  oz.  of  beef  suet  and  2  oz.  of  flour  for  pudding. 
SUPPER. — 1  pint  of  gruel  or  1  pint  of  broth. 

ORDINARY  DEBT. 
DAILY. — 10  oz.  of  bread. 
BREAKFAST. — £  pint  of  milk. 
DINNER. — 6  oz.  of  undressed  meat  f  (roast  and  boiled  alternately)  and  £ 

lb.  of  potatoes. 
SUPPER. — 1  pint  of  gruel  or  1  pint  of  broth. 

HALF  ORDINARY  DD3T. 
DAILY. — 10  oz.  of  bread. 
BREAKFAST. — J  pint  of  milk. 
DINNER. — 3  oz.  of  undressed  meat  f  (roast  and  boiled  alternately)  and  £ 

lb.  of  potatoes. 
SUPPER. — 1  pint  of  gruel  or  1.  pint  of  broth. 

MUTTON-BROTH  DD2T. 
DAILY. — 10  oz.  of  bread. 
BREAKFAST. — £  pint  of  milk. 
DINNER. — 8  oz.  of  undressed  meat  (neck  of  mutton  only),  weighed  with 

bone  before  it  is  dressed,  served  in  1  pint  of  broth  with  barley. 
SUPPER. — 1  pint  of  gruel. 

FISH  DD3T. 

DAILY. — 10  oz.  of  bread. 
BREAKFAST. — £  pint  of  milk. 
DINNER. — 8  oz.  of  fish  (whiting,  sole,  haddock,  cod,  plaice,  or  brill).    £  lb. 

of  potatoes. 
SUPPER. — 1  pint  of  gruel. 

MILK  DIET. 

DAILY. — 10  oz.  of  bread. 

BREAKFAST. — \  pint  of  milk. 

DINNER. — Alternate  days — rice  pudding,  containing  2  oz.  of  rice,  half  an 
egg,  £  oz.  of  sugar;*  sago  pudding,  containing  1£  oz.  of  sago,  half  an 
egg,  and  £  oz.  of  sugar;  and  bread  pudding,  containing  bread,  with 
one  and  a  half  eggs,  and  £  oz.  of  sugar.  Extra — custard,  £  oz. 

SUPPER. — 1£  pint  of  milk. 

SIMPLE  DD3T. 

DAILY. — 10  oz.  of  bread. 
BREAKFAST. — J-  pint  of  milk. 
DINNER. — 1  pint  of  gruel. 
SUPPER. — £•  pint  of  milk. 

*  Leg  and  shoulder  of  mutton  only,  except  on  Sundays,  when  the  game  quantity 
of  roast  sirloin  and  best  round  of  beef  is  issued. 

f  Leg  and  shoulder  of  mutton  only,  weighed  with  the  bone  before  it  is  dre   «a. 


372  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD   AND    DIETETICS. 

EXTRAS. 

For  supper,  meat  -when  cooked,  3  oz.  Chops,  £  Ib.  each  when  trimmed. 
Ordinary  beef-tea,  £  Ib.  of  clod  and  sticking  of  beef,  without  bone,  to  a 
pint.  Strong  beef-tea,  1  Ib.  of  ditto,  ditto.  Broth  without  meat:  £  Ib.  of 
neck  of  mutton  with  bone,  to  a  pint;  this  broth  is  made  with  that  for  the 
patients  on  mutton-broth  diet.  Steaks:  rump-steak,  £  Ib.,  without  bone. 
Tripe,  chicken,  oysters,  greens,  eggs,  arrow-root,  sago,  jellies,  porter,  wine, 
spirits. 


UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE  HOSPITAL. 

FULL  DIET. 

12  oz.  of  bread.  8  oz  of  potatoes.  6  oz.  meat,  dressed  (roast  or  boiled 
leg  or  neck  of  mutton,  or  roast  beef),  f  pint  of  broth  or  pea  soup  four 
times  a  week  on  alternate  days.  4  oz.  boiled  rice  or  rice  pudding  made 
with  milk.  1  pint  of  milk.  1  pint  of  beer.* 

MIDDLE  DIET. 

12  oz.  of  bread.  8  oz.  of  potatoes.  4  oz.  of  meat  or  8  oz.  of  fish 
(white).  1  pint  of  milk.  Soup  with  barley,  1£  oz. ;  or  beef-tea,  1  pint. 
Rice  pudding  made  with  milk,  instead  of  soup.  £  pint  of  beer.* 

SPOON  DIET. 

2  pints  of  milk.  1  pint  of  beef-tea.  12  oz.  of  bread.  2  oz.  of  arrow- 
root and  1  oz.  of  sugar  made  into  a  jelly. 

The  resident  assistants  to  the  physicians  and  surgeons  are  empowered, 
during  the  absence  of  their  superior  officers,  to  order  the  following  extras, 
subject  to  the  general  supervision  of  the  resident  medical  officer: — Malt 
liquors,  spirits,  port,  sherry,  eggs,  strong  beef-tea,  milk,  fish,  chops,  steaks, 
custard  puddings,  vegetables,  and  bread.  Such  orders  to  stand  good  for 
twenty-four  hours  only. 


KING'S  COLLEGE  HOSPITAL. 

MEAT  DIET  (MEN). 

Bread  12  oz.     Milk,  £  pint.     Meat,f  4  oz.  cooked.     Potatoes,  \  Ib. 
Porter,  ale,  1  pint.     Rice  or  other  pudding,  £  Ib. 

MEAT  DIET  (WOMEN). 

Bread,  8  oz.      Milk,  £  pint.      Meat,f   4  oz.   cooked.      Potatoes,  \  Ib. 
Porter  or  ale,  £  pint.     Rice  or  other  pudding,  \  Ib. 

MILK  DIET   (MEN). 
Bread,  8  oz.     Milk,  1£  pint.       Eggs,  2.      Rice  or  other  pudding,  £  Ib. 

*  To  medical  cases  beer  is  only  to  be  supplied  when  ordered. 

f  Sunday,  roast  beef ;  Monday,  Thursday,  Friday,  and  Saturday,  roast  mutton  ; 
Tuesday,  boiled  mutton ;  Wednesday,  soup. 


HOSPITAL   DIETARIES.  373 

MILK  DIET  (WOMEN). 
Bread,  6  oz.     Milk,  1£  pint.      Eggs,  2.     Rice  or  other  pudding,  £  Ib. 

Children  under  10  years  of  age  same  as  milk  diet  for  women. 

Beef-tea  (on  milk  diet  only),  wine,  and  spirits,  may  be  ordered  by  the 
resident  medical  officers. 

Fish  or  mince  may  be  added  to  milk  diet;  such  addition  to  be  author- 
ized by  the  signature  of  the  visiting  physician  or  surgeon,  to  be  renewed 
once  in  each  week  at  the  least. 


ST.  MARY'S  HOSPITAL. 

FULL  DIET. 

BREAKFAST. — Tea  with  sugar.     Bread  and  butter.     ^  pint  of  milk. 
DINNER. — 6  oz.  of  meat  (cooked).     •£  Ib.  of  potatoes. 
TEA. — Tea  with  sugar.     Bread  and  butter.     £  pint  of  milk. 
SUPPER. — Gruel. 

DAILY  ALLOWANCE  TO  EACH  PATIENT. — 2  pints  of  tea  with  sugar,  and 
£  pint  of  milk.  15  oz.  of  bread.  6  oz.  of  meat  when  dressed.  £  Ib.  of 
potatoes.  £  oz.  of  butter. 

ORDINARY  DIET. 

BREAKFAST. — Tea  with  sugar.     Bread  and  butter.     £  pint  of  milk. 
DINNER. — 4  oz.  of  meat  (cooked).     £  Ib.  of  potatoes. 
TEA. — Tea  with  sugar.     Bread  and  butter.     £  pint  of  milk. 
SUPPER. — Gruel. 

DAILY  ALLOWANCE  TO  EACH  PATIENT. — 2  pints  of  tea  with  sugar, 
and  £  pint  of  milk.  12  oz.  of  bread.  4  oz.  of  meat  when  dressed.  £  Ib. 
potatoes.  £  oz.  of  butter. 

HALF  DIET. 

BREAKFAST. — Tea  with  sugar.     Bread  and  butter.     £  pint  of  milk. 
DINNER. — 2  oz.  of  meat  (cooked).     •£  Ib.  of  potatoes. 
TEA. — Tea  with  milk.     Bread  and  butter.     £  piiit  of  milk. 
SUPPER. — Gruel. 

DAILY  ALLOWANCE  TO  EACH  PATIENT. — 2  pints  of  tea  with  sugar,  and 
1  pint  of  milk.  12  oz.  bread.  2  oz.  of  meat  when  dressed.  £  Ib.  of 
potatoes.  £  oz.  of  butter. 

BROTH  DIET. 

BREAKFAST. — Tea  with  sugar.     Bread  and  butter.     £  pint  of  milk. 
DINNER. — \  Ib.  meat  before  dressed.     1  pint  of  broth. 
TEA. — Tea  with  sugar.     Bread  and  butter.     £  pint  of  milk. 
SUPPER. — Gruel. 


374  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

DAILY  ALLOWANCE  TO  EACH  PATIENT. — 2  pints  of  tea  with  sugar,  and 
•£  pint  of  milk.  12  oz.  of  bread.  About  4  oz.  of  meat  when  dressed.  1 
pint  of  broth,  f-  oz.  of  butter. 

SIMPLE  DIET. 

2  pints  of  tea  with  sugar,  and  1  pint  of  milk.     12  oz.  of  bread,     f  oz. 
of  butter. 
SUPPER. — Gruel. 

No  extras,  except  porter,  allowed  on  full  diet. 

No  extras,  to  be  ordered  by  the  resident  medical  officers  in  the  absence 
of  the  physician  or  surgeon,  unless  in  cases  of  great  urgency,  a  special 
report  of  which  must  be  made  $o  the  physician  or  surgeon  at  his  next 
visit. 


WESTMINSTER  HOSPITAL. 

FULL  DIET. 
DAILY. — 14  oz.  of  bread. 

BREAKFAST. — Tea  (£  oz.)  with  milk  (£  pint)  and  sugar  (£  oz. ). 
DINNER. — \  Ib.  of  meat,  roasted,  boiled,  or  chops.     •£•  Ib.  of  potatoes. 
SUPPER. — Tea  (£  oz).  with  milk  (£  pint)  and  sugar  (\  oz.). 

MIDDLE  DIET. 
DAILY. — 10  oz.  of  bread. 

BREAKFAST. — Tea  (£  oz.)  with  milk  (£  pint)  and  sugar  (|  oz.). 
DINNER.—^  Ib.  of  meat,  roasted,  boiled,  or  chops.     \  Ib.  of  potatoes. 
SUPPER. — Tea  (£  oz.)  with  milk  (£  pint)  and  sugar  (£  oz.). 

LOW  DIET  (FIXED). 
DAILY. — \  Ib.  of  bread. 

BREAKFAST. — Tea  (£  oz.)  with  sugar  (^  oz.)  and  milk  (£  pint). 
DINNER. — No  fixed  diet. 
SUPPER. — Tea  (£  oz.)  with  sugar  (£  oz.)  and  milk  (£  pint). 

LOW  DIET  (CASUAL). 

1  pint  of  broth  (from  2  oz.  of  meat),  or  $  Ib.  of  bread  or  rice  pudding, 
or  1  pint  of  beef-tea  (from  4  oz.  of  beef),  or  a  chop,  or  fish. 

Composition  of  bread  pudding. — Bread,  £  Ib.  Milk,  £  pint.  Sugar, 
£oz.  Flour,  £  oz.  1  egg  for  every  2  Ibs. 

Composition  of  rice  pudding. — Rice,  1£  oz.  Milk,  £  pint.  Sugar, 
•J-  oz. 

SPOON  OR  FEVER  DIET. 

DAILY. — \  Ib.  of  bread. 

BREAKFAST. — Tea  (£  oz.)  with  sugar  (f  oz.)  and  milk  (\  pint). 
DINNER. — Barley  water  (from  2  oz.  of  prepared  barley). 
SUPPER. — Tea  (£  oz.)  with  sugar  (f  oz.)  and  milk  (£  pint). 


HOSPITAL   DIETARIES.  375 

EXTRAS. 

Porter,  or  wine,  or  spirits.  No  other  extras  to  be  allowed  with  full  or 
middle  diet. 

Every  patient  admitted  into  the  hospital  is  to  be  placed  upon  low  diet, 
until  a  diet  is  ordered  by  the  physicians  or  surgeons. 

No  extras  to  be  placed  on  the  diet  roll  by  the  apothecary,  or  to  be 
provided  by  the  steward  or  matron,  other  than  those  specified  as  above. 

NOTE. — Arrow-root,  sago,  vermicelli,  or  coffee,  allowed  as  extras  to 
low  and  spoon  diet,  on  the  written  order  of  the  medical  officers,  communi- 
cated to  the  matron. 

INCURABLES'  DIET. 

Bread,  f  Ib.  Meat,  £  Ib.  Potatoes,  £  Ib.  Milk,  £  pint.  Porter,  1 
pint.  Each  daily,  when  not  otherwise  ordered. 


SEAMEN'S  HOSPITAL. 

FULL  DIET. 

1  Ib.  of  bread,  f  Ib.  of  meat — viz.,  two  days  roast  mutton,  one  day 
boiled  mutton,  four  days  boiled  beef,  f  Ib.  of  potatoes.  1  pint  of  soup 
(on  boiled  meat  days). 

MUTTON  (OR  EXTRA)  DIET. 

1  Ib.  of  bread,  f  Ib.  of  roast  mutton  (boiled  on  Tuesdays),  f  Ib.  of 
potatoes.  1  pint  of  soup  (on  boiled  meat  day). 

ORDINARY  DD3T. 

1  Ib.  of  bread.  %  Ib  of  meat — viz.,  two  days  roast  mutton,  one  day 
boiled  mutton,  four  days  boiled  beef.  £  Ib.  of  potatoes.  1  pint  of  soup 
(on  boiled  meat  days). 

LOW  DIET. 
%  Ib.  of  bread.     1  pint  of  beef-tea. 

MILK  DIET. 

1  Ib.  of  bread.     1  quart  of  milk.     1  pint  of  beef -tea. 

Tea  with  milk  and  sugar,  morning  and  evening,  with  all  diets. 


LEEDS  GENERAL  INFIEMAEY. 

LOW  DIET  (ADULTS). 

BREAKFAST. — 8  oz.  of  buttered  bread.     1  pint  of  tea. 
DINNER. — 4  oz.  of  bread.     1  pint  of  broth. 
TEA. — 8  oz.  of  buttered  bread.     1  pint  of  tea. 
SUPPER. — 1  pint  of  rice  milk. 


376  A  TREATISE   ON   FOOD   AND   DIETETICS. 

LOW  DIET   (CHILDREN). 

BREAKFAST. — 4  oz.  of  buttered  bread.     £  pint  of  tea. 

DINNER. — 2  oz.  of  bread.     £  pint  of  broth.     4  oz.  of  rice  pudding. 

TEA. — 4  oz.  of  buttered  bread.     £  pint  of  tea. 

ORDINARY  DIET   (ADULTS). 

BREAKFAST. — 8  oz.  of  buttered  bread.     1  pint  of  tea. 

DINNER. — Meat,  4  oz.  (Sunday,  Wednesday,  and    Friday,  boiled    beef; 

Monday,  roast  beef;  Tuesday,  Thursday,  and  Saturday,  roast  mutton). 

8  oz.  potatoes. 

TEA. — 8  oz.  of  buttered  bread.     1  pint  of  tea. 
SUPPER. — 1  pint  of  rice  milk. 

ORDINARY  DffiT  (CHILDREN). 

BREAKFAST. — 4  oz.  of  buttered  bread.     £  pint  of  tea. 

DINNER. — Meat,  2  oz.     (Sunday  and  Friday,  boiled  beef;  Monday  and 

Wednesday,   roast  beef;   Tuesday,  Thursday,  and  Saturday,  roast 

mutton).    4  oz.  of  potatoes. 
TEA. — 4  oz.  of  buttered  bread.     £  pint  of  tea. 

FULL  DD3T  (ADULTS). 

BREAKFAST. — 8  oz.  of  buttered  bread.     1  pint  of  tea. 

DINNER. — Meat,  5  oz.  (Sunday  and  Friday,  boiled  beef;  Monday  and 
Wednesday,  roast  beef;  Tuesday  and  Saturday,  roast  mutton;  Thurs- 
day, boiled  mutton).  8  oz.  of  potatoes.  £  pint  of  broth. 

TEA. — 8  oz.  of  buttered  bread.     1  pint  of  tea. 

SUPPER, — 1  pint  of  rice  milk. 


MANCHESTER  KOYAL  INFIRMARY  AND  DISPENSARY. 

GENEROUS  DD3T. 

BREAKFAST. — 1  pint  of  tea  or  coffee.     6  oz.  of  bread,     £  oz.  of  butter. 

Or  boiled  bread  and  milk;  or  porridge  with  milk. 
DINNER. — Sunday,  Tuesday,   Thursday,  and  Saturday — 6    oz.   of   beef, 

roasted.     4  oz.  of  bread.     8  oz.  of  potatoes. 
Monday,  Wednesday,  and  Friday — 6  oz.  of   mutton,  boiled. 

4  oz.  of  bread.     8  oz.  of  potatoes. 

This  diet  to  be  changed  on  the  alternate  weeks,  i.e.,  on  one  week,  four 
days  the  beef  is  to  be  roasted  and  three  days  the  mutton  boiled;  on  the 
other  week,  four  days  the  mutton  is  to  be  roasted  and  three  days  the  beef 
boiled,  as  indicated  above. 
SUPPER. — The  same  as  breakfast,  except  that  no  coffee  is  allowed. 

COMMON  DD3T. 

BREAKFAST. — 1  pint  of  tea  or  coffee.     5  oz.  of  bread.     \  oz.  of  butter. 

Or  boiled  bread  and  milk;  or  porridge  with  milk. 

DINNER. — Sunday,  Wednesday,  and  Friday — 6  oz.  of  beef  roasted.     4  oz. 
of  bread.     8  oz.  of  potatoes. 


HOSPITAL   DIETARIES.  377 

DINNER. — Monday — 1  pint  of  good  soup.     2  oz.  of  roast  meat  and  pota- 
toes.    4  oz.  of  bread. 

Tuesday,  Thursday,  and  Saturday — Potato  hash,  with  4  oz. 
of  bread;  or  the  option  of  having  cold  meat,  with  8  oz.  of 
potatoes,  and  4  oz.  of  bread. 

SUPPER. — The  same  as  breakfast,  except  that  no  coffee  is  allowed. 

MILK  DIET. 

BREAKFAST. — 1  pint  of  tea  or  coffee.     5  oz.  of  bread.     £  oz.  of  butter. 

Or  boiled  bread  and  milk,  with  porridge  and  milk. 
DINNER. — Sunday  and  Wednesday — £  pint  of  milk.     12  oz.  of  semolina 

pudding. 
Monday,  Thursday,  and  Saturday — £  pint  of  milk.     12  oz.  of 

rice  pudding. 

Tuesday  and  Friday — £  pint  of  milk.  12  oz.  of  bread  pud- 
ding. 

At  the  option  of  the  medical  and  surgical  officers,  £  pint  of  beef-tea 
may  be  substituted  for  the  £  pint  of  milk. 
SUPPER. — The  same  as  breakfast,  except  that  no  coffee  is  allowed. 

LOW  DIET. 

BREAKFAST. — 1  pint  of  tea.     3  oz.  of  bread. 
DINNER. — 1  pint  of  gruel.     2  oz.  of  bread. 
SUPPER. — Water  gruel  or  tea.     3  oz.  of  bread. 


BIKMINGHAM  GENERAL  HOSPITAL, 

LOW  DIET  (MEN  AND  WOMEN). 

BREAKFAST. — 1  pint  of  milk. 

DINNER. — 8  oz.  of  rice  or  sago  pudding.     1  pint  of  broth  for  lunch.     12 

oz.  of  bread. 
SUPPER. — 1  pint  of  broth  or  grueL 

LOW  DIET  (CHILDREN). 

BREAKFAST. — 1  pint  of  milk. 

DINNER. — 8  oz.  of  rice  or  sago  pudding.     6  oz.  of  bread. 

SUPPER. — £  pint  of  broth  or  gruel. 

MILK  DIET   (MEN  AND  WOMEN). 

BREAKFAST. — 1  pint  of  milk. 

DINNER. — 12  oz.  of  bread.     1£  pint  of  milk. 

SUPPER. — 1  pint  of  broth  or  gruel. 

MILK  DIET  (CHILDREN). 

BREAKFAST. — 1  pint  of  milk. 

DINNER. — 6  oz.  of  bread.     1£  pint  of  milk. 

SUPPER. — £  pint  of  broth  or  gruel. 


378  A   TREATISE   ON   FOOD    AND   DIETETICS. 

HOUSE  DIET  (MEN  AND  WOMEN). 

BREAKFAST. — 1  pint  of  milk. 

DINNER. — Cooked  meat  (4  oz.  men,  3  oz.  women).     8  oz.  of  potatoes.    12 

oz.  of  bread. 
SUPPER. — 1  pint  of  broth  or  gruel. 

HOUSE  DIET  (CHILDREN). 

BREAKFAST. — 1  pint  of  milk. 

DINNER. — 2  oz.  of  cooked  meat.     6  oz.  of  potatoes.     6  oz.  of  bread. 

SUPPER. — £  pint  of  broth  or  gruel. 

MUTTON  DIET  (MEN  AND  WOMEN). 

BREAKFAST. — 1  pint  of  milk. 

DINNER. — Cooked  mutton  (4  oz.  men,  3  oz.  women).     8  oz.  of  potatoes. 

12  oz.  of  bread. 
SUPPER. — 1  pint  of  broth  or  gruel. 

MUTTON  DIET  (CHILDREN). 

BREAKFAST. — 1  pint  of  milk. 

DINNER. — 2  oz.  of  cooked  mutton.     6  oz.  of  potatoes.     6  oz.  of  bread. 

SUPPER. — £  pint  of  broth  or  gruel. 

FULL  DUET  (MEN  AND  WOMEN). 

BREAKFAST. — 1  pint  of  milk. 

DINNER. — Cooked  meat  (6  oz.  men,  4  oz.  women).     8  oz.  potatoes.     12 

oz.  of  bread. 
SUPPER. — 1  pint  of  broth  or  gruel. 

FULL  DD3T  (CHILDREN). 

BREAKFAST. — 1  pint  of  milk. 

DINNER. — 2  oz.  of  cooked  meat.     6  oz.  of  potatoes.     6  oz.  of  bread. 

SUPPER. — £  pint  of  broth  or  gruel. 


NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE  INFIRMARY. 

COMMON  DIET. 

BREAKFAST. — 1  pint  of  porridge  and  1  gill  of  milk,  or  1  pint  of  tea. 

LUNCHEON. — £  pint  of  soup. 

DINNER. — 6  oz.  of  beef  or  mutton  (roast,  Sunday,  Tuesday,  Thursday, 
and  Saturday;  boiled,  Monday,  Wednesday,  and  Friday),  and  pota- 
toes. 

TEA. — 1  pint  of  tea. 

SUPPER. — Sunday,  Tuesday,   Thursday,   and   Saturday,  1  gill  of  milk. 

Monday,  Wednesday,  and  Friday,  1  gill  of  boiled  rice  and  milk. 
Every  male  to  have  14  oz.  of  bread,  and  every  female  12  oz.,  daily. 

Every  male  to  have  six  oz.  of  meat,  and  every  female  5  oz.,  daily. 


HOSPITAL    DIETARIES.  379 

MILK  DIET. 

BREAKFAST. — 1  pint  of  porridge  and  1  gill  of  milk,  or  1  pint  of  tea. 
DINNER. — Sunday  and  Thursday,  rice  pudding  and  1  gill  of  milk.     Mon- 
day, Wednesday,  and  Friday,  1  pint  of  broth  mixed  with  barley. 
Tuesday  and  Saturday,  1  pint  of  boiled  rice  and  milk. 
TEA. — 1  pint  of  tea. 
SUPPER. — Sunday,   Tuesday,  Thursday,   and    Saturday,  1  gill  of  milk. 

Monday,  Wednesday,  and  Friday,  1  gill  of  boiled  rice  and  milk. 
Every  male  to  have  12  oz.  of  bread,  and  every  female  10  oz.,  daily. 
All  extras  only  by  order  of  the  medical  officers. 


EDINBURGH  ROYAL  INFIRMARY. 

LOW  DIET. 

BREAKFAST. — Bread,  3  oz.     Tea,  £  pint  (tea,  £  oz. ;  milk,  1  oz. ;  sugar, 

I  oz.). 

DINNER. — Panada  (bread,  3  oz.;  milk,  2  oz. ;  sugar,  £  oz.). 
SUPPER. — Bread,  3  oz.     Tea,  £  pint  (tea,  £  oz. ;  milk,  1  oz. ;  sugar,  £  oz.). 

RICE  DIET. 

BREAKFAST. — Bread,  3  oz.    Coffee,  %  pint  (coffee,  £  oz. ;  milk,  2  oz. ;  sugar, 

£  oz.).     One  egg. 
DINNER. — Beef -tea  (from  8  oz.  of  meat),  $  pint.     Rice  pudding  (rice,  1£ 

oz.;  sugar,  \  oz.;  milk,  2^- oz;  half  an  egg;  essential  oil  of  lemon, 

1  drop). 
SUPPER. — Bread,  3  oz.     Tea,  %  pint  (tea,  £  oz. ;  milk  1  oz. ;  sugar,  £  oz.). 

STEAK  DIET. 

BREAKFAST. — Bread,  6  oz.     Coffee,  £  pint  (coffee,  £  oz.;  milk,  2  oz. ; 

sugar,  -fa  oz.). 
DINNER. — Potatoes,  16  oz.  Beefsteak,*  4  oz.  Broth,  1  pint  (barley,  1 

oz. ;  vegetables,  £  oz. ;  meat,  2  oz.). 
SUPPER. — Bread,  6  oz.     Tea,  £  pint  (tea,  £  oz. ;  milk,  1  oz. ;  sugar,  £  oz.). 

STEAK  DIET  WITH  BREAD. 

This  is  the  same  as  "  Steak  Diet,"  except  that  6  oz.  of  bread  are  sub- 
stituted at  dinner  for  potatoes,  and  £  of  a  pint  of  beef-tea  for  broth. 

COMMON  DIET. 

BREAKFAST. — Bread,  6  oz.     Coffee,  £  pint  (coffee,  }  oz.;  milk,  2  oz.; 

sugar,  i  oz.). 
DINNER.— Potatoes,  16  oz.  Broth,  1  pint  (barley,  1  oz. ;  vegetables,  £  oz. ; 

meat,  2  oz.). 
SUPPER.— Bread,  6  oz.  Tea,  £  pint  (tea,  £  oz.;  milk,  1  oz.;  sugar,  £  oz.). 

*  In  this  and  all  the  other  diets,  the  weight  is  to  be  understood  as  applying  to  the 
food  before  being  cooked. 


380  A   TREATISE    ON   FOOD    AND   DIETETICS. 

COMMON  DIET  WITH  BREAD. 

The  same  as  "  Common  Diet,"  except  that  6  oz.  of  bread  are  substi- 
tuted at  dinner  for  potatoes. 

FULL  DIET. 

BREAKFAST. — Porridge,   1£  pint — made  of  oatmeal,  4£  oz.    Buttermilk 

1  pint  (20  oz.). 
DINNER. — Boiled  meat,  6  oz.    Potatoes  16  oz.    Bread  3  oz.    Broth  (barley, 

1  oz. ;  vegetables,  £  oz. ;  meat,  2  oz.). 
SUPPER. — Potatoes,  16  oz.  New  milk,  £  pint  (10  oz.). 

PULL  DIET  WITH  BREAD. 

The  same  as  "  Full  Diet,"  except  that  bread,  8  oz.,  is  substituted  for 
potatoes  and  bread  at  dinner;  and  bread,  6  oz.,  for  potatoes  at  supper. 

EXTRA  DIET. 

BREAKFAST. — Porridge,  2  pints — made  of  oatmeal,  6  oz.;  buttermilk,  1 

pint  (20  oz.). 
DINNER. — Boiled  meat,  8  oz.    Potatoes,  20  oz.  Bread,  3  oz.  Broth,  1  pint 

(barley,  1  oz. ;  vegetables,  |  oz. ;  meat,  2  oz.). 
SUPPER. — Potatoes,  20  oz.     New  milk,  15  oz. 


GLASGOW  KOYAL  INFIRMARY. 

ORDINARY  DIET. 

BREAKFAST. — Bread,  4  oz.  Butter,  salt  (or  fresh,  if  specially  ordered), 
%  oz.  Tea,  4  gills. 

DINNER. — Bread,  6  oz.  Broth  or  soup,  2  pints.  Beef  or  mutton,  boiled 
(cooked  weight,  free  of  bone),  4  oz. ;  or,  beefsteak  (uncooked 
weight,  trimmed  and  free  of  bone),  4  oz. ;  or,  mutton  chop  (un- 
cooked weight,  bone  included),  6  oz. ;  or,  chicken,  one-fifth  part  of  a 
fowl;  or,  fresh  fish  (cleaned  weight),  8  oz.  Potatoes,  when  in  sea- 
son, instead  of  bread,  1  lb.  Beef-tea  may  be  specially  ordered  in- 
stead of  broth  or  soup,  but,  as  a  rule,  beef-tea  with  bread  is  a  din- 
ner without  beef  or  mutton. 

SCUPPER. — Bread,  4  oz.     Butter,  £  oz.     Coffee,  4  gills. 

MILK  DIET. 

BREAKFAST. — Bread,  4  oz.     Milk,  4  gills. 
DINNER. — Rice,  2£  oz.     Milk,  4  gills. 
SUPPER, — Bread,  4  oz.     Milk,  4  gills. 

ROTATION  OF  BROTH  OR  SOUPS. 

Sunday,   Wednesday,  and  Friday,  broth.     Monday    and    Thursday, 
rice  soup.     Tuesday  and  Saturday,  pea  soup. 

Chicken  soup.     Beef-tea. 


HOSPITAL   DIETARIES.  381 

EXTRAS,  WHICH  CAN  BE  HAD  TO  ORDER. 

Porridge  and  buttermilk — 4  oz.  meal  and  4  gills  of  milk.  Milk,  sweet, 
to  porridge,  2  gills.  Milk,  for  drink,  2  gills.  Milk,  warm,  2  gills.  1 
egg.  Sago,  arrow-root,  corn-flour,  2  oz.  Biscuits.  Strong  beef-tea. 
Dry  tea  2  oz.,  and  8  oz.  sugar,  for  a  week's  supply. 


RICHMOND,   WHITWORTH,    AND    HARDWICKE   HOSPI- 
TALS (DUBLIN). 

LOW  DIET  (RICHMOND  AND  WHITWORTH). 

BREAKFAST. — Bread,  4  oz.     Tea,  f  pint. 

DINNER. — Bread,  4  oz.     New  milk,  £  pint. 

SUPPER. — Bread,  4  oz.     Tea,  f  pint.     Whey,  1  pint. 

LOW  DIET  (HARDWICKE). 

BREAKFAST. — Bread,  4  oz.     Tea,  f  pint. 
DINNER. — Bread,  4  oz.     New  milk,  f  pint. 
SUPPEK. — Tea,  f  pint.     Whey,  1  pint. 

EXTRAS  ALLOWED. — 1  egg.  Arrow-root,  f  pint;  or  beef -tea,  f  pint, 
or  new  milk,  f  pint,  or  rice  milk  f  pint.  Wine,  or  brandy,  or  gin,  or 
•whiskey,  or  porter,  £  pint,  as  specially  ordered. 

MIDDLE  DIET. 

BREAKFAST. — Bread,  6  oz.     Tea,  f  pint. 

DINNER. — Bread,   6  oz.     Beef,   boiled  (exclusive  of  bone),  J  lb.,  with 

broth,  f-  pint. 
SUPPER. — Bread,  4  oz.     Tea,  f  pint. 

EXTRAS  ALLOWED.— 1  egg.  New  milk,  f  pint;  or  porter,  £  pint;  or 
gin  or  wine,  not  exceeding  4  oz. 

MUTTON  DLET. 

BREAKFAST.— Bread,  6  oz.     Tea,  f  pint. 

DINNER.— Bread,  6  oz.     Mutton,  boiled  (exclusive  of  bone),  £  it 

SUPPER.— Bread,  4  oz.     Tea,  f  pint. 

EXTRAS  ALLOWED.  —1  egg.  New  milk,  f  pint;  or  porter,  £  pint;  or 
wine,  not  exceeding  4  oz.  Fresh  vegetables  as  ordered. 

FULL  DIET. 

BREAKFAST.— Bread,  8  oz.     Tea,  f  pint. 

DiNNER.-Bread,  8  oz. ;  or  potatoes,  1  lb.     Beef,  boiled   (exclusive  of 

bone),  £  lb.,  with  broth,  f  pint. 
SUPPER.— Bread,  4  oz.  Tea,  f  pint. 
EXTRAS  ALLOWED.— New  milk,  f  pint;  or  porter,  £  pint. 


382  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

Beef,  with  broth,  to  be  given  for  dinner  on  five  days  in  each  week  to 
patients  on  middle  diet.  On  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  £  pint  of  gruel  to 
be  substituted. 

Potatoes,  on  Tuesdays,  Thursdays,  and  Saturdays  to  patients  on  full 
diet,  instead  of  bread. 

Formularies. 

TEA  (6  pints). — Tea,  1£  oz.     Sugar,  4  oz.     New  milk,  \  pint. 

BEEF  WITH  BROTH  (6  pints). — Beef  (exclusive  of  bone),  4  Ib.  Barley, 
\  Ib.  Oatmeal,  2  oz.  Parsley,  1  oz.  Thyme,  \  oz.  Onions  or  leeks,  £ 
Ib.  Pepper  and  salt  to  taste. 

BEEF-TEA  (6  pints). — Beef  (lean,  without  bone),  4  Ib.  Pepper  and  salt 
to  taste. 

WHET. — New  milk,  1  quart.     Buttermilk,  1  pint. 

GKUEL  (6  pints). — Oatmeal,  12  oz.  Sugar,  3  oz.  Ginger  to  flavor. 
Steep  the  meal  from  night  before;  boil  for  two  hours. 

ARROW-BOOT  (f  pint). — Arrow-root,  £  oz.  Sugar,  £  oz.  New  milk,  £ 
pint. 


BETHLEHEM  LUNATIC  HOSPITAL. 

BREAKFAST. — Every  day — Tea,  with  7  oz.  of  bread  and  butter  for  males, 

and  6  oz.  for  females. 

DINNER. — Every  day,  except  Saturday — 4  oz.  of  bread,     £  Ib.  of  vegeta- 
bles, and  1  pint  of  beer,  with  6  oz.  for  males  and  5  oz.  for  females  of 
boiled  beef  (free  from  bone)  on  Sunday;  roast  mutton  on  Monday 
and  Thursday;  boiled  mutton  on  Tuesday  and  Friday;  and  roast  beef 
on  Wednesday.     Saturday — Meat  pie  (16  oz.  males,  14  oz.  females). 
4  oz.  of  bread.    1  oz.  of  cheese.     Beer  (males  1  pint,  females  \  pint). 
SUPPER. — Males,  Sunday,  Monday,  Tuesday,  Thursday,  and  Friday,  same 
as  at  breakfast;  Wednesday  and  Saturday,  7  oz.  of  bread,  2  oz  of 
cheese,  1  pint  of  beer.     Females,  every  day,  same  as  at  breakfast. 
Patients  in  employment  in  the  grounds,  workshops,  or  laundry,  to  be 
allowed  4  oz.  of  bread,  1  oz.  of  cheese  or  \  oz.  of  butter,  and  £  pint  of  beer 
for  luncheon;  and  £  pint  of  beer  in  the  afternoon. 

Every  patient  to  be  allowed  If  oz.  of  tea,  8  oz.  of  sugar,  8  oz.  of  but- 
ter, and  1-J  pint  of  milk,  weekly. 

On  Christmas  Day  the  dinner  to  be  roast  beef  and  plum  pudding.  On 
New  Year's  Day  a  mince  pie  to  be  added  to  the  usual  fare.  On  Good 
Friday  a  bun.  On  Easter  and  Whit  Monday  6  oz.  of  roast  veal  to  be  al- 
lowed instead  of  the  usual  meat  for  the  day. 

The  dinners  to  be  further  varied  by  the  occasional  substitution  of  pork 
and  bacon,  when  peas  and  beans  are  in  season;  and  also  by  the  occasional 
substitution  of  fish,  and  fruit  pies,  when  fish  and  fruit  are  plentiful  and 
good. 

The  sick  to  be  dieted  at  the  discretion  of  the  resident  physician. 
The  attendants  to  have  at  all  times  the  means  of  obtaining  gruel  for 
such  patients  as  may  require  it. 

The  above  to  be  considered  maximum  allowances,  and  all  quantities 
unconsumed  are  to  be  taken  in  diminution  of  the  next  supply  from  the 
stores  of  the  Hospital. 


HOSPITAL   DIETARIES.  383 

ST.  LUKE'S  HOSPITAL  FOR  LUNATICS. 

MALE  DIETARY. 

BREAKFAST.— Cocoa,  £  oz.     Milk,  £  pint.      Sugar,  £  oz.     Bread,  8  oz. 

Butter,  £  oz. 
DINNER. — 

Sunday.— Cooked  meat,  with  bone,  6  oz.     Potatoes,  12  oz.     Bread, 

6  oz.     Beer,  1  pint.     Pudding  (farinaceous  or  fruit),  6  oz. 
Monday. — Meat  pie,  with  potatoes,  12  oz.     Bread,  3  oz.     Beer,  1 

pint. 
Tuesday. — Cooked  meat,  with  bone,  8  oz.     Bread,  6  oz.     Beer,  1 

pint. 
Wednesday. — Meat  pudding,  12  oz.     Potatoes,  8  oz.     Bread,  3  oz. 

Beer,  1  pint. 

Thursday. — Same  as  Tuesday. 
Friday. — Cooked  meat,  with  bone,  8  oz.     Potatoes,  12  oz.     Bread,  6 

oz.     Beer,  1  pint. 

Saturday. — Same  as  Tuesday  and  Thursday. 
TEA. — Tea,  \  oz.    Sugar,  £  oz.     Milk,  £  pint.     Bread,  8  oz.    Butter,  £  oz. 

FEMALE  DIETARY. 

BREAKFAST. — Same  as  for  males,  less  2  oz.  of  bread. 
DINNER. — 

Sunday. — Same  as  for  males,  less  2  oz.  of  meat,  4  oz.  of  potatoes,  and 

^  pint  of  beer. 

Monday. — Same  as  for  males,  less  2  oz.  of  pie  and  £  pint  of  beer. 
Tuesday. — Same  as  for  males,  less  2  oz.  of  meat  and  £  pint  of  beer. 
Wednesday. — Same  as  for  males,  less  2  oz.  of  meat  pudding,  2  oz.  of 

potatoes,  and  £  pint  of  beer. 
Thursday. — Same  as  Tuesday. 
Friday. — Same  as  for  males,  less  2  oz.  of  meat,  4  oz.  of  potatoes,  and 

^  pint  of  beer. 

Saturday. — Same  as  for  Tuesday  and  Thursday. 
TEA. — Same  as  for  males. 

1  pint  of  beer,  8  oz.  of  bread,  and  2  oz.  of  cheese,  may  be  had  for  sup- 
per in  place  of  the  ordinary  tea  by  those  male  patients  for  whom  the 
medical  officer  shall  think  it  desirable. 

Patients  employed  in  work  for  the  hospital  to  be  allowed  4  oz.  of 
bread,  1  oz.  of  cheese,  and  $  pint  of  beer  for  lunch. 

The  dinners  may  be  varied  by  the  occasional  substitution  of  pork, 
bacon,  salt  beef,  or  veal,  when  in  season;  and  also  the  occasional  substitu- 
tion of  fish  and  fruit  pies,  when  either  are  plentiful  and  good. 

Lettuce  during  the  summer  months  may  be  substituted  occasionally 
for  other  vegetables. 

The  sick  to  be  dieted  at  the  discretion  of  the  medical  officers. 
The  above  to  be  considered  maximum  allowances;  and  all  quantities 
unconsumed  to  be  returned  to  the  kitchen. 


384  A   TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

HARWELL  LUNATIC  ASYLUM. 

DIET  TABLE  FOR  PATIENTS  EMPLOYED. 

BREAKFAST. — 

Males. — Cocoa,  1  pint.     Bread,  6  oz.     Butter,  \  oz. 
Females. — Tea,  1  pint.     Bread,  5  oz.     Butter,  \  oz. 
LUNCHEON. — 

Males. — Bread,  3  oz.     Cheese,  1  oz.     Beer,  £  pint. 
Females. — Bread,  3  oz.     Cheese,  1  oz.     Beer,  •£  pint. 
DINNER. — 
Males — 

Sunday. — Cooked  meat,  free  from  bone  (roast  pork,  beef  or  mut- 
ton), 5  oz.  Vegetables,  9  oz.  Bread,  3  oz.  Beer,  $ 
pint. 

Monday. — Cooked  meat,  free  from  bone  (boiled  bacon  or  pickled 
pork),  5  oz.  Vegetables,  16  oz.  Bread,  3  oz.  Beer, 
\  pint. 

Tuesday. — Cooked  meat,  free  from  bone  (boiled  Australian  beef 
or  mutton),  5  oz.     Vegetables,  9  oz.     Dumplings,  4 
oz.     Beer,  £  pint. 
Wednesday. — Cooked  meat,  free  from  bone  (meat  pies),  3  oz.    Pie, 

4  oz.     Vegetables,  12  oz.     Beer,  •£  pint. 

Thursday. — Fish  (fried  or  boiled,  with  melted  butter),  10  oz.  Vege- 
tables, 9  oz.  Bread,  3  oz.  Beer,  \  pint. 

Friday. — Cooked  meat,  free  from  bone  (boiled  bacon  or  pickled 
pork),  5  oz.     Vegetables,  16  oz.     Dumplings,  4  oz. 
Beer,  £  pint. 
Saturday. — Cooked  meat,  free  from  bone  (Irish  stew),  2  oz.     Stew, 

16  oz.     Bread,  6  oz.     Beer,  £  pint. 
Females — 

Sunday. — Same  as  for  males,  less  1  oz.  of  meat  and  1  oz.  of  vege- 
tables. 

Monday. — Same  as  for  males,  less  1  oz.  of  meat  and  4  oz.  of  vege- 
tables. 

Tuesday. — Cooked  meat,  free  from  bone  (boiled  beef  or  mutton), 
4  oz.    Vegetables,  12  oz.     Bread,  3  oz.     Beer,  £  pint. 
Wednesday. — Same  as  for  males. 

Thursday. — Cooked  meat,  free  from  bone  (boiled  Australian  beef 
or  mutton),  4  oz.  Vegetables,  8  oz.  Bread,  3  oz. 
Beer,  •£  pint. 

Friday. — Fish  (fried  or  boiled,  with  melted  butter),  8  oz.     Vege- 
tables, 8  oz.     Bread,  3  oz.     Beer,  £  pint. 
Saturday. — Same  as  for  males,  less  2  oz.  of  bread. 
SUPPER. — 

Males. — Tea,  1  pint.     Bread,  6  oz.     Butter,  £  oz. 
Females. — Tea,  1  pint.     Bread,  5  oz.     Butter,  £  oz. 

DIET  FOR  PATIENTS  NOT  EMPLOYED. 

BREAKFAST. — 

Males. — Cocoa,  1  pint.     Bread,  6  oz.     Butter,  £  oz. 
Females. — Tea,  1  pint.     Bread,  5  oz.     Butter,  \  oz. 


HOSPITAL   DIETARIES.  385 

DINNER. — 

Males — 

Sunday.— Cooked  meat,  free  from  bone  (roast  pork,  beef,  or  mut- 
ton), 5  oz.  Vegetables,  9  oz.  Bread,  3  oz.  Beer, 
|  pint. 

Monday.— Soup,  thickened  with  oatmeal,  rice,  and  peas,  and  con- 
taining 2  oz.  of  meat  for  each  patient,  with  a  pro- 
portion of  Ramornie  Extract,  1  pint.  Bread  G  oz. 
Beer,  \  pint. 

Tuesday. — Cooked  meat,  free  from  bone  (boiled  Australian  beef  or 
mutton),  5  oz.  Vegetables,  9  oz.  Dumplings,  4  oz. 
Beer,  £  pint. 

Wednesday. — Cooked  meat,  free  from  bone  (meat  pies),  3  oz. 
Pie,  4  oz.  Vegetables,  12  oz.  Beer,  £  pint. 

Thursday.— Fish  (fried  or  boiled,  with  melted  butter),  10  oz. 
Vegetables,  9  oz.  Bread,  3  oz.  Beer,  %  pint. 

Friday. — Cooked  meat,  free  from  bone  (boiled  bacon  or  pickled 
pork),  5  oz.  Vegetables,  16  oz.  Dumplings,  4  oz. 
Beer,  £  pint. 

Sunday. — Cooked  meat,  free  from  bone  (Irish  stew),  2  oz.     Stew, 

16  oz.     Bread,  6  oz.     Beer,  £  pint. 
Females — 

Sunday. — Same  as  for  males,  less  1  oz.  of  meat  and  1  oz.  of  vege- 
tables. 

Monday. — Same  as  for  males,  less  2  oz.  of  bread. 

Tuesday. — Cooked  meat,  free  from  bone  (boiled  bacon  or  pickled 
pork),4oz.  Vegetables,  12  oz.  Bread,  3  oz.  Beer, 
£  pint. 

Wednesday. — Same  as  for  males. 

Thursday. — Cooked  meat,  free  from  bone  (boiled  Australian  beef 
or  mutton),  4oz.  Vegetables,  8  oz.  Bread  3  oz.  Beer, 
£  pint. 

Friday. — Fish  (fried  or  boiled,  with  melted  butter),  8  oz.  Vege- 
tables, 8  oz.  Bread,  3  oz.  Beer,  £  pint. 

Saturday. — Same  as  for  males,  less  2  oz.  of  bread. 

SUPPEE. — 

Males — Tea,  1  pint.     Bread,  6  oz.     Butter,  \  oz. 
Females — Tea,  1  pint.     Bread,  5  oz.     Butter,  £  oz. 

2  oz.  of  cheese  and  1  pint  of  beer  given  to  male  patients  for  supper  in 
lieu  of  1  pint  of  tea  and  |-  oz.  of  butter,  if  requested. 

Formularies. 

For  1  pint  of  cocoa — £  oz.  of  cocoa,  1  oz.  of  treacle,  and  ^  pint  of  milk. 

For  1  pint  of  tea — \  oz.  of  tea,  £  oz.  of  sugar,  and  £  pint  of  milk. 

Irish  stew  (liquor  of  the  meat  cooked  the  previous  day),  with  2  oz. 
cooked  Australian  meat  (and  a  proportion  of  Ramornie  Extract),  and  12 
oz.  of  vegetables  for  each  patient. 

Currant  dumplings  (made  with  dripping  or  suet)  are  given  every  third 
Saturday,  in  lieu  of  stew,  12  oz.  to  the  males  and  11  oz.  to  the  females. 
£  pint  beer  at  4  p.m.,  and  tobacco  and  snuff,  for  working  patients. 
25 


386  A    TREATISE    ON    FOOD    AND    DIETETICS. 

COLNEY  HATCH  LUNATIC  ASYLUM. 

MALES. 

BREAKFAST. — 6  oz.  of  bread,  and  -£  oz.  of  butter.     1  pint  of  cocoa. 
DINNER — 

Monday. — 9  oz.  of  pie  (containing  4  oz.  of  meat).  9  oz.  of  vege- 
tables, ^  pint  of  beer. 

Tuesday,  Thursday,  Friday,  and  Sunday. — 5  oz.  of  cooked  meat. 
9  oz.  of  vegetables.  4  oz.  of  bread.  ^  pint  of  beer. 

Wednesday. — 1  pint  of  stew,  and  6  oz.  of  bread,  as  on  Saturday; 
or  8  oz.  of  fish,  9  oz.  of  vegetables,  and  4  oz.  of 
bread.  $  pint  of  beer  (with  either  dinner). 

Saturday. — 1  pint  of  Irish  stew  (made  with  3  oz.  of  meat  and  the 

liquor  from  meat  of  previous  day,  12  oz.  of  potatoes 

and  other  vegetables,  and  1  oz.  dumpling).     6  oz.  of 

bread.     £  pint  of  beer. 

TEA  OR  STTPPER. — 6  oz.  of  bread.     2  oz.  of  cheese  or  £  oz.  of  butter.     % 

pint  of  beer  or  1  pint  of  tea. 

FEMALES. 

BREAKFAST. — 5  oz.  of  bread,  and  £  oz.  of  butter.     1  pint  of  tea. 
DINNER. — 

Monday. — 9  oz.  of  pie  (containing  4  oz.  of  meat).  8  oz.  of  vege- 
tables. £  pint  of  beer. 

Tuesday,  Thursday,  Friday,  and  Sunday. — 4  oz.  of  cooked  meat. 
8  oz.  of  vegetables.  4  oz.  of  bread.  £  pint  of  beer. 
Wednesday. — 1  pint  of  soup  (made  with  4  oz.  of  meat  and  the 
liquor  from  meat  of  previous  day,  peas,  rice,  Scotch 
barley,  herbs,  etc.),  and  5  oz.  of  bread;  or  8  oz. 
of  fish,  8  oz.  of  vegetables,  and  4  oz.  of  bread; 
or  12  oz.  of  currant  dumpling.  -J  pint  of  beer  (with 
either  dinner). 

Saturday. — 1  pint  of  Irish  stew  (made  with  3  oz.  of  meat  and  the 
liquor  from  meat  of  previous  day,  12  oz.  of  potatoes 
and  other  vegetables,  and  1  oz.  dumpling).     6  oz.    of 
bread.     £  pint  of  beer. 
TEA. — 5  oz.  of  bread.     £  oz  of  butter.     1  pint  of  tea. 


INDEX. 


ABSINTHE,  268 

Abstinence  from  food,  324 

Abulilon  esculentum,  flowers  of,  186 

Abyssinia,  raw  meat  eaten  in,  312 

Acajou  nut,  171 

Acarus  domesticus,  or  cheese  mite,  130 

farinse,  or  flour  mite,  155 
Acetic  acid,  73,  82 
Acorn  coffee,  231 
Acorns,  108 
Acroleine,  334 

Adipo^ere,  production  of,  52 
Aerated  bread,  151 
Africa,  food  in  the  different  parts  of,  311- 

314 

Africans,  East,  food  of,  313 
A^aricus  campestris,  187 

muscarius,  188 

prunulus,  189 
Agouti,  133 
Air,  preservation  of  food  by  exclusion  of, 

271 

Alagtaga,  134 
Alaria  esculenta,  183 
Albatross,  137 
Albumen,  18,  25 

Mulder's  analysis  of  39,  48 

as  a  force-producing  agent,  49,  50 

insufficient  to  sustain  life,  275 

acid,  19 

vegetable,  19 
Albuminose,  or  peptone,  20 

production  of,"  8,  23,  24 
Albuminous  group   of   alimentary  princi- 
ples, 18 

Alcohol,  82-86,  237,  253 
Alcoholic  beverages,  237-269 
Ale,  243 

Alimentary  principles :  their  classification, 
chemical  relations,  digestion,  assi- 
milation, and  physiological  uses, 
15-88 

substances,  89-269 
Alkaline  secretions,  effect  of,  22 
Allium  cepa,  184 
Almond,  169,  170 


Almond,  composition  of  sweet,  170 

composition  of  bitter,  170 

sweet,  furnishes  a  food  analogous  to 

milk,  339 
Alum  in  bread,  151 

whey,  364 

Amblyrhyncus,  a  genus  of  lizard,  138 
American  cheese,  128 

Indians,  North,  food  of,  102,  306 
Ammonia  in  the  atmosphere,  11 

carbonate  of,  convertible  into  urea,  49 
Amygdaline,  169 
Amygdalus  communis,  169 

persica,  196 
Amy  lie  alcohol,  268 
Amyloid  substance,  70,  71,  72,  74 
Anacardium  occidentale,  171 
Ananassa  sativa,  or  pineapple,  204 
Animal  alimentary  substances,  89-143 

foods,  exceptional,  130-143 

system  and   a  steam-engine,   analogy 

between,  4,  5 

Animals,  effect  of  different  foods  upon  their 
character,  319 

and  plants,  reciprocal  relation  of,  13 
Anisette,  268 
Anomia  ephippinm.  140 
Anstie's,  Dr. ,  experiments  on  the  effect  of 

alcohol,  83,  85,  239 
Antiseptics,  preservation  of  food  by  the  use 

of,  273 

Ants,  white,  140 
Apium  graveolens,  1 83 
Apothema  of  Berzelius,  255 
Appetite,  a  guiile  in  regulating  the  supply 
of  food,  320 

a  measure  of  capacity  for  work,  285 
Apple,  192 

composition  of,  192 
Apricot,  198 

composition  of,  198 
Arabs  of  the  Nubian  desert,  312 
Arachis  hypogoea,  or  earth-nut,  236 
Araucaria  imbricata,  207 
Arctic  food,  280,  304-306 
Argol  of  wine,  251 


388 


INDEX. 


Armadillo,  137 

Arracacha  esculenta,  root  of,  177 

Arrack,  268 

Arrow-root,  214,  215,  363 

Brazilian,  214,  215 

British,  174 

East  Indian,  214,  215 

English,  215 

Portland,  214 

Tahitan,  214 
Artichoke,  184 

Jerusalem,  176 

composition  of,  177 
Artocarpus  incisa  and  integrifolia,  206 
Arum  esculentum,  root  of,  180 

maculatum.  214 

Ashanti  campaign,  use  of  spirits  in,  238 
Asparagine,  184 
Asparagus,  184 

Asperfifillus  glaucus,  or  cheese  mould,  130 
Asses'  flesh  eaten  by  the  Romans,  136 
Astralagus  Boeticus,  231 
Atriplex  hortensis,  182 
Attacotti,   cannibals  of  ancient  Scotland, 

131 

Aubergine,  or  egg-apple,  186 
Australia,  food  of  the  natives  of,  307,  308 
Australian  preserved  meat,  272 
Avena  sativa,  156 
Avenine,  157 
Axolotl  of  Mexico,  139 


BACON,  94 

composition  of,  94,  95 
Baked  flour,  148 
Baking,  334 

powder,  150 
Baly,  Dr.,  174 
Banana,  205 

composition  of,  206 
Bandicoot,  133 

Banting's,  Mr.,  diet,  318.  349-351 
Bantingism,  danger  of,  350 
Barberry,  200 
Barcelona  nuts,  171 
Bark,  207 
Barley,  158.  159 

composition  of,  158, 159 

Scotch,  milled,  or  pot,  158 

pearl,  158 

patent,  158 

sugar,  210 

water,  159,  363 

Barral  on  the  elimination  of  nitrogen,  27 
Barrow  on  the  gluttony  of  the  Hottentots 

and  Bosjesmans,  289 
Basilisk,  crested,  138 
Bassia  butyracea  and  Parkii,  207 
Batatas  edulis,  or  sweet  potato,  172,  175, 

176 

Baudot's  experiment  on  the  effect  of  alco- 
hol, 83 
Beans.  166 

composition  of,  166 


Beans,  French,  166,  167 

composition  of,  167 
Bear,  132 

Beaujolais  wine,  260 
Beaver,  134 
Becker,  Von,  69 
Beef,  92 

composition  of,  93 

essence  of,  302 

tea,  359-361 

savory,  360 

Liebig's,  360 
Beer,  241-243 
Bees,  140 

experiments  on,  76 
Beet,  sea,  leaves  of,  182 

white,  182 

chard,  184 

root,  179 

sugar  from,  179,  209 
Beetles,  139 

Berberis  vulgaris,  or  barberry,  200 
Bernard's  discovery  of  glycogen,  71 

experiments    on   the  assimilation  of 
sugar,  73 

on  the  acidification  of  fat,  57 

on  the  action  of  food  on  the  urine,  24, 

318,  321 

Bertholletia  excelsa.  171 
Beta  vulgaris  and  altissima,  179 

cicla,  182,  184 

maritima,  182 
Bethlehem   Lunatic  Hospital,  dietary  at, 

382 
Beverages,  216-269 

non-alcoholic,    exhilarating,  and    res- 
torative, 221-236 

alcoholic,  237-269 

Bicknell,  Mr.,  on  the  use  of  horse-flesh,  135 
Bidder's  experiment  on  the  solvent  influ- 
ence of  the  intestinal  juice,  22 
Biffins,  192 
Bigarreau  cherry,  196 
Bilberry,  201 

composition  of,  202 
Bile,  action  of,  in  digestion,  22,  23 

power  of,  to  emulsify  the  fatty  acids, 

57 

Birds'  nests,  soup  made  from,  138 
Birmingham    General    Hospital    dietary, 

377,  378 
Bischoff,  318 

his  opinion  that  gelatine  has  a  nutri- 
tive value,  55 
Biscuits,  148.  154,  156, 

composition  of,  154 
Bison,  134 

its  hump,  134 
Bitters,  269 
Black  pudding,  95 
Blackberry,  203 

composition  of,  203 
Blackcock,  103 
Bladder-lock,  188 
Blaeberry,  201 


INDEX. 


389 


Blaps  sulcata,  140 

Blood  of  the  pig  and  bullock.  95 

Blubber,  133 

Boiling  of  food,  332-334 

of  water  for  purification,  220 
Bole  (an  earth  eaten  by  theOttomacs),  141 
Bologna  sausages  made  of  asses'  flesh,  136 
Bone,  relative  amount  of,  in  animals,  95 

nutritive  character  of,  95 
Bordeaux  wines,  259 
Borecole,  181 
Bosjesmans,  food  of,  313 

gluttony  of,  289 
Bourtree,  or  elder,  201 
Boussingault  on  the  production  of  fatty 
matter,  7,  76,  78,  79,  278 

researches  on  the  free  nitrogen  of  the 

atmosphere,  11 
Brandy,  266 

mixture,  362 

Brank,  or  buck-wheat,  164 
Brassica  campestris,  179 

napus,  185 

oleracea,  181 

rapa,  or  turnip,  179 
Brazil-nut,  171 
Bread,  149-152 

composition  of,  152 

from  unbolted  flour,  88 

in  times  of  famine,  207 

jelly,  356,  362 

barley,  159 

brown,  149,  152 

use  of  brown,  in  overcoming  constipa- 
tion, 152,  359 

rye,  160, 

fruit,  206 

meal,  a  kind  of  earth,  141 
Breakfast,  327. 
Brewing,  241 

Brie  cheese,  composition  of,  129 
Bright's  disease,  diet  for,  353 
Brill,  108 
Brinjal,  186 
Broccoli,  181 

sprouts,  182 
Broiling,  334 

Brose  (beef  and  kale),  158 
Broths,  335 

Brown,   Horace  T.,  on  the  estimation  of 
ammonia  in  atmospheric  air,  12 

bread,  149,  152,  359 
Brunner's  glands,  secretion  of,  57 
Brunton,  Dr.  L.,  on  poisonous  fungi,  188 
Brussels-sprouts,  181 
Bucellas  wine,  263 
Buck- wheat,  164,  165 

composition  of,  165 
Budrum  (oatmeal),  157 
Buffalo,  134,  306 

Bugong  (an  Australian  moth),  140 
Bullace,  195 
Burgundy  wines,  259 
Bustard,  137 
Butter,  126-128 


Butter,  vegetable,  207,  208 
Buttermilk,  121 

composition  of,  121 
Butter-nut,  171 


CABANGO,  food  used  at,  313 
Cabbage  tribe,  products  of,  180-182 

red,  181 

white  garden,  181 
Cacao  butter,  235 
Caffeine,  221 
Cagliari  paste,  154 
Cakes,  148 

Caladium  seguinum,  rhizomes  of,  177 
Calorifacient  group  of  alimentary  princi- 
ples, 16 

Calorimeter,  31,  50,  61 
Cambridge  system  of  training,  342 
Camel,  134 

its  hump,  134 

its  milk,  134 

Camembert  cheese,  composition  of,  129 
Canna  edulis,  215 
Cannibalism,  131 
Capraria  bi  flora,  227 
Caramel,  210 
Carbohydrates,  67-82,  348 

amount  in  dietaries,  322 

assimilation  and  utilization  of,  73 

conversion  into  fat,  78-81 
Carbon,  amount  of,  required  in  food,  301 
Carbonic  acid  a  measure  of  muscular  work, 
62 

in  the  air,  10 
Carbuncles  caused  by  eating  diseased  meat, 

101 

Cardoon,  184 
Carlina  caulescens,  184 
Carlisle,  Sir  Anthony,  on  Arctic  food,  280 
Carnivorous  animals  fed  once  a  day,  326 
Carob  tree,  207 

Carpenter,  Dr. ,  on  starvation,  325 
Carrageen  moss,  183 

decoction  of,  364 
Carrion  eaten  by  the  Zulus,  137 
Carrots,  177,  178 

composition  of,  178 
Carya  alba,  170 
Caseine,  18,  25,  86,  116,  118,  128 

vegetable,  19,  165 
Cashew  nut.  171 
Cassava,  213,  214 

bread,  213 
Castanea  vesca.  168 
Castration  improves  the  animal  for  edible 

purposes,  90,  104 
Caterpillars,  140 
Catha  edulis,  227 
Cats,  132 
Cauliflower,  181 
Caviare,  110 
Cavy,  134 
Celery,  183 
Cellulose,  72,  73 


390 


INDEX. 


Cerasus  dnracina,  or  common  cherry,  196 

Cerutonia  siliqua,  207 

Cerealia,  145-165 

Ceraline,  146 

Ceylon,  food  of  the  inhabitants  of,  311 

Chaat,  or  Abyssinian  tea,  227 

Chalazis  of  the  egg,  114 

Champagnes,  251,  260 

Chard,  the  leaf-stalks  of  artichoke,  184 

Charqui,  or  dried  beef,  271 

Chartreuse  (liqueur),  268 

Chateau  d'Yquem  (wine),  248,  259 

Cheddar  cheese,  composition  of,  129 

Cheese,  128-130 

composition  of,  129 

poisoning  by,  130 
Chenopodium  quinoa,  165 

leaves  of,  182 
Cherry,  195,  196 

composition  of,  196 
Cheshire  cheese,  128 
Chester  cheese,  128 

composition  of,  129 
Chestnut,  earth.  236 

Spanish,  168 
Chicken-tea,  360 
Chiccory,  231 
Children    require  food    more   frequently 

than  grown-up  persons,  329 
China,  food  of  the  inhabitants  of,  310,  311 
Chitterlings,  96 

Chlorophyl,  action  of,  in  plants,  8,  9 
Chocolate,  234 
Chondrine,  19,  54 
Chondrus  crispus,  182 
Chossat's  experiments  on  death  from  star- 
vation, 323 

Christison,  Sir  H. ,  on  unwholesome  meat, 
101,  102 

on  the  laxative  action  of  oatmeal,  158 

on  poisoning  by  darnel  grass,  155 

on  test  of  poisonous  fungi,  188 
Chromic  acid  test  for  alcohol,  82 
Chrysalis  of  the  silk-worm,  140 
Chyme,  the  product  of  gastric  digestion, 

21,  22 

Cicada,  an  insect  eaten  by  Greeks,  140 
Cichorium  endiva,  185 

intybus,  231 
Cider,  192,  243 
Citric  acid,  82 
Citron,  194 
Citrus  acida,  or  lime,  194 

aurantium,  or  orange,  193 

decumana,  or  shaddock,  194 

limetta,  or  sweet  lime,  194 

limonium,  or  lemon,  194 

medica,  or  citron,  194 

pompelmoos,  or  pomelo,  194 

vulgaris,  or  Seville  oranges,  194 
Claret  wines,  259,  260 

action  of,  on  the  human  body,  84,  85 
Clark's    process  for    the    purification   of 

water,  220 
Clay  eaten  in  Africa,  141 


Climate,  variety  of  diet  required  according 

to  difference  of,  279 
Cob-nut,  171 
Coca,  236 
Cocaine,  221,  236 

Cochlearia  officinalis  et  Danica,  305 
Cockatoos,  137 
Cockles,  113 
Cocoa,  233-236 

composition  of,  235 

fictitious,  236 

Brazilian,  or  guarana,  231 
Cocoa-nut,  170 

value  of,  as  food,  308,  311,  312 
Cocos  nucifera,  170 
Cod  fish,  107 

sounds,  109 
Coffee,  227-231 

composition  of,  229 

fictitious,  231 

Swedish,  231 

leaves,  infusion  made  from,  226 
Cold,  or  catarrh,  dry  treatment  for  cure 
of,  352 

as  a  sharpener  of  the  appetite,  289 

influence  of,  in  preserving  food,  270 
Colewort,  181 
Colney  Hatch  Lunatic  Asylum,  dietary  at, 

386 

Colostrum,  118 
Combe,  Dr. ,  on  the  food  of  the  monks  of 

La  Trappe,  326 
Condiments,  268 
Cones,  or  cones  flour,  148 
Constantia  wine,  265 

Constipation  removed  by  brown  bread,  153 
Convolvulus  batatas,  175 
Cooking,  effects  of,  331 

pot,  335 

Cooper,  London,  242 
Cormorant,  137 
Corn,  pop,  161 

lob,  or  maize-porridge,  161 

flour,  161 

Cornaro's  limited  diet.  299 
Corpulency,  diet  for  the  reduction  of,  849- 

351 

"Correlation,"  Grove's  definition  of,  1 
Corvitart's,  Lucien,  views  as  to  the  action 

of  the  pancreas,  22 
Corylus  avellana,   tubulosa,   and  grandis, 

171 

Cossus  of  the  ancients,  140 
Couscous,  or  couscousou  of  the  Arabs,  154 
Crab  (fish),  111 
Crab-apple,  192 
Cracknels.  153 
Crake,  spotted,  137 
Cramba  maritima,  184 
Cranberry,  200 
Crane,  137 
Crawfish,  river  or  fresh-water,  111 

sea,  111 
Cream,  119,  120 

composition  of,  120 


INDEX. 


391 


Cream,  Devonshire  or  clotted,  121 

cheese,  128 

of  tartar  whey,  364 

drink,  364 

Creamometer  or  lactometer,  124 
Cress,  garden,  185 
Crimping  of  fish,  107 
Crocodile,  138 

eggs  of,  138 
Crumpets,  153 
Cuckoo,  137 
Cucumber,  186 
Cucumis  citrullus,  or  water-melon,  204 

inelo,  or  melon,  204 

sativus,  or  cucumber,  186 
Cucurbita  ovifera,   pepo  and  melo-pepo, 

186 

Cura<;oa,  194,  268 
Curcuma  angustifolia,  214 
Curd,  121 
Currants,  dried,  199 

red  and  black,  201 

composition  of,  201 
Cuttle-fish,  141 
Cycas,  seeds  of,  168 
Cydonia  vulgaris.  193 
Cynara  carduncellus,  184 

scolymus,  184 

Cynips,  fat  in  the  larva  of,  80 
Cyperus  esculentus,  or  earth  chestnut,  236 
Cysticercus  cellulosae,  98 
Cyttaria  Darwinii,  189 

DAHOMEY,  food  of  the  inhabitants  of,  312 

Daisy,  leaves  of,  185 

Damson,  195 

Dandelion,  leaves  of  the,  185 

root  of  the,  232 
Darnel  grass,  155 
Date,  197,  312 

plum,  207 
Daucus  carota,  177 
Dauglish's,  Dr.,  process  of  bread-making, 

150,  151 
Davy,  Dr  ,  oa  the  value  of  fish  as  food, 

106,  108 

Deccan,  food  in  the,  311 
Dextrine  (an  artificial  gum),  63,  72 
Dewberry,  or  gray  bramble,  203 
Dhurra,  or  Dhoora  grass.  164 
Diabetes  mellitus,  sugar  and  urea  in,  76 

diet  for,  351 

Dicotyles  labiatus  and  torquatus,  136 
Dietaries,  hospital,  321,  366-386 

prison,  294-298,  315 

workhouse,  294 

subsistence  diet,  292 

diet  for  training,  339-343 

diet  of  infants.  336-339 

diet  of  adult  in  full  health,  292 

diet  of  active  laborers,  292 

diet  of  hard-working  laborers,  293 

diet  of  the  English  soldier,  293,  294 

diet  of  the  English  sailor,  294 


I  Dietetic  preparations  for  the  invalid,  359- 

365 

Dietetics,  principles  of,  274-303 
practical,  304-343 
therapeutic,  344-386 
Digestion,  nature  of,  20 
states  intlu-  ncing,  331 
of  nitrogenous  matter  in  the  intestine, 

Digestive  organs  of  infants,  336 
Dinner,  327,  328,  330 
Dioscurea  sativa.  alata,  and  batatas,  176 
Diospyros  kaki,  207 
Virginiana,  207 
Dirt-eating,  141,  142 
Dogs,  132 
Dog-fish,  139 
Dolichos  (a  pulse),  168 
Donders  on  the  feeding  of  the  Arab's  horse, 

286 

Donkeys,  136 

Doura,  the  chief  food  in  Egypt,  312 
Draper's  experiments  on  vegetable  life,  9 
Drink  included  in  food,  15,  16 
Druitt,  Dr.,  on  the  stimulating  qualities 

of  liquid  essence  of  beef,  319 
Drying,  preservation  of  food  by,  271 
Du  Barry's  Revalenta  Arabica,  215 
Dublin  hospitals'  dietary,  8bl,  382 
Ducks,  experiments  in  the  fattening  of,  78 
Dugong,  Indian,  133 
Dumas  on  the  production  of  fatty  matter, 

7,76 

experiments  on  bees,  76 
Duodenum,  action  of  the,  in  digestion,  23 
Dupre's,  Dr.,  experiments  on  the  action  of 

alcohol,  84,  85 

Duroy's  observations  on  alcohol,  83 
Dutch  cheese,  128 

composition  of,  129 
Dynamic  relations  of  food,  1-6 
Dysentery,  diet  for,  359 
Dyspepsia,  food  for,  355-359 


EARTH-EATING,  141,  142 

Echinus  sphaera,  141 

Edinburgh  Royal  Infirmary  dietary,  379, 

380 

Edwards',  Milne,  experiments  on  bees,  76 
Eels,  106 

composition  of,  107 
Eel,  mud,  139 
Egg,  113-115 

composition  of    the  entire  contents, 
87,  88,  113 

composition  of  the  white,  114 

composition  of  the  yolk,  114 

composition  of  the  dry  constituents, 
114 

as  a  typical  illustration  of    natural 
food,  274 

and  brandy,  362 
Egg-apple,  186 
Egypt,  food  in,  311,  312 


392 


INDEX. 


Elderberry,  201 
Elder  rob,  201 

wine,  201 
Elephant,  186 

its  foot,  trunk,  and  tongue.  136 
Elk,  134 

Embden  groats,  156 
Emulsin,  109 
Endive,  185 
Energy,  actual  and  potential,  2 

conservation  of,  2 

and  force,  distinction  between,  2 
Entrails  of  animals  eaten,  137 
Ergotized  or  spurred-corn,  155,  160 
Ervalenta,  168,  215 
Ervum  lens,  167,  215 
Erythroxylon  coca,  222,  236 
Esquimaux,  food  of,  290,  304 


FABA  VULGARIS,  1C6 
Fagopyrum  esculentum,  164 
Fagots,  97 
Farinaceous  preparations,  212-215 

seeds,  144-168 
Fasting  girl,  Welsh,  324 
Fat  in  relation  to  muscular  force-produc- 
tion, 61-G4 

actual  force-value  of,  65-67 

uses  of,  58-60 

as  a  heat-producing  agent,  59-61,  81, 
286 

amount  required  in  diet,  322 

insufficient  to  sustain  life,  278 

nitrogenous  matter  as  a  source  of,  52- 
54 

conversion  of  carbohydrates  into,  78- 

81 

Fats,  or  hydrocarbons,  56-67 
Fatty  degeneration,  explanation  of,  52 

matter  as  an  alimentary  agent,  347 
Faulhorn,   ascent  of,  by  Fick  and  Wisli- 

cenus,  29,  65,  281 
Feaberry,  or  gooseberry,  200 
Feejee  Islands,  food  of  the  inhabitants  of, 

309 

Fern,  root  of,  180 
Festuca,  164 
Fibrine,  18,  25 

insufficient  to  sustain  life,  275 

vegetable.  19 

Fick  and  Wishcenus  on  the  origin  of  mus- 
cular power,  28-49,  64 
Ficus  carica,  or  common  fig,  204 
Fig,  common,  204 

Indian,  205 

key,  of  Japan,  207 
Filbert,  171 

Filtration  of  water,  220 
Fish,  1C4-110 

composition  of  white,  106 

boiling  of,  333 

dried  and  ground  into  powder  in  Sibe- 
ria, 105 

prejudice  against,  105 


Fish,  healthiness  of  the  fish-eating  class,  105 

edible  qualities  of,  108 

poisonous,  105 

shell,  110-113 
Fistuliua  hepatica,  189 
Flies,  140 

Flint,  Dr.  Austin,  on  elimination  of  nitro- 
gen in  relation  to  work,  37-39 
Flounder,  108 
Flour,  wheaten,  147,  148 

composition  of,  148 

value  of  unbolted,  88 

and  milk,  362 

Fluid,  regulation  of  amount  of,  352,  353 
Flummery,  157 
Foie  gras,  96 

production  of,  77 

composition  of,  96 
Food,  dynamic  relations  of,  1-6 

origination  of,  7-13 

constituent  elements  of,  14 

classification  of,  17 

preservation  of,  270-273 

mixture  of  animal  and  vegetable,  the 
best  for  man.  303,  317 

proper  proportion  of  fresh,  necessary, 
316 

dietetic  relations  and  effects  of  animal 
and  vegetable  compared,  289-319 

proper  amount  of.  319-326 

in  relation  to  work,  284-287 

adaptation  of,  to  demand,  279 

nutritive  value  of,  281 

force-producing  value  of,  282 

animal,  stimulant  properties  of,  319 

evils  caused  by  excess  of,  323 

proper,  of  man,  304,  316 

for  infants,  Liebig's,  122,  159 
Foods  eaten  by  inhabitants  of  various  re- 
gions, 304-314 

animal,  sometimes  but  not  ordinarily 

eaten,  13U-143 
Force,  conservation  of,  2 

neither  created  nor  destroyed,  1 

and  energy,  distinction  between,  2 
Fourcroy's  discovery  of  adipocere,  52 
Fragaria  collina  and  vesca,  202 
Frankland's  calculations  of  the  force-pro- 
ducing value  of   various  articles   of 
food,  61,  66,  282-285,  288 

experiments  on  the  amount  of  energy 
producible  from    nitrogenous  mat- 
ter, 31,  50,  51 
Franklin,  Sir  John,  290 
Fremy's  formula  for  pectine,  82 
Friendly   Islands,  food  of  the  natives  of 

the,  308 
Frogs.  139 

Fruit,  preserved,  272 
Fruits,  190-206 
Frumenty,  147 
Frying,  334 
Fungi,  growth  of  exceptional,  10 

esculent,  187-190 

composition  of,  187 


INDEX. 


393 


GAGES,  green  and  purple,  195 

Game,  103,  104 

Gamgee's,  Prof.,  report  on  the  diseases  of 
live  stock,  100,  101 

Garraway,  Thomas,  223 

Gasparin  on  the  action  of  coffee,  231 

Gastric  juice,  action  of,  20 

Gelatine,  19,  54,  55,  95 

no  existence  in  vegetable  food,  7 

in  the  urine  after  injection  into  the 

vessels,  25 

question  of  its  nutritive  value,  276 
Commission  of  the  Institute  of  Am- 
sterdam, 276,  277 

Paris  Commission  of  the  French  Acad- 
emy on  conclusions  arrived  at  by, 
55,  275,  276 

Gelatinous  principles,  19 

alimentary  value  of,  54,  56 

"  Geophagie,"  or  dirt-eating,  142 

Gherkins,  186 

Gilbert's  observations  on  the  feeding  of 
cattle,  41,  53,  79,  318 

Gin,  or  Geneva,  267 

Ginger-bread,  153 

Ginseng  root,  180 

Glasgow    Royal    Infirmary    dietary,    380, 
381 

Globuline,    or  albuminoid   matter   in  the 
blood-corpuscle,  19 

Gloucester,  double,  cheese,  128 
single,  cheese,  128 

Glucose,  or  grape-sugar,   69-71,  209,  210, 
211 

Gluten,  144,  146» 

sustaining  life,  276 

Glyceria,  104 

Glycerine,  56,  57 

Glycogen,  or  amyloid  substance,  71 

Gmelin,  278 

Golden  syrup,  210 

Goose,  enlarged  liver  of  the,  76,  95 

Gooseberry,  200 

composition  of,  200 

Goose-grass,  root  of,  180 

Gout  promoted  by  the  consumption  of  a 
highly  nitrogenized  diet,  346 

Graham,  71 

Grape,  198,  199,  245-249 
composition  of,  199 
American,  young  shoots  of,  185 

Grasshoppers,  140 

Greengage,  195 

Greenland  food,  102,  290,  305 

Greens,  181 

Groats,  or  grits,  156 

Grove's   "Correlation     of    the    Physical 
Forces,"  1,  2 

Grubs,  140 

Gruel  (oatmeal),  158,  217,  363 

Gnmdlache's  experiments  on  bees.  76 

Gmyere  cheese,  composition  of,  129 

Guachos,  food  of  the,  307 

Guarana,  221,  232,  233 

as  a  remedy  for  sick-headache,  233 


Guaranine  identical  with  thcinc,  221-233 

Guava,  206 

Guinea-grass,  104 

Gull  eaten  during  Lent,  137 

Gum,  71,  72 

insufficient  to  sustain  life,  278 

water,  363 
Guy,  Dr  ,  on  the  diet  of  English  prisons, 

315 

Guy's  Hospital  dietary,  321,  860 
Gyrophora,  183 


HADDOCK,  107 

Hanwell  Lunatic  Asylum,  dietary  at,  384, 

385 

Hare,  104 
Haricots,  or  French  beans,  166 

blancs,  167 
Hashing,  334 
HassaH's  analysis  of  Revalenta,  215 

examination  of  milk,  123 
Hazel-nut.  Ill 
Head's.  Sir  Francis,  experience  of  food  in 

the  Pampas,  307,  340 
Heart,  96 
Heat,  equivalent  of ,  in  mechanical  motion, 

2,  66 

Hedgehog,  132 
Helianthus  tuberosus,  176 
Helmholtz's  researches  on  energy,  2,  5 

on  vegetable  life,  9 

on  the  size  of  the  sun,  8 
Herbaceous  articles,  180-185 
Herring,  106 
Hickory-nut,  170 
Hindostan,  food  in,  311 
Hippophagy,  134 
Hippopotamus,  136 
Histogenetic  or  tissue -forming  materials, 

16 

Hock  (wine),  201 
Hoe  cake,  161 
Hoffmann,  H.,  62 
Hog.  earth,  136 
Hollands,  267 
Holothurise,  141 
Hominy,  161 
Honey,  76,  89,  211 

poisonous  effects  of,  212 
Hops,  young  buds  of,  184 
Hordeum  distichon,  158 
Horse-flesh,  134-136,  307 
Horses,  food  of,  286 
Hospital  dietaries,  366-386 
Hottentots,  food  of  the,  813,  314 

gluttony  of  the,  289 
Hnber's  experiments  on  bees,  76 
Humus.  9,  12 

Hunefeld  on  cheese-poisoning,  130 
Hurtleberry,  201 
Hydrates    of    carbon,    or   carbohydrates, 

67,  82 
Hydrocarbons,  or  fats,  56-67 


INDEX. 


ICELAND  moss,  183 

decoction  of,  863 
Icelanders,  food  of,  305,  306 
Ichthyophagi,  105 
Iguana,  138 
Ilex  Paraguayensis,  gongonha,  and  theae- 

zans,  226 

Imperial  (potus  imperialis),  364 
India,  food  in,  311 
Indians  of  New  Spain,  300 

North  American,  306 

Pampas,  307 

Indian  tribes  of  the  interior  of  Oregon, 
306 

corn,  or  maize,  161,  162 

sugar  from,  209 

used  for  fattening  geese,  77,  162 

composition  of,  161 

Indigestion  caused   by  food   taken   after 
unusual  exertion,  329 

food  for,  354-359 
Infants,  diet  of,  336-339 
Inorganic  alimentary  principles,  86-88 

matter  essential  to  satisfy  the  require- 
ments of  life,  279 
Inosite,  or  muscle-sugar,  70 
Inuline,  176 
Invalids,  dietetic  preparations   for,  359- 

365 

Irish  moss,  183,  363 
Isinglass,  110 
Italian  or  Cagliari  paste,  154 


JAGGERY,  209 

Jak  fruit,  206 

Jakute,  food  of  the,  289,  306,  307 

Japan,  food  of  the  inhabitants  of,  310 

Jatropha  manihot,  213 

Jerboa,  134 

Jerome,  St.,  on  cannibalism,  131 

Jerusalem  artichoke,  176 

composition  of,  177 
Johnny  cake,  161 

Jones,   Dr.   Bence,    on   the   digestion    of 
starch  in  the  stomach,  68 

on  influence  of  food  on  the  urine,  354 
Joule's  researches  on  heat,  2,  66 
Juglans  regia  and  cinerea,  170 
Juniper,  berries  and  tops  of,  306 
Juvia  tree,  171 


KAFFIRS,  food  of  the,  313 
Kale,  green.  184 

sea,  184 

Kalo,  root  of.  179 
Kalong,  or  edible  roussette,  131 
Kangaroos,  132 

soup  from  the  tail,  132 
Keith's,  Mr. ,  case  of  poisoning  by  diseased 

meat.  100 
Ketchup,  187 
Kidney,  95 

composition  of  sheep's,  96 


Kidneys,  eliminative  office  of,  353 

King's  College  Hospital  dietary,  372,  373 

Kirschwasser,  199,  268 

Knol-kohl,  182 

Kohl-rabi,  182 

Kolyma,  Lower,  food  in,  306 

Koumiss  (a  spirituous  liquor  from  mare's 
milk),  118,  268 

Kous-kous  of  the  Arabs,  154 

Kreutzer,  Dr.,  on  poisoning  by  unwhole- 
some meat,  101 

Kuinmel  (a  Russian  liqueur),  268 


IJACAZE-DUTHIERS  on  the  fat  in  the  iarva 
of  the  cynips,  80 

Lactic  acid.  70,  73,  82 

Lactine,  or  sugar  of  milk,  71,  116,  208 

Lactometer,  124 

Lactoscope,  124 

Lactuca  &ativa.  185 

Lactucarium,  or  lettuce  opium,  185 

Lallemand's  observations  on  alcohol,  83 

Lamb,  93 

Lamballe,  Princess,  131 

Laminaria  digitata  and  saccharina,  183 

Lamprey,  105 

Langham  Hotel,  hippophagic  banquet  at, 
135 

Larvae  of  ants,  140 

La  Trappe,  monks  of,  eat  once  a  day  only, 
326 

Laughter  a  help  to  digestion,  331 

Laver,  183 

Lawes  and  Gilbert,  their,  observations  on 
the  feeding  of  animals,  41,  53,  79, 
318 

Ledum  palustre  and  latifolium,  227 

Leeds  General  Infirmary  dietary,  375,  376 

Lees  of  wine,  251 

Legumine,  19,  165 

Leguminous  seeds,  165-168 

Lehmann,  19,  47,  62,  81,  82,  277,  317 
on  the  action  of  coffee,  231 
view  that  fat  assists  digestion,  59 
on  the  gastric  juice,  21 
on  the  absorption  of  gum,  72 
observations  on  the  escape  of  nitrogen 

by  the  urine,  27,  28,  41,  42 
on  peptone,  20 

experiments  on  sugar,  69,  71,  72,  73 
on  the  action  of  tea  on  the  body,  226 

Lemon,  194 

peel  tea,  365 

Lemonade,  365 

Lentils,  167 

composition  of,  168 

Lepidium  sativum,  185 

Lepidosireu,  139 

Leprosy  common  in  Iceland,  305 

Letheby,  table  of  analyses  of  foods,  291 
on  the  comparative  costliness  of  food 

and  fuel,  287 
on  bread -making,  152 
on  the  strength  of  coffee,  230 


INDEX. 


395 


Letheby,  on  the   characteristics   of   good 

meat,  97 

on  the  cooking  of  potatoes,  174 
on  the  use  of  seu-weeds,  183 
on  the  strength  of  tea,  224 
Lettuce,  185 
Leucine,  56 
Lexias,  199 
L'Heritier,  his  analysis  of  woman's  milk, 

118 

Lichen,  183 
Lieben,  M.,  85 
Liebig.  7.  76,  79,  80,  284,  290 

table  of  the  relative  nutritive   value 

of  various  articles  of  food,  281 
views  regarding  uitrogenized  and  non- 

nitro^enized  principles,  16 
view  that  nitrogenous   matter  alone 
constitutes  the  source  of  muscular 
and  nervous  power,  26,  39-41,  52, 
281 
classification  of  fat  as  an  element  of 

respiration,  60 
on  the  value  of  saline  matter  in  food, 

88 

food  influencing  the  character  of  ani- 
mals, 319 
view  of  the  destination  of  alcohol  in 

the  animal  economy,  82 
discovery  of  ammonia  in  the   atmos- 
phere, 11 

on  the  assimilation  of  sugar,  73 
his  discovery  of  syntonine,  19 
beef-tea,  360 

extractum  carnis,  319,  361 
food  for  infants,  122,  159,  339 
Life,  results  of  animal  and  vegetable,  12, 

13 

Lights,  pigs',  97 
Lignine,  or  woody  fibre,  72 
Lime,  common  and  sweet,  194 

phosphate  of,  in  the  animal  body,  86 
water  used  in  bread-making,  152 
Limpets,  113 

Lindsay,  of  Pitscottie,  on  cannibalism,  131 
Linseed-tea,  363 
Lion  eaten  in  Africa,  132 
Liqueurs,  268 
Lisbon  wine,  263 
Lithospermum  maritimum,  186 
Liver,  95 

composition  of  calves'  liver  and  of  foie 

gras,  95,  96 

fatted,  of  the  goose,  77,  96 
relation  to  sugar-formation,  73 
Livingstone,  Dr.,  on  the  relative  strength 
of  grain-eaters  and  beef-eaters,  341 
notice  of  carbuncle  caused  by  eating 

diseased  animals,  101 
Lizards,  138 
Llama,  134 
Lobster,  110 

composition  of  the  edible  portions,  110 
thorny,  or  sea-crawfish,  111 
Locusts,  140 


Lolium  temulentem,  155 

London  Hospital  dietary,  368,  369 

Lotus  edulis,  168 

Lo»e-apple,  186 

Luncheon  should  form  a  substantial  meal, 

327 

Lungs  of  animals  (lights),  97 
Lupine,  Egyptian,  white,  168 
Lynx,  Canadian,  132 


MACAUONI,  154 
Mackerel,  106 
Maclaren  on  training,  341 
Madeira  wine,  264 

Magendie,  his  food  experiments  on  dogs, 
88,  278 

conclusion  of  the  Gelatine  Commission 

of  the  French  Academy,  55 
Mahomed's,   Mr.,  results  on  the  elimina- 
tion of  urea,  43-47 
Maize,  or  Indian  corn,  161,  162 

sugar  from,  210 

used  for  fattening  geese,  77,  162 

composition  of,  162 
Maizena,  161 
Malic  acid,  82 
Mallow,  leaves  of,  182 
Malmsey  wine,  265 
Malt,  159 

Manatee,  or  sea-cow,  183 
Manchester  Royal  Infirmary  and  Dispen- 
sary dietary,  376,  377 
Mangif  era  Indica,  206 
Mango,  206 
Mangel-wurzel,  179 
Manihot  utilissima,  213 
Manna,  212 

Polish,  164 

croup,  154,  164 

grass,  184 
Mannite,  212 

Mantell's  case  of  extraordinary  prolonga- 
tion of  life  in  a  fat  animal  under 
absence  of  food,  58 
Maple,  sugar  from,  210 
Marangaba,  206 
Maranta  arundinacea,  214 
Marasca  cherry,  196 
Marasquin,  196 
Maraschino,  196,  268 
Marcet,  Dr.,  57 
Margarine.  57 

Mark,  or  residue  of  wine,  249 
Marmalade,  quince,  193 
Marmelo,  193 
Marmot,  134 
Marsala  wine,  264 
Mate,  or  Paraguay  tea,  226 
Mallametlo  (a  large  frog),  139 
Mavor,    Dr.    Wm.,    on   the    fattening    of 

ducks.  79 
Mayer's  doctrine  of   the  conservation  of 

force,  2 
Mead,  or  metheglin,  265 


396 


INDEX. 


Meals,  best  times  for,  327-331 
Meat,  89-103 

when  the  various  kinds  are  in  season, 
90 

effect   of  the  food  eaten  by  animals 
upon  the  character  of,  91 

effect  of  the  mode   of   slaughtering 
upon,  91 

over-estimation  of  its   dietetic  value, 
315 

raw,  305,  312 

cooked,  composition  of,  92 

Joss  by  boiling,  baking,  and  roasting, 
333 

putrid  flesh  eaten  by  various  nations, 
102 

unwholesome,  97-103 

solid  extracts  of,  362 

fluid,  357,  362 

lozenges,  362 

preserving   establishments  in  Austra- 
lia, 272,  273 
Mechanical   work  from   fuel    less    costly 

than  from  food,  287 
Medlar,  193 
Melon,  204 

Mercurialis  annua,  leaves  of,  182 
Mespilus  germanica,  193 
Mexico,  food  in,  306 
Mialhe  on  albuminose,  20 

on  oxidat.on  of  sugar,  81 
Mice,  133 

Middlesex  Hospital  dietary,  370,  371 
Milk,  87,  115-126 

composition  of  cow's,  117 

solid  constituents  of,  117 

composition   of   the,   of   various   ani- 
mals, 117 

estimation  of  the  quality  of,  123-126 

specific  gravity,  123 

the  proper  food  of  infants,  336 

as   a   typical   illustration   of    natural 
food,  274 

blue,  poisonous  effects  of,  119 

butter,  121 

butter,  composition  of,  121 

concentrated,  273 

condensed,  122,  338 

condensed,  composition  of,  122 

skimmed,  121 

skimmed,  composition  of,  121 

sugar  of,  70 

and  suet,  362 
Millet,  164 

Indian,  164 
Milt,  97 

Mineral  matter  in  food,  12,  13,  86 
Misos  (small  beans),  168 
Molasses,  145,  2li9 
Moleschott's  model  diet,  287,  288, 301,  320, 

322 

Monkeys.  131 
Morchella  esculenta,  189 
Morel,  common,  189 
Morello  cherry,  195 


Moms  nigra,  197 

Hosier,  Prof.,  on  the  poisonous  effects  of 

blue  milk,  119 
Moths,  140 

Mountain  meal  (a  kind  of  earth),  141 
Muffins,  153 
Mulberry,  204 

composition  of,  203 
Mulder's  analysis  of  albumen,  39,  48 

discoveries    relating    to    albuminous 
compounds,  7 

on  the  acids  in  humus.  12 

discovery  of  proteine,  18 
Mules,  135 
Musa  paradisiaca,  or  plantain,  305 

sapientum,  or  banana,  305 
Muscarin,  188,  Ib9 
Muscatel  raisins.  199 
Muscle-sugar,  70 
Muscovado,  or  raw  sugar,  209 
Muscular  action,  according  to  Liebig,  de- 
stroys muscular  tissue,  39 
Mush,  or  Indian-corn  porridge,  161 
Mushrooms.  187-190 
Musk  ox,  134 
Mussels,  112 

composition  of,  113 
Must  of  the  grape,  249 
Mustard,  white,  185 
Mutton,  92 

composition  of,  93 

tea,  361 

Mylittus  Australis,  188 
Myosine,  19 


NARWHAL,  113,  304 

Nasturtium  officinale,  185 

Nectarine,  197 

Neufchatel  cheese,  composition  of,  129 

New  Caledonia,   food  of  the   inhabitants 

of,  309 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne    Infirmary   dietary, 

y^O      O*"*O 
<o,  oiy 

Newtown  pippin,  192 

New  Zealand,  food  of  the  natives  of,  308, 

309 

Nitrogen  an  element  of  vegetable  as  well 
as  animal  life,  12 

amount  of,  required  in  food,  301 

elimination  of.  26 
Nitrogenized  diet,  effect  of,  345 
Nitrogenous  alimentary  principles,  17-55 

non-alimentary  principles,  56-86 

matter,  dietetic  value  of,  285,  321 
Normandy  pippins,  192 
Norwegian  nest,  335,  360 
Noyaux,  eau  de,  197,  268 
Nubia,  food  of  the  Arabs  in,  312 


OATS,  156-159 

composition  of,  157 
Oatmeal,  156 

composition  of,  157 


INDEX. 


397 


Oatmeal  porridge,  156,  158,  362 

gruel,  158,  217,  362 
(Enanthio  ether,  258 
Olea  Europaea,  197 
Oleaginous  seeds,  233-237 
Oleine,  57 
Olive,  197 
Onion,  184 
Opossum,  132 

Opuntia  vulgaris,  or  prickly  pear,  204 
Orache,  garden,  182 
Orange,  193,  194 

OrceUa,  or  vegetable  sweetbread,  189 
Organic  compounds,  formation  of,  12 

transformation  of  one  into  another  in 

the  animal  body,  7,  8 
Orgeat,  363 
Ornithogalum    pyrenaicum,    flower-stalks 

of,  184 

Orobus  tuberosus,  177 
Orycteropus  Capensis,  136 
Oryza  sativa,  102 
Osrnazome,  or  flavoring  principle  of  meat, 

90,  335 
Ostrich,  137 
Oswego  flour,  161 

Otaheite,  food  of  the  inhabitants  of,  309 
Otter,  132 

Oxalis  crenata  and  tuberosa,  177 
Oxford  system  of  training,  342 
Oxycoccus  macrocarpus  and  palustris,  200 
Oyster-plant,  or  salsify,  179 

or  lithospermum  maritimum,  185 
Oysters,  112 

composition  of,  112 


PADDY-FIELDS,  162 
Palm,  fan,  309 
wine,  268 
Palmitine,  57 
Palms,  sugar  from,  209 
Pampas  Indians,  food  of,  307 
Panada,  359 
Panax, 179 

Pancreatic  juice,  action  of,  22-24 
Panicum  miliaceum  and  jumentorum,  163 
Pappenheim  on   the   action  of  the  pan- 
creas, 22 
Paraguaine,   identical    with   theine,   221, 

226 

Parasites  in  meat,  97 
Parfait  amour  (liqueur),  268 
Parkes'  analytical  representations  of  foods, 

290,  295 

observations  on  the  elimination  of  ni- 
trogen, 27,  28,  31-36,  42,  65 
on  the  nitrogen  and  carbon  in  the  typi- 
cal alimentary  principles.  302 
on  the  action  of  alcohol  on  the  human 

body,  84,  237-240  • 

on  the  oxidation  of  fat,  350 
Parmesan  cheese,  128 

composition  of,  129 
Parrots,  137 


Parrot-fish,  139 

Parry,    Sir  W.,  on  the  large  amount  of 

food  eaten  by  the  Esquimaux,  289 
Parsnip,  178,  179 

composition  of,  178 
Pasquii's  "  Palinodia,"  244 
Passover  cakes,  154 
Pastinaca  sativa,  178 
Pastry,  147 
Paullinia  sorbilis,  231 
Pay  en's  table  of  the  percentage  value  of 
food  in  nitrogen  and  carbon,  300,  301 
on  the  keeping  of  butter.  127 
on  the  dietetic  value  of  coffee,  231 
on  vegetarianism,  314 
on  sugar  as  a  constituent  of  wheaten- 

flour,  146 
Pea,  sugar,  166 

seu.  167 
Peas,  166,  167 

composition  of  dried,  167 
Peach,  197,  198 

composition  of,  198 
Peach-nut  oil,  170 
Pear.  192 

composition  of,  193 
prickly,  204 
Peafowl,  137 
Pecari,  collared,  135 
Pectine,  20,  82 
Pelican,  137 
Pemmican,  271 
Penguin,  137 
Penicillium  oidium  (the  mould  of  bread) 

156 
Pepsine,  115 

a  neutral  nitrogenized  principle,  21 
Peptone,  or  albuminose,  20 
Pereira  on  alum  in  bread,  151 

on  the  action  of  coffee,  231 
Periwinkles,  113 

Perrin's  observations  on  alcohol,  82 
Perry,  192,  243,  244 
Persimmon  tree,  207 
Persoz  on  the  production  of  fatty  matter 

from  the  carbohydrates,  77 
Pettenkofer.  317 

experiments  on  the  elimination  of  car- 
bonic acid,  63 

Phaseolus  vulgaris  and  multiflorus,  163 
Phlomis  tuberosa,  177 
Phoenix  dactylifera,  197 
Phosphorus  in  fibrin  and  albumen,  12 
Phytolacca  decandia,  185 
Pickling.  335 
Pig  in  a  restless  state  not  adapted  for 

fattening,  348 
experiments  on  the  fattening  of,  78, 

79 

Pigeon,  104 
Pilchard,  106 
Pine,  Chilian,  206 
Pineapple.  204 
Piophila  casei.  130 
Pipperidge,  or  piprage  bush,  200 


398 


INDEX. 


Pistachio  nut,  172 

Pistim  arvense  and  sativum,  166 

Pitcher-plant,  10 

Plantain,  205 

Plants,  absorption  of  carbon,  10,  11 

and  animals,    reciprocal  relation   of, 

13 
Playfair's  dietaries,  290,  291-294,  298 

subsistence  diet,  291,  321 

experiments  on  fat,  79 

on  the  elimination  of  urea,  61 
Plum,  195,  196 

composition  of,  196 
Poa  fluitans,  164 
Poi  (a  paste  made  from  the  root  of   the 

kalo),  180 

Poke,  common,  young  shoots  of,  185 
Polenta,  or  porridge  of  Indian  corn,  161 

or  maize-meal,  161 
Pomegranate,  194 
Pomelo,  195 
Pompelmoose,  194 
Pondweed,  rhizomes  of,  177 
Pone,  or  maize  cake,  161 
Pop- corn,  161 
Porcupine,  132 
Pork,  94 

composition  of,  94 

measly,  97 

Porphyra  vulgaris  and  laciniata,  182 
Porpoise,  69 

Porridge,  oatmeal,  156,  158,  362 
Port  wine,  262-264 
Porter,  240-243 
Posset,  364 

Potamogeton  natans,  rhizomes  of,  177 
Potato,  sweet,  172,  175,  176 

composition  of,  176 
Potatoes,  172-176 

composition  of,  173 
Potentilla  anserina,  root  of,  180 
Poultry,  erame,  and  wild-lowl,  102-105 
Prawns,  111 
Prickly  pear,  205 
Prison,  Scotch,  dietaries,  315 
Proteine  compounds,  18,  19 
Prout's  classification  of  food,  17 

case  of  mutton  acting  as  a  poison,  93 
Prunes,  195 
Prunns  armeniaca,  197 

domestica,  or  common  plum,  195 

ineititia,  or  bullace,  195 

spinosa,  or  wild  sloe,  IPS 
Psidium     cattleyanum,    pomiferum    pyg- 

niaeum  and  pyriferum,  206 
Psoralea  glandulosi,  226 
Puddings,  flour,  147 
Pulled  bread,  153 

Pulque  (an  intoxicating  liquor),  306 
Pulse  tribe,  165-168 
Pumpkin,  186 
Pur.ica  granata.  194 

Purkinje  on  the  action  of  the  pancreas,  22 
Pyrus  communis,  or  pear,  192 

cydonia,  or  quince,  193 


Pyrus  domestica,  or  service,  193 
malus,  or  apple,  192 


QUINCE,  193 
Quinoa,  165 

analysis  of,  165 


RABBIT,  104 

Radis-hes,  179 

Kagi  (chief  food  in  the  Deccan),  311 

Raisins,  199 

Rana  bombina,  189 

esculenta  and  taurina,  139 
Ranke's    analysis    of   cooked    meat,    91, 

92 

Rnpe.  185 

Raphanus  sativus,  179 
Raspberry,  202 

composition  of,  203 
Rats,  133 

Savorv's  experiments  on,  276,  318 
Reindeer,  134,  305 
Reine  Claude,  or  greengage,  195 
Rennet,  116,  128 
Revalenta  Arabica,  168,  215 
"Revet"  wheat,  147 
Rheum  hybiidum,  pahnatum.  and  rhapon- 

ticum,  182 
Rhine  wines,  261 
Rhinoceros,  136 
Rhone  wines,  259 
Rhubarb,  182 

Ribes  grossulnria,  or  gooseberry,  199 
nigrum.  or  black  currant,  200 
rubrum,  or  red  currant,  200 
Rice,  162-164 

composition  of,  163 
water,  363 
Riche  on  the  fat  in  the  larva  of  the  cy- 

nips,  80 
Richmond,    Whitworth,    and     Hardwicke 

Hospitals  dietary,  381,  382 
Ringer,    Dr.    Sidney,    on     elimination   of 

urea  and  sugar  in  diabetes,  75 
Roasting,  334 

Roberts,  Dr. ,  on  the  urine  after  food,  354 
Robur,  or  tea-spirit,  268 
Roe  of  fish,  109 
Roots,  177-180 

Roquefort  cheese,  composition  of,  129 
Ross,  Sir  John,  on   the  large  amount  of 

food  eaten  by  the  Esquimaux,  289 
Roussette,  edible,  131 
Roussillon  (wine),  260 
Roux,  E. ,  on  the  action  of  coffee,  230 
Rubus   arcticus,    or  northern    raspberry, 

203 

caesius,  or  dewberry,  203 
fruticasus,  "or  blackberry,  202 
idaeus,  or  raspberry,  202 
procurnbens,    or  dewberry  of    North 

America,  203 
Rum,  267 


INDEX. 


399 


Rum,  pineapple,  267 
Rumex  acetosa,  182 
Running,  its  place  in  training  systems 

339 

Rusks,  153,  1/56 
Rust,  or  smut  of  wheat,  155 
Rye,  l'>9,  100 

composition  of,  160 


SACCHARINE  preparations,  208-212 
Sack,  244,  264 
Sago,  213 

bread,  213 
Sahara,  dates  the  chief  food  in  the  Fezzan 

oases  of,  312 

St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital  dietary,  367 
St.  George's  Hospital  dietary,  369,  370 
St.  John's  bread,  206 
St.  Luke's  Hospital  for  Lunatics,  dietary 

at,  383 

St.  Mary's  Hospital  dietary,  373,  374 
St.  Peray  wine,  260 
St.  Thomas's  Hospital  dietary,  368 
Salep,  215 

Otaheite,  214 
Saline  matter,  86 
Salmon,  105,  109 

composition  of,  106 

putrid,  eaten  by  the  Indian  tribes  of 

Oregon.  306 
Salsify,  179 

stalks  of,  184 

Salting  diminishes  the  nutritive  value  of 
me  it,  273 

pickling,  and  smoking,  336 
Sambucus  nigra,  201 
Samp,  161 
Sandwich  Islands,  food  of  the  inhabitants 

of,  309 

Saturan,  a  drink  of  Siberia,  305 
Sauer-kraut,  181 
Sausages,  German.  99 
Saussure  on  carbonic  acid  in  the  air,  10 
Savory's   experiments   on  the  feeding  of 

rats,  276-278,  318 
Savoy  cabbage,  181 
Savu,  food  of  the  inhabitants  of,  309 
Saw-dust,  207 
Scallops,  113 
Scarabaeus  sacer,  139 
Scarlet-runner,  166 

Scarus,  or  parrot-fish,  139  I 

Schariing,  62 
Scherer,  70 
Schiedam,  267 

Schmidt's  experiment  on  the  solvent  in- 
fluence of  the  intestinal  juice,  21 

on  the  amount  of  urea,  41 
Schmiedeberg  on  the  action  of  mnscarin, 

188 
Scurvy  common  in  Iceland,  305 

potatoes  a  preventive  of,  174 
Sea-cucumbers,  141 
Sea-girdle,  183 


Sea-kale,  184 

Sea-urchin,  or  sea-egg,  141 
Sea-weed,  182 
Seal,  132,  133,  304.  305 
Seamen's  Hospital  dietary,  875 
Secale  cereale.  or  rye,  159 
Secretions,    nitrogenous   matter  essential 
to  the  constitution  of,  2<i 

effect  of  trie.  22 
Seeds,  or  flummery,  156 
Semolina,  154 
Semoule,  154 
Service,  193 
Seville  orange,  194 
Shaddock,  195 
Sharks,  139 

fins,  140 

edible,  139 

Shea,  or  African  butter  tree,  208 
Shell-fish,  110-113 
Sherry,  244,  263,  264 

Hambro',  261 
Shrimps,  114 
Siberia,  food  in,  104,  306 
Simon's,    Mr.,  report  on  diseased  meat, 

100 
Simpson,  Sir  George,  on  the  large  amount 

of  food  eaten  by  the  Yakuti,  289 
Sinapis  alba,  185 
Sinclair,  Sir  John,  on  training,  340,  342 

on  the  reduction  of  corpulency,  349 
Skunk,  Hudson's  Bay.  131 
Sleep  after  dinner,  330 
Sloe,  wild,  195 
Sloths,  137     / 
Slugs  eaten  in  China,  141 
Smallage,  183 

Smith,  Dr.  E. .  on  the  food  of  Scotch  agri- 
cultural laborers,  315 

experiments  on  alcohol.  82 

on   the  nutritive  material   extracted 
from  bone,  95 

experiments  on  the  elimination  of  car- 
bonic acid,  28,  62 

on  the  consumption  of  potatoes  by  the 
Irish,  172 

on  the   comparative  weights  of  tea, 
224 

on  the  action  of  tea  on  the  body,  226 
Smootbhound,    or  mustellus  autarcticus, 

139 

Smut  of  wheat,  155 
Snail,  vineyard,  140 

common  garden,  141 
Snakes,  138 
Snowberry,  200 
Solanine.  174 
Solarium  lycopersicum  and  melongena,  186 

tuberosnm,  172 
Sole,  106 

Somersetshire  cheese.  128 
Sorbns  domestica.  193 
Sorgho  grass,  or  sorghum,  164 
Sorghum  saccharatuin,  210 
Sorrel,  182 


400 


INDEX. 


Soujee,  154 

Soup,  bisque,  111 

Soups  and  broths,  335 

Sowans,  157 

Spawning  of  fish,  108 

Spaying   improves  the   animal  for  edible 

purposes,  90,  104 
Spiders,  139 
Spinacea  oleracea,  182 
Spinach,  182 

mountain,  182 
Spirits,  265-268 
Spleen,  97 

Sporendonema  casei,  130 
Sprat,  106 

Squarey  on  the  action  of  coffee,  230 
Squash,  186 
Squirrel,  133 
Stags,  135 
Starch,  67-69,  212 

insufficient  to  sustain  life,  277 

from  potato,  173 
Starchy  matter  as  a  constituent  of  food, 

347 

Starvation,  323 
Stearine,  57 
Stenhouse's  researches  ontheine,  221,  223, 

232,  235 
Stewing,  334 
Stilton  cheese,  128 
Stirabout,  or  porridge,  157 
Stout,  240,  242 
Strasburg  foie  gras,  77 
Strawberry,  201 

composition  of,  201 
Sturgeon,  105,  108 
Sucan,  or  flummery,  156 
Succotash,  161 
Suffolk  cheese,  128 
Sugar,  207-210 

insufficient  to  sustain  life,  277 

its  efficacy  in  producing  fatness,  348 

assimilation  of,  72-76 

oxidation  of,  in  the  animal  system,  80 

eating  by  the  negroes,  348 

in  wine,  253 

beet,  209 

cane,  68-70,  208-210 

its  conversion  into  grape-sugar,  68 

grape,  69-71,  208,  210,  211,  247 

maize,  209 

maple,  209 

muscle,  70 

of  milk,  70 

candy,  210 
Sulphur  in  caseine,  fibrine,  and  albumen, 

12 

Sultanas,  199 

Sun,  colored  rays  of,  influence  on  vegeta- 
tion, 9 

influence  of  the  solar  force,  3,  7-9 
Suppers,  late,  unwholesome,  328 
Swans,  137 
Sweetbread,  96 
Sweet-wort,  159 


Sword-fish,  139 

Syntonine,  or  muscle-fibrine,  19 


TACCA  oceanica,  214 
Ta^nia  solium,  97 

medio-canellata,  97 
Tajacu,  or  collared  pecari,  136 
Tamarind,  205-206 
Tamarind  whey,  364 
Tanaampo  (thin  cake  of  earthy  matter), 

141 

Tanna,  food  of  the  inhabitants  of,  309 
Taunese  (cannibals),  131 
Tanuic  acid,  223,  247,  254 
Tapeworm,  source  of,  97 
Tapioca,  214 
Tapir,  136 

Tarragona,  or  Spanish  port,  264 
Tartaric  acid,  82 
Tea,  222-226 

composition  of,  224 

black,  222 

brick,  222 

green,  222 

lie,  222 

representatives  of,  226-228 

Abyssinian,  228 

Brazilian,  226 

Labrador,  228 

Mexican,  226 

Paraguay,  226 

one  of  the  daily  meals,  328 
Tent,  Rota,  264 

Thea  bohea,  viridis,  and  sasangua,  222 
Theine,  221,  223,  235 
Theobroma  cacao,  233 
Theobromine,  221,  235 
Therapeutic  dietetics,  344-386 
Thirst,  320 
Thistle,  carline,  1 83 

Thompson,  Dr.    Dundas,  on  the  intoxica- 
ting effect  of  meat,  319 

Dr.  J.    B,,  on  Scotch  prison  dietary, 

315 

Tiedemann,  277 
Times  of  eating,  326-329 
Tissues,  development  and   renovation  of, 

25 

Toads,  139 
Toadstools,  187 
Toast,  152,  153 

and  water,  220,  365 
Toddy,  or  palm  wine,  268 
Tokay,  261 
Tomato,  186 

Tope,  or  galeus  canis,  139 
Tops  and  bottoms,  153 
Tortilla  (a  cake  made  of  maize-meal),  161, 

307 

Tortoise,  138 
Torula  cerevisiae,  150 
Toucans,  137 
Tous-les-mois,  215 
Tragopogon  porrifolius,  179 


INDEX. 


401 


Training,  diet  for,  389-343 
Traube  on  the  non-nitrogenous  principles 
and  force- production,  284 

view  of  the  source  of  muscular  and 

nervous  power,  26,  62 
Treacle,  210 

whey,  364 
Trefoil,  305 

Trichina  spiralis  in  the  pig  and  other  ani- 
mals, 98 

Trionyx  ferox,  138 
Tripe,  96 

composition  of,  96 

de  roche,  183 

Tropoeolum  tuberosum,  177 
Trout,  109 
Truffles,  189,  190 
Tubers  and  roots,  172-180 
Tufnell's  treatment  of  aneurism,  353 
Tull's,  Mr.,    operation   of  castration   and 

spaying  fish,  108 
Tunicine  or  animal  cellulose,  72 
Turbot,  108 
Turnip,  179 

composition  of,  179 

cabbage,  182 

Turtle,  marine  and  fresh- water,  138 
Typha,  young  shoots  of,  184 
Typhoid  fever  caused  by  polluted  milk, 
120 


UBOMI,  137 
Ullucus  tuberosus,  177 
Ulva  latissima,  182 

University  College  Hospital  dietary,  372 
Urea  the  unutilizable  portion  of  nitrogen- 
ous matter,  48,  49 
elimination  of,  41,  42-46,  285 
not  a  measure  of  muscular  work,  62 
Urine,  passing  off  of  nitrogen  by  the,  27 
influence   of  different  foods  on,  318, 

353-355 

albumen,  caseine,  and  gelatine  in,  24, 
25 


VACCINIUM  myitillis,  or  bilberry,  200 
oxycoccus,  or  cranberry,  200 
uliginosum,  or  bog  whortleberry,  200 
vistis  idasa,  or  red  whortleberry,  200 

Veal,  91,  93 

composition  of,  93 
tea,  361 

Vegetable  alimentary  substances^  144-215 
food,  effects  of,  358,  359 
life,  action  of,  9-11 
marrow,  186 

Vegetables,  cooking  of,  331 
preserved,  271 

Vegetarians,  314,  315 

Venison,  95 

Venus's  fly-trap,  10 

Verjuice,  192 

Vermicelli,  154 


Vetch,  tuberous  bitter,  177  . 

Vierordt  on  the   elimination  of  carbonic 
acid,  62 

Villi,  the   organs  through  the  agency  of 
which  fat  is  absorbed,  57,  58 

Virchow  on  fatty  degeneration,  52 

Vital  principle,  3 

Vitality,  dormant,  5 

Vitelline,  or  albumen  in  the  yolk  of  tho 
egg,  19,  114 

Vitis  viuifera,  197 

Voit,  317 

experiments  on  the  elimination  of  car- 
bonic acid,  63 

on  the  elimination  of  nitrogen,  29,  36 
on  the  nutritive  value  of  gelatine,  55 


WALLABIES,  132 

Walnut,  171 

Walrus,  133,  304 

Wamrima,   or  East  African  Coast  clans, 

312 

Warori,  food  of  the,  312 
Warren's,  Captain,  cooking-pot,  335 
Water,  86,  2lt>-221 

needed  beyond  that  in  food,  322 

distilled,  218 

rain,  217 

river,  218 

spring,  217 

well  or  pump,  217 

unwholesome,  219 

purification  of,  220 
Water-cress,  185 

Weevil,  a  wheat-eating  insect,  155 
West,  Dr.,  on  the  feeding  of  infants,  336 
Westminster  Hospital  dietary,  374.  ::"."» 
Weston's  walking  feats  and  elimination  of 

nitrogen,  37-39 

Westrumb  on  cheese-poisoning,  130 
Wet  nurse,  selection  of,  337 
Whale,  133 

Wharton's  Ervalenta,  215 
Wheat,  145-156 

composition  of,  144 

unwholesome,  155,  156 
Whelks,  113 
Whey,  121,  364 
Whiskey,  267 
Whiting,  107 
Whortleberry,  200 
Wild-fowl,  104 
Windsor,  or  broad  bean,  166 
Wine,  244-255 
Wines.  Australian.  262 

Cape,  or  South  African,  264,  266 

French,  259-261 

fruit,  265 

German,  261 

Greek,  262 

Hungarian,  261 

Italian,  262 

Portuguese,  262-264 

Sicilian,  264,  265 


402 


INDEX. 


Wines,  Spanish,  263,  264 

Wisliceuus   on    the   origin    of     mnscular 

power,  28-31,  64,  281 
Witheringia  montana,  177 
Wohler,  82 
Wollowicz,  Count,  on  the  action  of  alcohol 

on  the  human  body,  84 
Wolves,  132 
Wombat,  132 
Wood,    Thomas,    small   amount   of   food 

taken  by,  298 
Woody  fibre,  72,  207 
Wyntonn,  Andrew,  on  cannibalism,  131 


XEMA  ridibunda,  137 


YAKUTI,  gluttony  of  the,  289 

Yam,  176 

Yeast,  149 

Yutien  (an  early  tea),  222 


ZEA  curagua,  or  Chilian  maize,  161 

mays,  or  Indian  corn,  161 
Zenker,  Prof.,  98 


OCT011990  . 

-y  A 


Date:     Mon,   7  May  9O  12:52  PDT 

To:       ECL4BAT 

Subject:  SRLF  PAGING  REQUEST 


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